A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS

SET THEORY

PROPERTIES OF REAL

NUMBERS

NOTATION
{ } Brul"e. indicate the beginning and end ofa set notation; when

listed e lements or members mllst be separated by commas;

EXAMPLE: In A= {4 , 8, 16~. the 4, 8, and 16 arc called
e leme nt s or members 01' the set; set s are finite (ending, or
ha ving a last element), unless olherwi se indicated.
In the middle of a set indi cates c(Jllfilluuti(J1I (JFa patte", ;
EXAMPLE: 8 = {S, 10, 15, ... ,85, 90}.
At the end of a set indi cates an illfinite set. that is , a set
with no last element;

EXAMPLE: C={3, 6, '1, 12, ... }.

Is a sy mbol which literally means '"such that."

E Mean s j,\' U member (~r or ;~. an elemellt oj;

EXAMPLE: IfA= {4, 8,12 1, then 12 E A because 12 is

in set A.

E Means is 1101 u ",ember of or i.\' not all element of;

EXAMPLE: If 8 = {2, 4, 6, X} , then 3 Of 8 because 3 is not

in set 8.

Empty set or "ull .'tet: A sct containing no elements or

members, but which is a subset of all sets ; also written

as : }.

e Means is a slibset of; also may be written as ~ .

(l Mean s is 11M a . "b. et ot; also may be w ritten as g:; .

AeB Indicates that e very element of set A is also all elelllellf

(Jf scI8;

EX1MPLE: If A= 1). 6 } and 8 = : I, 3. S, 6, 7, 9]. then Ae8

because the 3 and 6 which are in set A are also in set 8 .

2" Is the IIl1l1/ber of slibsef., ".1" a set when II equal s the

number 01' e lements in that set;

E."<AMPLE: If A- {4 , 5. 6:, then set A has 8 subsets

because A has 3 clements and 23= 8.

OPERATIONS
AuB Indicates the /llIi(J1I of
u UNION
set A with sct 8; eve ry
clement of this set is EITH ER
an element of set A , OR an
' Iement 01' set B; that is, to lorm
the union of two sets, put all of
the clements of the two sets
together into one set, making
sure not to write any clemcnt more than oncc;
EXAMPLE: I I' A= {2, 4 . 6, 8, 10, 12 1 and B= {3, 6 , 9, 12,
15,18:' then: Au8= {2, 3, 4 , 6, 8, 9,10,12 , 15, 18 }.

Ans~t I~d~~ii::~~e~h~:i~~':.~~i:'~~e~: n

INTERSECTION

01' this set is al so an clement of

SCI A AND set 8 ; that is, to form

the intersection of two scts , list

only those elements which arc

found in 80TH of the two sets;

EXAMPLE: If A = : 2, 4, 6, 8,

_ 10, 12: and 8 = {3. 6, 'J , 12, 15, 18} , Ihen i\nB= 16, 12}.
A Indicates the ('oll/plell/em of set
A ; that is, all clements in the COMPLEMENT
universal set which arc NOT in
SET
set A;
EXAMPLE: If the universal set

is the set of Integers and

A ~ { O, 1, 2, 3, ... f, then

A=:-I , -2 , -3 , -4 , ... f.

0) .

PROPERTIES
A=B If all of the elements in set i\ are also in set 8 and all

elements in set 13 are also in set A , although they do not

have to be in the samc order.

EXAMPLE: If A= {5, 10 } and 8 ={ 10, 5 j , then i\= B.

II(A) Indicates the IIl1mber ()f e1emellf.. it, .,et A , i.e. , the

cardinal number of the set.

,..... EXA,~PLE: Ir A={ 2, 4. 6 }. then n(A)=3.

A-B Mean s is eqllivalellt to; that is, set A and set 8

have thc same number of elements, although the

clcment s thcmselves may or may not be the same.

EXAMPLE: If A {2 .. 4 , 6) and B= : 6, 12, 18 j , then A-8

because II(A)= 3 and 11(8)= 3.
AnB=0 Indicates Ji.j()illf sets which have no elements in

common.

