R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

Shot

Water Bottom Multiple

Receiver

RC = -1

+10

+100

-1

-10

RC = +.1

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RC = +.1

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Seismic Waves & Rays

Seismic energy propagates out from the source as a
spherical wave
Energy reflected at a boundary radiates up as if there was a
source at the reflection point (Huygens Principle)
We can think of energy propagation in terms of wavefronts
or as raypaths
Energy
Source

Energy
Source

Energy Propagation
as Waves
Geophysics 629

Energy Propagation
as Rays
2

Zero Offset
Offset is the lateral distance
between a source and a receiver

Shot Receiver

Our discussions thus far have

been exclusively for zero offset,
i.e., zero distance between the
source and the receiver
It is computationally simple to
have the source and the
receiver at the same location,
but this is not how we operate
in the real world

Geophysics 629

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A Major Problem: Noise

We acquire our data in a very noisy environment:
On land: traffic, weather, equipment, etc.
On sea: waves, weather, ship noise, etc.

Noise is any signal picked up by the receivers that is

not related to primary reflections from subsurface
acoustic boundaries

We can overcome random noise problems by getting

multiple measurements for each subsurface point
In theory, and in practice, when we add several
measurements for the same subsurface point, the
geologic signal that we want adds constructively
and the random noise that we do not want gets
canceled - Fantastic!
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Repeated Measurements
There are two ways to get 4 repeat measurements for
the same subsurface point (the red box)

Use the same shot point

location and the same
receiver location 4 times
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Use 4 different shot points

and 4 different receiver
locations, as shown
5

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The Practical Solution

S4 S3 S 2 S1 R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4

We will talk more about

seismic acquisition in lesson 8
For now, suffice it to say that,
in the field, it is much more
practical and economical to use
option two
For the RED subsurface box,
we get information from:
Shot 1 into receiver 1 (S1 R1)
Shot 2 into receiver 2 (S2 R2)
Shot 3 into receiver 3 (S3 R3)
Shot 4 into receiver 4 (S4 R4)

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Trace Offset
880
550
220
110

The offset values

are different for
these four
measurements
S4

S3

S2

0
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S1

meters
meters
meters
meters

R1

R2

R3

R4

500 meters
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Water Bottom Reflection

Consider the water bottom reflection for 1 shot

point and 5 receiver locations at sea level
R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

The zero-offset time,

from the shot into
receiver 1, is:
(2 * 800 m) / 1500 m/s
which equals 1.067 s

V = 1500 m/s

The bounce point

D = 800 m

0
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1 km
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Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset
Offset (meters)
0m

200 m

400 m

600 m

800 m

1000

Time (milliseconds)

1067

1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600

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Water Bottom Reflection

Consider the shot into receiver 2

The bounce point is midway between the shot and receiver
Shot

200

R2

R3

R4

R5

x
Dd

Dd = D2 + x2
V = 1500 m/s
D = 800 m

0
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Travel distance down (T)

is the hypotenuse of a
right triangle

Total travel distance =

travel down + travel
up = 2 Dd
Time = 2 Dd / V
Time = 1.099 seconds

1 km
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Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset
Offset (meters)
0m

200 m

400 m

600 m

800 m

1000

Time (milliseconds)

1067

1100

1099

1200
1300
1400
1500
1600

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Water Bottom Reflection

For the shot into receiver 3

R1

200

R2

200

R3

R4

R5

Dd = 8002 + 2002
Time = 2 Dd /1500

V = 1500 m/s

Time = 1.193 s

D = 800 m

0
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1 km
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Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset
Offset (meters)
0m

200 m

400 m

600 m

800 m

1000

Time (milliseconds)

1067

1100

1099

1193

1200
1300
1400
1500
1600

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Water Bottom Reflection

Consider the shot into receivers 4 and 5

R1

200

R2

200

R3

200

R4

200

R5

For R4
Time = 1.333 s

V = 1500 m/s
D = 800 m

0
Geophysics 629

For R5
Time = 1.508 s

1 km
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Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset
Offset (meters)
0m

200 m

400 m

Time (milliseconds)

1100

800 m

In Time-Offset space,
seismic reflections are
hyperbolic

1000
1067

600 m

1099

1193

1200
1300

1333

1400
1500

1508

1600
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Generalized Equation
We can generalize the formula to calculate the reflection
time for the depth of the first layer to:

Time = -2 * SQRT {(Depth)2 + (Offset/2)2 } / Velocity

Note that for the zero-offset case the term with offset is
zero and we get:
Time = -2 * SQRT {(Depth)2 } / Velocity or
Time = -2 * Depth/Velocity
Why the 2 and why the minus sign?
Geophysics 629

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A Real Shot Record Marine Case

Offset (feet)

Time (milliseconds)

Seafloor Reflection

Geophysics 629

Other
Reflections

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Other Seismic Events

Seismic reflections are the types of seismic events that
we need to image the layered subsurface
You will be using seismic reflections to map
subsurface faults and stratigraphic surfaces
Unfortunately, our seismic records contain other types
of events
We will briefly discuss 4 other types of seismic events:
Direct waves
Refractions
Diffractions

