Waves and Oscillation

Dr. Satyam Shinde

Assistant Professor in Physics, School of Technology
Deendayal Petroleum University, Gandhinagar
Dr. Satyam Pandit
Shinde

Syllabus:
Simple harmonic motion, Damped simple harmonic
motion, types of damping, Forced oscillation, resonance,
group velocity and dispersion, Types of waves, Energy
Transport in Wave motion, Wave motion in one
dimension, the one dimensional Wave equation.
Objective:
To illustrate the physics involved in the description and
analysis of waves through a wide range of examples,
from purely mechanical and purely electromagnetic to
coupled electro-mechanical waves, such as plasma
oscillations and hydro magnetic waves.

 Introduction
Types of wave
Oscillating Properties of waves
Wave equation
Simple Harmonic Motion
Damped oscillation
Forced oscillation

Waves:
Any traveling disturbance that carries energy from one place to place through
repeated motion of medium particle about their mean position.

Different types of waves:

1.Mechanical Waves :
The waves which require a Mechanical medium for their propagation are
called Mechanical waves or elastic waves. For their propagation,. The medium must
possess the properties of inertia & elasticity.
For example , water waves, sound waves, etc.
2.

Electromagnetic waves :

The waves which travel in form Of oscillating electric & magnetic fields are
called electro-Magnetic waves. For e.g. visible light ,radio waves, etc.

3.Matter waves:
The waves associated with microscopic Particles ,such as electrons protons,
neutrons, atoms, molecules, etc., when they are in motion are called matter waves or
De- Broglie waves.

Types of Wave
Energy Transfer

In a longitudinal wave the

vibration of particles is in the
same plane as the direction of
energy transfer.

In a transverse wave the

vibration (oscillation) of particles
is at right angles to the direction
of energy transfer. Transverse
waves cannot move through a
gas.

Oscillation
Energy transfer

Characteristics of waves:

it is disturbance produced by the medium particles through repeated

periodic motion

The wave moves forward, but there is no bodily movement of the

medium particle

There is regular phase difference between the particles of the medium

The velocity of the wave is uniform throughout the medium

Each

particle vibrates with same amplitude and time period. The

velocity of the particle is different at different point, max. at mean
position and zero at extreme position.

The velocity of the particle is different than the velocity of the wave
in the medium

Displacement - Distance

Displacement

Wavelength
Amplitude
Distance

Displacement Time

Displacement

Time Period
Amplitude
Time

Oscillating Properties
Term

Description

1. Wavelength ()

The distance between two successive crests

2. Amplitude (A)

The maximum displacement from the equilibrium

position

3. Frequency (f)

The number of waves completed in one second

(in Hertz, Hz)

4. Periodic Time (T)

The time required for the wave to complete one

oscillation (in seconds, s)

5. Speed (v)

The distance moved by a wave crest per second (in

meters per second, ms-1)

Intensity of a wave is the power per unit area incident upon a surface, in
Wm-2. (It is proportional to the square of the amplitude, so I A2)

The Wave Equation

In a time of one full period (t = T), a point in a wave will move forward through
one a distance of one whole wavelength (d = ).

Speed = Distance
Time
Wave speed = Wavelength
Time period
substituting gives

v=

T
v=f
This is called the wave equation.

but T = 1
f

Destabilizing forces
NF = 0
net
W

Destabilizing forces
N

Fnet = away from equil

Destabilizing forces
Fnet = away from equil
N

destabilizing forces always push the

system further away from equilibrium

restoring forces

N
Fnet = 0

restoring forces

N
Fnet = toward equil.

restoring forces

Fnet

N
= toward equil.

Restoring forces always push

the system back toward equilibrium

Simple Pendulum

Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic Motion: Body describes the same path in the same way
again and again after regular interval of time
Pendulum of the clock
Piston of the cylinder of an engine
The motion of earth around the sun
Periodic motion is also called Harmonic Motion.

Simple Harmonic motion is most fundamental case of harmonic

motion having a single period which may be linear or angular.