EXAMPLE: IfA = : 3, 4 , 5 l and 13; j7, 8, 9), then A n 8 = 0

because there are no common clements.

CLOSURE
oa + h is a real number; when you add 2 real numbers, the
result is al so a real number.
EXAMPLE: 3 and 5 are both real numbe rs; 3 + S = 8 and the
slim. 8, is also a real number.
oa - b is a rca I number; when you subtrac t 2 real numbers,
the result is also a real number.
EXAMPLE: 4 and II are both real numbers; 4- II =-7 and
the diHerenee, - 7, is also a real numbe r.
o(a)(b) is a real number; when you multiply 2 real numbers,
the result is also a real number.
EXAMPLE: 10 and - 3 are both real numbers;
(10)(- 3) = - 30 and the product , -30, is also a real number.
oalb is a real number when b>,O; when you divide 2 real
numbers, the result is al so a real number unles s the denom
inator (di visor) is zero.
EXAMPLE: -20 and 5 arc both real numoers ; -20/5 = -4
and the quotient , -4, is also a real number.

COMMUTATIVE
oa + b = b + a ; you can add numbers in e ither order and get
the same answer.
EXAMPLE: 9 + 15 = 24 and 15 + 9 ; 24. so 9 + 15 = 15 + 9.
o(a)(b)=(b)(a); you can multiply numbers in either order
and get the same answer.
EXAMPLE: (4)(26) = 104 and (26)(4) ~ 104, so (4)(26) =
(26)(4).
oa-b .. b-a ; you cannot subtract in any order and get the
same answer.
EXAMPLE: 8 2 = 6 , but 2 - 8 = -6. There is no c ommuta
tive property for subtraction.
oa I b .. b I a; you cannot divide in any order and get the
same answer.
EXAMPLE: 8 12 = 4, but 2 / 8 = .25 , so there is no cOlllmu
tative property for division.

ASSOCIATIVE
o(a+b)+c=a+(b+c); you can group numbers in any
arrangement wh':l1 adding and get the same ans\ver.
EXAMPLE: (2 + 5) + 9 = 7 + 9 = 16and2 + (5 + 9) = 2 + 14 = 16.
so (2 -1 5) 1'1 = 2 + (5 + 9).
o(ab) e = 8 (be) : you can group numbers in a ny arrangement
when multiplying a nd ge t the same an swer.
EXAMPLE: (4x 5) 8 = (20) 8 = 160 and 4(S x 8) = 4(40) - 11i0,
so (4xS)8 = 4(5 x8 ).
oThe assuciative property dues 1101 lI 'ork Cor subtracti on or
division.
EXAMPLES: (10 - 4) - 2 = 6 - 2 = 4, but 10 - (4 - 2) = 10 - 2 - 8;
fix division, (12 /6) / 2 ~ (2) / 2 = I, but 12 / (6/2) = 12 /3 : 4.
Notice that these answers are not the samc.

IDENTITIES
o a + 0 = a ; 7ero is the identity for addition because adding
Zero does not change the original number.
EXAMPLE: 9+ 0 = 9 and (H 9 = 9.
oa(I)=8; one is the identity lor multiplication because multi
plying by one does not change the original number.
EXAMPLE: 23 (I ) = 23 and (I )23 = 23.
oldentities for suotraction and division become a problem. It
is true that 45 - 0 = 45 , but 0 - 45 = 45 , not 45. This is also
the case for divi sion because 4/1 = 4 , but 1/4 = .25 , so the
identities do not hold when the numbers are reversed.

DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY
oa(b+c)=ab + ac or a(b - c) = ah - ac; each term in th e
parentheses mu st be multiplied by Ihe term in Cronl 01' the
parentheses.
EXAMPLE: 4( S + 7) 4( 5 )+ 4(7) = 20 + 28 = 48.
Thi s is a simpl e example and the distributive property is
not required 10 Cind the answer. Whe n the problem invo lves
a variable. however, the distributi ve pro pert y is a necessity.
E."<AMPLE: 4(5a + 7) 4( 5al + 4 (7) = 10a + 28 .

PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY
oReflexive: a = a ; both s ides of the equa tion are ide ntical.
EXAMPLE: 5 + k = 5 +k.
oSymmetric: If a = h, then b = a. T hi s pro pert y a 110\\ s ) OU to
exchange the two sides of an equation.
EX4MPLE: 4a - 7 = 9 - 7a + 15 becomes 9 7a + 15 = 4a 7.
oTransitive: If a=b and b=e, th~n a = e. T hi:; pro pe rt y
a llow s yo u to connect statemcnt s whieh are each equal to
the same comlllon statement.
EXAMPLE: Sa 6 = 9k and 9k = a 1 2; you can eliminate
the COllllllon term 9k and COllnect the 1()lI owing int o o lle
equation: Sa (, = a + 2 .
oAddition Property of Equality: If a=b, then a +c=h+c.
This property all ows you to add any number or algebraic term
to any equation as long as yo u add it to hoth s ides to keep the
equation truc .
EXAMPLE: 5 = 5; if vou acid 3 to one sidc and nut the other.
the equation become; 8 = 5. which is "li se. bill i I' yo u add 3
to botlt sides, yo u get a true equaliun X X. A lso. 5a + 4 = 14
becomes 5a + 4 + ( 4) = 14 + ( 4) ifYllU add 4 to bOlh s ides.
Thi s results in the cquation Sa 10.
o Multiplication Pl'Operty of Equality: If a = b, then ac = be
when c .. O. This property allows you to multipl y both sides
of an equation by any non zero value.
EXAMPLE: If 4a = 24 , th en (4a)( .2S )= ( 24)(. 25) and
a = Ii. Notice that both ,ides of the = were multiplied by .25 .

SETS OF NUMBERS
DEFINITIONS

Natural or Counting numhers: : 1. 2. ], 4 , 5, .... I I. 12. ... :

\V holc nu mbe rs: {O, 1,2. 3.... , In, 11. 12. 13. ... :
oIntegers: {... , -4, -3, -2, -I , n, I. 2. 3. 4, ... }
oRationa l num b e rs: : p/ql p a nd q a rc integers. q>'O): the
sets of Natu ral num bers, Who le numbe rs, a nd In tege rs. as
well as num be rs which ca n be w ritte n as prope r or imprope r
fractions, arc all subsets 01" thc set of Rationa l nu m bc rs.
olrrational numbers: { x 1 x is a re a l lI umbe r but is no t a
Ration a l num be r}: thc sets o f R ~l tio na l num bers a nd
Irrational num bers have no c le ment s in common and are.
the re fo re, di sjoint sets .
oR eal numbe rs: : x 1 x is Ihe coord ina te o Ca po int on a n umber
line }; the union of the set llf Rational numhe rs with the SCI
of Irrationa l nu mbe rs equals the SCI o f Rea l num bers.
-Imaginary numbers: 1ai l a is a Rca l Ilum be r Hnd i is the
number wh ose square is - 11; j 2
I: the sets of' Rea l
numbers a nd Imag ina ry Ilu mbers have no cl e me nt s in
COllllll on and arc . there fore. disj oint sets.
oComplex numbe r s : :a +bil a a nd b arC Real nu mbe rs and
i is the number whose sq uare is - I:; the SCI of Rea l
numbe rs and the se t of Im agina r :v numbe rs arc bot h
subsets of the se t of Com plex numbe rs.
EXA MPLES: 4 + 7i and J-2i arc Compl e, numbe rs.

COMPLEX NUMBERS

Numbers

INVERSES
a +(-a)=O; a number plus its additive inverse (the number
with the opposite sign) will always equal zero.
EXAMPLE: 5 + ( S) = O and (- 5) r 5 = 0. The ex ception is
zero because 0 + 0 = 0 already.
oa(l/a)= I; a number times its multiplicati ve inverse or
rec iprocal (the number written as a fraction and flipped)
will always equal one.
EXAMPLE: S(1 /5) = I. The exception is zero becau se zero
cannot be multiplied by any number and result in a product
of onc.