Multiples

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Direct Waves
A direct wave is a P-wave that travels near the
surface (ground or water) directly from the source to
the receiver
On a shot record, it appears as a straight line
The slope of the line is dictated by the average
velocity of the near surface
R1

200

R2

200

R3

200

R4

200

R5

V = 1500 m/s
D = 800 m
0
Geophysics 629

1 km
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Direct Waves
Receiver

Distance

Time

Time

0/1500

0.000

200

200/1500

-0.133

400

400/1500

-0.267

600

600/1500

-0.400

800

800/1500

-0.533

Offset (meters)

Slope = x/y
= (600 0)/(0.4 0)
= 600/0.4
= 1500 m/s

Time (seconds)

0.000
0

200

400

600

800

-0.100
-0.200
-0.300
-0.400
-0.500
-0.600

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1000

Example: Direct Wave

Direct Arrival

WB Reflection

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C. Liner, 2004

Refraction or Head Wave

When velocity increases across a boundary, another
type of seismic event is possible, called a refraction or a
head wave
Refractions occur when the angle of incidence exceeds
a critical angle (c)
R1

250

1500 m

R2

250

R3

c
2500 m/s
5000 m/s

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250

R4

250

R5

Some Equations
Critical Angle: c = sin-1 (Vabove/Vbelow)
Critical Distance: xc = 2z / (Vbelow-Vabove) - 1

xc
750 m
1500 m

1500 m/s

xc

750 m

2000 m/s

1500 m

1500 m/s
2000 m/s

2500 m/s

2500 m/s

5000 m/s

5000 m/s

c = 48.6 xc = 4500 m
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c = 30 xc = 3000 m
23

Refraction

Refraction

WB Reflection

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C. Liner, 2004

Diffractions
Diffractions are generated by an abrupt change in
subsurface impedance
Using light as an analogy, it is like having a mirrored
ball in the middle of a dance floor
Shot Record

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Diffractions
We dont have many buried balls, but we do have
abrupt changes in subsurface impedance
Where there is a large impedance discontinuity,
diffractions will be generated
Stratigraphic Cut
Offs at Faults

Generates
Diffractions

Geophysics 629

Patch Reef and

Edge of Salt Body

Generates
Diffractions

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Primary Reflections & Multiples

A primary reflection is one whose path goes directly
down to the reflector and back to the receiver only
one reflection point
A multiple is any event which has experienced more
than one reflection in the subsurface

There are two types of multiples: free surface multiples

and internal multiples
Shot

Water Bottom Multiple

Receiver

Primary Reflection
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Free Surface
By the free surface, we mean the air/ground boundary
or the air/ocean boundary
The RC at the air/ground boundary or the air/ocean
boundary is close to -1
This means acoustic waves traveling up to the free
surface will be reflected, the reflected energy will be
almost 100% of the incident (up-going) energy, but the
polarity will be reversed (RC ~ -1)
This fact leads to free surface multiples

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Water Bottom Multiple

Lets assume:
The source sends out a minimum phase pulse of 100 units that
has a lead PEAK
The water bottom RC is +0.10
Reflected energy hits the air/sea interface where the RC = -1

Shot

Water Bottom Multiple

Receiver

RC = -1

+10

+100

-1

-10

RC = +.1

Geophysics 629

+ = Peak/Trough
- = Trough/Peak

RC = +.1

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Example of Water Bottom Multiple

Water
Bottom

WB
Multiple

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Other Free Surface Multiples

One is related to the source, another is related to the
receiver
They can occur for both land and marine surveys
They occur if the source and receiver are not exactly at
the surface

They are referred to as ghosts

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Source Ghost
Time delay ~ (6m)/(1500m/s) ~ 4 ms
Source Ghost

Shot

Receiver

RC = -1

5 to 10 m
Source
Ghost

+100

+10

RC = -1

RC = +.1

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-10

Primary

+ = Peak/Trough
- = Trough/Peak

Receiver Ghost
Time delay ~ (6m)/(1500m/s) ~ 4 ms
Receiver Ghost

Shot

RC = -1

Receiver
5 to 10 m

Receiver
Ghost

+100

+10

RC = -1

RC = +.1

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-10

Primary

+ = Peak/Trough
- = Trough/Peak

Ghosts

Source Ghost

Receiver Ghost
Polarity Reversal

Polarity Reversal

Direct + So. Ghost + Re. Ghost

Direct

Direct + Source Ghost

Direct
Source
Ghost

Direct
Direct

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Double Ghost

Internal Multiples
The seismic wave can get rattle around within some of
the stratigraphic layers
When the wave travels more than once within a layer, it
is called an internal multiple or, more commonly, peg leg
multiples
Peg Leg Multiple

3 Reflection
Points

Path Duplicated
within this layer

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Summary
Types of Seismic Events
Direct
Primary

Reflection
Events

Free Surface

Multiples

Ghosts

Internal

Diffraction
Refraction (Head Wave)

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W Bottom

36

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