The Universe

History:According to the prevailing scientific model of the Universe, known as the Big Bang,
the Universe expanded from an extremely hot, dense phase called the Planck epoch, in which all
the matter and energy of the observable universe was concentrated. Since the Planck epoch, the
Universe has been expanding to its present form, possibly with a brief period (less
than 1032 seconds) of cosmic inflation.
Several independent experimental measurements support this theoretical expansion and,
more generally, the Big Bang theory. The universe is composed of ordinary matter (5%)
including atoms, stars, and galaxies, dark matter (25%) which is a hypothetical particle that has
not yet been detected, and dark energy (70%), which is a kind of energy density that seemingly
exists even in completely empty space. .

Fig1: History of universe

Concept of universe:The Universe is all of spacetime and everything that exists therein, including
all planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, the smallest subatomic particles,
and all matter and energy.

Fig2: Universe

Light Year:
As defined by the IAU, the light-year is the product of the Julian year. (365.25 days as opposed to
the 365.2425-dayGregorian year) and the speed of light (299792458 m/s). Both these values are included
in the IAU (1976) System of Astronomical Constants, used since 1984. From this the following
conversions can be derived.
1 light-year = 9460730472580800 metres (exactly)
5.878625 trillion miles
63241.077 astronomical units/ 0.306601 parsecs

Distance From Sun:-

Fig3: Distance from Sun

Definition as connected space-time:It is possible to conceive of disconnected space-times, each existing but unable to interact with
one another. An easily visualized metaphor is a group of separate soap bubbles, in which observers living
on one soap bubble cannot interact with those on other soap bubbles, even in principle. According to one
common terminology, each "soap bubble" of space-time is denoted as a universe, whereas our
particular space-time is denoted as the Universe, just as we call our moon the Moon. The entire collection
of these separate space-times is denoted as the multiverse. In principle, the other unconnected universes
may have different dimensionalities and topologies of space-time, different forms of matter and energy,
and different physical laws and physical constants, although such possibilities are purely speculative.

Fig4: Space Time

Shape Of Universe :The shape or geometry of the Universe includes both local geometry in the observable
Universe and global geometry, which we may or may not be able to measure. Shape can refer to curvature
and topology. More formally, the subject in practice investigates which 3-manifold corresponds to the
spatial section in comoving coordinates of the four-dimensional space-time of the Universe.
Cosmologists normally work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving
coordinates. In terms of observation, the section of spacetime that can be observed is the backward light
cone (points within the cosmic light horizon, given time to reach a given observer).

Fig5: Shape of Universe

Size, Age, Content, Structure :The size of the Universe is unknown; it may be infinite. The region visible
from Earth (the observable universe) is a sphere with a radius of about 46 billion light years, based on
where the expansion of space has taken the most distant objects observed. For comparison, the diameter
of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years, and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is 3
million light-years. As an example, the Milky Way Galaxy is roughly 100,000 light years in diameter, and
the nearest sister galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light
years away.
There are probably more than 100 billion (1011) galaxies in the observable Universe Typical
galaxies range fromdwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with one trillion (1012) stars,
all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. A 2010 study by astronomers estimated that the observable
Universe contains 300 sextillion (31023) stars.

Fig6: Size, Age, Content, Structure

Theoretical Model:Of the four fundamental interactions, gravitation is dominant at cosmological length scales; that
is, the other three forces play a negligible role in determining structures at the level of planetary systemsg
galaxies and larger-scale structures. Because all matter and energy gravitate, gravity's effects are
cumulative; by contrast, the effects of positive and negative charges tend to cancel one another, making
electromagnetism relatively insignificant on cosmological length scales.
The remaining two interactions, the weak and strong nuclear forces, decline very rapidly with
distance; their effects are confined mainly to sub-atomic length scales.

Fig7: Theoretical Model

Astronomical models:Astronomical models of the Universe were proposed soon after astronomy began with
the Babylonian astronomers, who viewed the Universe as a flat disk floating in the ocean, and this forms
the premise for early Greek maps like those of Anaximander andHecataeus of Miletus.
Later Greek philosophers, observing the motions of the heavenly bodies, were concerned with
developing models of the Universe based more profoundly on empirical evidence. The first coherent
model was proposed by Eudoxus of Cnidos. According to Aristotle's physical interpretation of the
model, celestial spheres eternally rotate with uniform motion around a stationary Earth. Normal matter, is
entirely contained within the terrestrial sphere. This model was also refined by Callippus and after
concentric spheres were abandoned, it was brought into nearly perfect agreement with astronomical
observations by Ptolemy.

Fig8: Astronomical models

Philosophical models:-

From the 6th century BCE, the pre-Socratic Greek philosophers developed the earliest known
philosophical models of the Universe. The earliest Greek philosophers noted that appearances can
be deceiving, and sought to understand the underlying reality behind the appearances. In
particular, they noted the ability of matter to change forms (e.g., ice to water to steam) and several
philosophers proposed that all the apparently different materials of the world are different forms
of a single primordial material, or arche.
The first to do so was Thales, who proposed this material is Water. Thales'
student, Anaximander, proposed that everything came from the
limitless apeiron. Anaximenes proposed Air on account of its perceived attractive and repulsive
qualities that cause the arche to condense or dissociate into different forms. Anaxagoras,
proposed the principle of Nous(Mind). Heraclitus proposed fire (and spoke
of logos). Empedocles proposed the elements: earth, water, air and fire. His four element theory
became very popular.

Fig9: Philosophical models

Big Bang Expansion:Recent measurements reveal that the Universe is at least 150 billion light-years in diameter.
For comparison, its age is estimated to be about 13.7 billion years. Doesnt make sense does it?
Since some of you may be wondering what kind of disparity were talking about, let me elaborate. You
see, to arrive at that age, scientists had to measure light (or electromagnetic radiation) coming from the
outermost borders of the Universe.
This radiation, specifically known as the cosmic microwave background radiation is a
throwback to the youngest years of the Universe. So if it had to take 13.7 billion years for light coming
from the outermost regions to reach us, then we should be expecting a diameter within that order of
magnitude. Simply put, around twice that value or 27.4 billion light-years.

Fig10: Big Bang Expansion