------,

Rational
Integers

Whole

~~

~/

...----..

OPERATIONS OF REAL
NUMBERS
V OC ABU LARY
Total or s um is the answer to an addition problem . The
numbers added are called addends.
EXAMPLE: In S + 9 ~ 14, Sand 9 arc addends and 14 is the
tota l o r slim .
Differencl' is the answer to a subtraction problem . The number
s ubtracted is called the s ubtrabend. The num ber t,'om which
the subtrahend is subtracted is called the minuend.
EXAMPLE: In 2S - 8~ 17, 25 is the m inuend, 8 is the
subtrahend, and 17 is the diffe re nce .
Produc t is the answer to a multiplication problem . T he
numbers multip lied are each called a fac to r.
EXAMPLE: In 15 x 6 ~ 90, 15 and 6 arc factors and 90 is
the produc t.
Quotient is the answe r to a di vision problem . The number
being divided is call ed the d ividend. The numbe r tha t you
arc dividing by is called the di visor. If there is a number
remaining aller the divi sion process has been compl eted,
tha t number is called the remainder.
EXAMPLE: In 45 : 5~ 9, wh ich may also be written as 5)45
or 4S15, 45 is the di vidend, 5 is the d ivisor and 9 is the quotient.
An exponent ind icates t he number of t imes the base is
multiplied by itsel f; that is, used as a facto r.
EXAMPLE: In S3, S is the base and 3 is th e exponent, or
power. and 5) (5 ) (S )(5)~ 125; notice tha t the base, 5, was
multi plicd by itself' 3 ti mes.
Prime numbers arc natura l numbers g reate r than I having
exactl y two fact ors, it se lf and one .
EXA M PLES: 7 is prime because the only two natura l
numbe rs th at mu ltiply to equa l 7 are 7 and I; 13 is pr ime
because the only two natura l numbers that multiply to equal
I 3 are I 3 and I.
Composite numbers are nat ura l numbers tha t have more
than two fac to rs .
EXAMPL ES: 15 is a composite number because I, 3, 5.
an d 15 a ll multiply in some comb inatio n to eq ual 15; 9 is
composite because I , 3. and 9 a ll mUltiply in some comb i
nation to equa l 9.
The greatest common factor (GC F) or greatest common
diviso r (GCD ) of a set o f numbers is the largest natura l
number that is a tactor of each of the numbe rs in the set; that
is. the largest natural number that will divide into all of the
numbers in the set w ithout leav ing a remainder.
EXAMPLE: Th e g rea test com mon fac tor (GCF ) of 12, 30
and 42 is 6 because 6 divides even ly into 12, 30, and 42
w ithout leaving remai nders.
The least comm o n multiple ( LC M ) of a set or numbers is
the sma llest natu ra l number that can be d iv ided (w ithout
remainders ) by each of the numbe rs in the set.
EXAMPLE: T he least com mon multip le o f2, 3, and 4 is 12
because a lthough 2, 3, and 4 div ide evenly into Illany
numbers, including 48,36, 24. a nd 12, the smallest is 12.
The de nom inato r o f a fract ion is the numbc r in the boltom ;
that is, the divisor o f the in d icated di v is ion or the liact io n.
EX'JMPLE : In 5/8, 8 is the denomina tor and al so the div i
sor in the indicated divisi on.
The numerator of a frac tion is the number in the top; that
is, the div idend of indicated division of the fract ion.
EXAMPLE: In 3/4 . 3 is the numerator a nd a lso the di vidc nd
in the indicated d ivisio n.