Simple harmonic motion is a motion in which the acceleration of the

body is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and
always directed towards the fixed point Or
A simple harmonic motion may also be defined as the projection of a
uniform circular motion on a diameter of the circle or any other line in
the plane of the circle.

Displacement:

x(t ) = xm cos(t + )
Amplitude :

xm

Phase of the motion: (t + )

Phase constant ():
Angle that depends on the particles
Placement and velocity at t=0.

SHM and Uniform Circular Motion

Springs and Waves behave very
similar to objects that move in
circles.
The radius of the circle is
symbolic of the displacement, x,
of a spring or the amplitude, A,
of a wave.

xspring = Awave = rcircle

Visualizing the simple harmonic motion through the

motion of a block on a spring
Consider the forces exerted on the block that is
placed above a table without friction.

F =k x

The net (resultant) force on the block is that exerted

by the spring. This force is proportional to the
displacement x, measured from the equilibrium
position.
Applying the Newtons Second Law, we have

Constant of the spring

d 2x
F =m 2 =k x
dt
d 2x
k
= x
2
dt
m

Verify that each of the functions

x1 = C1 cos k t
m
x2 = C2 sin k t
m
satisfies the differential equation

This equation is a second-order linear constant coefficient ordinary

differential equation describing the harmonic Oscillator.

Case study: harmonic motion of an object on a spring

= km

How

varies?

x = a cos( t + )

=0
xm

o
xm

xt

How to compare the phases of two SHOs with same

x1 = xm1 cos(t + 1 )

{ x =x
2

m2

cos(t + 2 )

= 0

= (t + 2 ) (t + 1 )

= 2 1
=

x
t

Different amplitude

x = xm cos(t + )
Different period

v = x m sin( t + )

a = xm 2 cos(t + )

Different phase angle

Equation of Simple Harmonic Oscillator

A body of mass m that slides on a frictionless
horizontal surface. The body moves in x direction.

origin is chosen at here

= kx

d 2x
kx = m 2
dt

d 2x
ax = 2
dt

d 2x k
+ x=0
2
m
dt

This equation is called the equation of motion of the simple

harmonic oscillator. It is the basis of many complex oscillator
problems.

Solution of Equation
Rewrite Equation of SHM as;

k
d 2x
=

(
)x
2
m
dt

(1)

A tentative solution to Eq (1) as

x = x m cos(t + ) (2)
Now differentiate Eq (2) twice with respect to the time.

d 2x
2
=

x m cos(t + )
2
dt
k
2
x m cos(t + ) = x m cos(t + )
m
Therefore, if we choose the constant

such that

It is in fact a solution of the equation of

motion of a simple harmonic oscillator.

k
=
m

Energy in simple harmonic motion

Linear Oscillator  Emec= Back and forth energy transfer between kinetic
and potential energy.
U (t ) =

Potential energy:

1 2 1 2
kx = kxm cos 2 (t + )
2
2

1 2 1
mv = m 2 xm2 sin 2 (t + ) 2 = k / m
2
2
1
K (t ) = kxm2 sin 2 (t + )
2
K (t ) =

Kinetic energy:

Mechanical energy:
E =U + K =

1 2
1
1
kxm cos 2 (t + ) + kxm2 sin 2 (t + ) = kxm2 [sin 2 (t + ) + cos 2 (t + )]
2
2
2
1
E = U + K = kxm2
2

Both potential and

maximum value of
and velocity.

kinetic energies oscillate with time t and vary between zero and
1
2
kx . Both U and K vary with twice the frequency of the displacement
2

At the maximum displacement

K =. 0

At the equilibrium position,

.U

=0

1
2
U = kx m
2
K =

1
2
kx m
2

can be written quite generally as

1
1 2 1
2
2
K + U = mv x + kx = kx m
2
2
2

vx

k
2
= ( xm x 2 )
m

k
2
vx =
( xm x 2 )
m

Angular Simple Harmonic oscillator

If we rotate the disk some angular displacement
from its rest position it will oscillate about that
position in angular simple harmonic motion.

Torsion pendulum

Restoring torque:
torque:

Angular form of Hookes law

Torsion constant: (Greek letter kappa)
(depends on length, diameter and material of
suspension wire)
Period:

T = 2

Angular simple harmonic oscillator

Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

Damped motion : when the motion of an oscillator is reduced by an

external force.
force.
Example: Block oscillates vertically on a spring
Example:
spring.. From
block, a rod extends to a vane submerged in liquid
liquid..
motion
Liquid exerts a damping force opposed to the motion

Fd = bv
b = damping constant (kg/s)

Gravitational force on block is negligible compared to the damping force and

the force on the block from the spring.

d 2x
dx
bv kx = ma m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt
dt
d2x
dx
2
+
2
K
+

0 x =0
2
dt
dt
Solution::
Solution

x(t ) = xm e

bt / 2 m

k0
b
2K =
and 0 =
m
m

cos( ' t + )

Displacement of
damped oscillator

d 2x
If we replace the value of
in above equation,
2
dt
d 2
2
2

(t ) = 0
k
+

0
2
dt

(t ) = xm cos(t + )

However depending on the strength of the

damping force, the quantity (02 k 2 ) may
be positive, negative or zero.

Three Cases:
Case-I: (02 > K2)

In this case solution will be like,

(t ) = xm cos( 02 K 2 t + ) or x(t ) = xm e Kt cos( 02 K 2 t + )

Where A and are constants which

are determined from the amplitude
and phase when t = 0. This equation
represents damped simple harmonic
oscillation in which amplitude will
decrease exponentially. Time period
will be higher than in the absence of
damping.

Case-II: (K2 > 02)

If the damping is too large equation would be,

d 2
2
2

0 (t ) = 0
2
dt

The Solution will be

(t ) = A exp( K 2 02 t ) + B exp( K 2 02 t )
x(t ) = A exp( K + K 2 02 t ) + B exp( K K 2 02 t )

We can have two kind of motion: one in which displacement decreases

uniformly to zero, or the other in which the displacement first increases,
reaches a maximum and then decreases to zero.
In either case there will be no oscillation and motion is called Over damped or
dead beat.
An example is motion of simple pendulum in highly viscous medium.

Case-III: (K2 = 02)

d 2
=0
2
dt
The Solution will be
Small Damping

(t ) = At + B
x(t ) = ( At + B) e Kt
Again there is no oscillation
and motion is called
Critically damped.

Amplitude : xm e bt / 2 m
Frequency of damped
oscillator:

Amplitude decreases exponentially with time

k
b2
' =

m 4m 2

If b=0
(no damping)

' =

k
=
m

Mechanical energy 
Un
Un--damped
oscillator::
oscillator

1 2
E (t ) = kxm
2

Damped
oscillator:

1 2 bt / m
E (t ) = kxm e
2

SHM: Ideal vs. Damped

Ideal SHM we have only treated the restoring force:

Frestoring = kx
We should add some damping force:

Fdamping = bv

Fdamping

dx
= bv = b
dt
damping force proportional to velocity
b = damping constant
(characterizes strength of damping)

 In ideal SHM, oscillator energy is constant:

E = K + U;

dE
=0
dt

In damped SHM, the oscillators energy decreases with time:

E (t ) = K + U ;

dE
0
dt

Rate of energy loss due to damping:

dE
= Fdamping v = (bv)v
dt
= bv 2 < 0

New equation of motion for x(t) in damped SHM:

ma = Frestoring + Fdamping
d 2x
dx
m 2 = kx b
dt
dt
Three Classes of Damping, b
small (under damping)

b < 2 mk

intermediate (critical damping)

b = 2 mk

large (over damping)

b 2 mk

Over damped SHM

slower decay to x = 0, no oscillation

b > 2 mk
x(t ) = Ae ( b / 2 m ) t cosh( over t + )

over

b2
k
=

2
4m
m

( a frequency!)

Application
Shock absorbers:
want critically damped
(no oscillations)
not over damped
(would have a
slow response time)

Example: moving coil galvanometer

 Damping is due to induced currents flowing in the metal frame

 The opposing couple setting up causes the coil to come to rest
quickly

Forced Vibration
If the body is allowed to vibrate by itself, without any influence of the
external force, it oscillates with particular frequency known as natural
frequency.
However, if the external force is applied, then it forces the body to oscillate
with frequency similar to frequency of the applied force. Such kind of
vibration under influence of external driving force are called forced vibration
or driven vibrations.

n =

k
m

Free Vibration with natural frequency

F=A Cos(ft)

Forced Vibration with driving frequency

At low forcing frequencies, the

body vibrate in phase with the
oscillating force

At high forcing frequencies, the

body vibrates out of phase with
the oscillating force.

x
F

Considering the effect of external periodic sinusoidal force of frequency

d 2x
dx
m 2 = F cos t b k0 x
dt
dt

F
b
G = ; 2K =
m
m

d 2x
dx
2
+
2
K
+

0 x (t ) = G cos t
2
dt
dt
Solution of the above equation will be of the form,

x(t ) = a cos(t )
dx
= a sin(t )
dt

d2x
2
a
=

cos(t )
2
dt

Replacing the above values in the equation

a 2 cos(t ) 2 Ka sin(t ) + a02 cos(t ) = G cos (t ) +

a(02 2 ) cos(t ) 2 Ka sin(t )

= G cos (t ) cos G sin (t ) sin
For above equation to be valid in all case we must have

a(02 2 ) = G cos
2 Ka = G sin
If we square and add, we have

a=

G
(02 2 ) 2 + 4 K 2 2

1
2

Further

2 K
tan =
02 2

Since K, nd a is positive, sin should be positive.

Thus we must add solution of damping case in this solution .

Thus assuming 02 greater than K2 the general solution will be,

x(t ) = Ae kt cos( 02 K 2 t ) + a cos (t )

The first term on RHS represent the transient solution corresponding to
natural vibration of the system which will be eventually die out. The second
term represents the steady state solution which corresponds to forced
vibrations imposed by the external force. Notice that the frequency of the
forced vibration is the same as that of the external force.

If the frequency of the driving force is equal to the natural frequency of

the oscillating system, maximum energy will be transferred to the
system and its amplitude of vibration becomes maximum. This
phenomenon is called resonance and this frequency is known as
resonant frequency.
The amplitude of the forced vibration is given as,

a=

(02 2 ) 2 + 4K
4 K 2 2

1
2

This clearly shows that it depends upon frequency of the driving force
2
2 2
2 2
and is maximum when (0 ) + 4K is minimum, i.e.
d
(02 2 ) 2 + 4 K 2 2 = 0
dx

= 0 1

Manhattan Press (H.K.) Ltd.

2 02 2 (2 ) + 8 K 2 = 0

2K

02
2

1
2

Thus the amplitude is maximum when is given by above equation, which is

case of resonance and known as amplitude resonance.
When damping is extremely small, the resonance occurs at a frequency very
close to the natural frequency of the system. The variation of the amplitude with
is shown in figure below.

Notice that as the damping

decreases,
the
maximum
becomes very sharp and
amplitude falls very rapidly as
we shift from the resonant
frequency.

There is no resonance condition when K2 02

d2x
dx
F (t )
2
+ 2
+ 0 x =
2
dt
dt
m

At resonance, d , driving force

does positive work all the time Wnc = Ef
Ei >0, and even weak force greatly
increases amplitude of oscillations.

Examples of forced vibration and resonance

Crosswind in valley caused the bridge to resonate and collapse

Every bridge constructed will

vibrate at some natural, or
resonant frequency, however the
engineers who designed this
bridge did not check the rate of
the bridges resonant frequency.

Unfortunately,
the
bridges
natural resonant frequency was
the same as the wind blowing
across the Puget Sound on
certain days.

During
times
when
the
conditions were just right, the
energy from the wind was
transferred to the bridge.

As the amplitude of the wind

induced vibrations became larger
and larger, the bridge ultimately
gave way and collapsed.

These photographs are from

University of Washington Libraries,
Special Collections, PI-20797.

Body of bus or motorcycle vibrates when it

is travelling at a particular speed.
A glass is broken by sound wave vibrating at
resonant frequency of the glass.
Radio receiver works on principle of resonance
Tune to particular station, radio waves
received have same frequency as that of
electrical
oscillations
in
circuits
Electrical oscillations of high amplitude and
same frequency as the radio waves is induced
in receiver

Microwave ovens
Frequency of microwaves
= Natural frequency of vibration of
water molecules
Water molecules in food resonate and food
get heated up and we can cook the food.

Magnetic resonance imaging

It

is

used

for

medical

diagnoses

EM fields of varying frequencies cause

nuclei
of
atoms
to
oscillate
Energy is absorbed by atoms in resonance
Pattern of energy absorption produces
computer enhanced photograph

To Stop the SHM caused by winds on a high-rise building

400 ton weight mounted on a spring on a high floor of the Citicorp building in New York.

The weight is forced to oscillate at the same frequency as the building

but 180 degrees out of phase.
60

Group Velocity and Dispersion

When we switch a light source on and off, it produces a pulse, which
propagates through a medium with velocity known as Group velocity. In
addition when pulse propagates it undergoes distortion and hence its
study in optical communication in fiber optic system is of great
importance.

Consider two plane waves having same amplitude A with slightly

different frequencies + and - propagating along the +z
direction,
1 ( z , t ) = A cos ( + ) t ( k + k ) z
2 ( z , t ) = A cos ( ) t ( k k ) z

k + k and k - k are wave

numbers corresponding to +
and - .

The superposition of the two waves will be given by

( z , t ) = A cos ( + ) t ( k + k ) z + A cos ( ) t ( k k ) z

( z , t ) = 2 A cos (t kz ) cos ( ( )t (k ) z )

In fig. (a) the variation of the rapidly varying cos(t-kz) term at t = 0 has
shown, the distance between two consecutive peaks is 2 / k.

In fig. (b) variation of the slowly varying envelope term represented by

cos[()t (k)z] at t = 0 has been shown. The distance between two
consecutive peak is 2/k.

In following figure we have plotted (z,t) at t = 0 and t = t.

Obviously the rapidly varying first term moves with the velocity,
vp =

Phase Velocity

Slowly varying second term representing envelop moves with the

velocity,
d
vg =
Group Velocity
dk

In a medium characterized by refractive index variation n(),

k ( ) =

n( )

1
dk 1
dn
=
= n ( ) +
vg d c
d

In a free space n() =1 at all frequencies; hence

vg = v p = c

We know that can be written as,

2 c

02 dn
dn dn d 0
=
=
d d 0 d
2 c d 0

1 1
dn
= n ( 0 ) 0

vg c
d 0

ng =

c
dn
= n ( 0 ) 0
vg
d 0

Group Index

If we analyze graph of wavelength variation with group velocity, it is

observed that for particular wavelength 0 group velocity attains maximum
value, which is material specific. This wavelength is of great importance in
optical communication systems.
For example, for pure silica, group velocity is max. at 0 = 1.27 m.
In addition for 0 < 1.27 m; higher wavelength components moves faster
And for

0 > 1.27 m; lower wavelength components moves faster

Every source of light would have certain wavelength spread i.e. spectral
width (0 )of the source. Since each wavelength component travels with
group velocity it will result in broadening of the pulse.
This broadening is measured as the time taken to traverse a length L of the
dispersive medium by the pulse,

L L
dn
= n ( 0 ) 0

vg c
d 0

Thus pulse broadening will be given as,

L0
d
m =
0 =
d 0
0 c

2 d 2n
0
2
d

Material
Dispersion

Group velocity of wave packet:

The displacement corresponding to a one dimensional plane wave propagating in
to +z direction can be given as,

E ( z , t ) = Aei (t kz )
However, the above equation is practically impossible as displacement is finite
only over a certain domain of time and we have what is known as wave packet.
A wave packet can always be expressed as superposition of
different frequencies,

E ( z, t ) =

A( )e

i (t kz )

Using Fourier transform we have,

plane waves of

E ( z = 0, t ) =

1
A( ) =
2

A( )eit d

E ( z = 0, t ) e it dt

Propagation in a Non-dispersive Medium

For electromagnetic waves, the free space is a non-dispersive medium in
which all frequencies propagate with the same velocity c; thus
The right-hand side is a
function of z ct, and thus any
pulse will propagate with
velocity c without undergoing
any distortion.

Distortionless propagation of a Gaussian pulse in a non-dispersive medium.

Propagation in a Dispersive Medium

For a wave propagating in a medium characterized by the refractive index
variation n(w), we will have

Now, in most problems, A(w) is a very sharply peaked function, because for
> 0 + and for < 0 + , the function. A(w) is negligibly small.

A Gaussian pulse and corresponding frequency spectrum, which is usually a very sharply
peaked function around = 0.

Energy transport in wave motion

A wave when propagates through a medium such as string, the particles
execute simple harmonic motions about their equilibrium positions, and
associated with this motion is a certain amount of energy. As the wave
propagates through, the energy gets transported from one end of the string to
the other.
We consider the time variation of the displacement of a particle, which can
be written as

Thus, the kinetic energy T is given by

The total energy E
is the maximum
value of T

For a sound wave propagating through a gas, the energy per unit volume is
given by

where m represents the mass of gas molecules, n represents the number of

molecules per unit volume, and (= nm) is the density of the gas. With such
a wave, we can associate the intensity which is defined as the energy flow
per unit time across a unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Since the speed of propagation of the wave is v, the intensity I is given by

Let us consider a wave emanating from a point source in a uniform isotropic

medium. Let W represent the power of the source and we assume that there is
no absorption. We consider a sphere of radius r whose center is at the point
source.
Clearly, W (measured in Joules per second) will cross the spherical surface
whose area is 4r2. Thus, the intensity I will be given by

When waves emanate from a point source in an isotropic medium, all the points on the
surface of a sphere (whose center is at the point source) have the same amplitude and the
same phase; in other words, the locus of points which have the same amplitude and the same
phase is a sphere. Such waves are known as spherical waves. Far away from the source, over
a small area, the spherical waves are essentially plane waves.

The One Dimensional Wave Equation

The displacement y of a one dimensional wave is always of the form

The general solution of above Equation is of the form

or

The sinusoidal variation it is often more convenient to write the solution in

the form
it is implied that the actual displacement is just the real part of

Transverse Vibration of a Stretched String

Let us consider a stretched string having a tension T. In its equilibrium
position the string is assumed to lie on the x axis.

If the string is pulled in the y direction, then forces will act on the string
which will tend to bring it back to its equilibrium position. Let us consider a
small length AB of the string and calculate the net force acting on it in the y
direction.

Due to the tension T, the endpoints A and B experience force in the

direction of the arrows shown in figure below.

The force at A in the upward direction is

Similarly, the force at B in the upward direction is

Thus the net force acting on AB in the y direction is

The equation of motion is therefore

where m is the mass of element AB. If
is the mass per unit length, then

General Solution of One Dimensional

Wave Equation
To obtain a general solution of the equation

we introduce two new variables

we can write above general solution of equation as

where we have used the fact that

We can write Eq. in terms of variables,

Differentiating Eq. (60) with respect to x, we get

Substituting the expressions for 2/x2 and 2 /t2

Thus / has to be independent of ; however, it can be an arbitrary

function of :
or
we obtain as the most general solution of the wave equation

where f and g are arbitrary functions of their argument. The function

f(x vt) represents a disturbance propagating in the +x direction with
speed v, and the function g(x + vt) represents a disturbance
propagating in the x direction.