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM

OF ARITHMETIC

The Fundamental Theore m of Arithmetic states that every

compos ite number can be expressed as a un ique p roduct of
prime numbers.
EXA MPLES: 15 ~ (3)(5) , where 15 is composite a nd both
3 and 5 are prime; 72 ~ (2 )(2 )(2)(3 )(3). where 72 is compos
ite and both 2 and 3 arc prime; notice that 72 al so eq ual s
(8)(9 ). but thi s does not demonstrate the theorem because
nei ther 8 nor 9 are prime num bers.

ORDER OF OPERATIONS
Description: T he order in whi ch additio n, subtraction, multi
plicat ion, and di vi sion arc performed determines th e a nswer.
Orde r
I. Parentheses : Any o perat io ns contained in parentheses
are done first. if' there are a ny. Th is also appl ies to these
cnclosure symbols, : : and [ ].
2. E xpo nents: Ex po nent expre ssions are simp li fie d
second, if there arc any.
3. M ultiplication and Division : T hese operations are do ne
next in the order in which they are fou nd, go ing le ft to
rig ht; that is, if divis ion com es ri rst, going lell to righ t,
then it is done first.
4. Addi tio n and Subtracti on : These operations are done
next in th e orde r in whic h they arc fo und. go ing left to
r ight; that is, if subtractio n comes fir t, go ing left to
righ t, then it is do ne first.

DECI M AL NUMBERS
The place value of each dig it in a base 10 number is dete r
mined by its positi on with respect to the decima l po int.
Each position represents multiplicatio n by a power or 10.
EXAMPLE: In 324, 3 m eans 300 because it is 3 ti mes 102
(I 02 ~ 100 ). 2 means 20 because it is 2 times 10 1(I 0 1~ 10).
and 4 means 4 times one because it is 4 times I 011 ( I O()~ I).
The re is an invisible de c imal point to the r ight of the 4. In
5. 8 2 . 5 m eans 5 ti mes one because it is 5 ti mes
10 (1 OO~ I), X m eans 8 times one tenth because it is 8
ti mes 10-1(10-1~.1 ~ 1110). an d 2 means 2 tim es one
hundredth because it is 2 times 10 -2 (10-2~ .OI ~ 111 00 ).

EXAMPLE:

70 .

.04

4)!16

O
J)3.8 1

'1 f the diviso r is a dec imal number, move the dec ima l po in t
beh ind the last digit a nd move the deci m a l point in th e
div idend the same number of p laces. Div ide and bring the
decima l point up into the quotient (a nswer).
Thi s process works because bo th the divisor and the
di vidend arc actually multipli ed by a po\\ cr of 10; that
is, 10. 100, 1,000, or 10,000 to move the dec imal point.

EXAMPLE: .1.5 x ~ = 350 ~ 7()

.05
tOO
5

ABSOLUTE VALUE
Definition: Ixl- x ifx > II o r x - () and Ixl ~ x if x < 0; that is.
the absolute value of a number is always the pOSiti ve \alue
of that number.

EXAMPLES: 161 ~ 6 and I 61- 6; the '''lSWer is pos itive 6 in

both case~.

ADDITION
WRITING DECIMAL NUMBERS AS
FRACTIONS
W rite the digits that are beh ind the dec imal point as the
numerato r (top ) o f the liaction .
Write the place val ue of th e last digit as the denominator
(bottom ) o f the fracti on . Any di g its in front of the decima l
point are w hole numbers .
E)(AMPLE: In 4.068 , the las t digi t behind the decima l
poin t is 8 and it is in the 1,000ths place ; the refore. 4. 068
becomes 4 ~ '

t,OOO

Notice the number of ze ros in the denominato r is eq ual to the

number o f digits behind thc decimal point in the o riginal
number.

If the signs of the numbers arc the sUllie. ADD. The

answer has the same sign as the Ilumbers.
EXAMPLES: (- 4)+( 9) - 13a nd 5 + 11 - lt).
If the signs of the numbers are diUel'(!III. SUBTRACT.
The HIlS\Vcr has the sign of the largl'r number (ignoring tlH.'

signs or taking the absolute va lue o f the Ilumhers to dcter

mine the larger Ilumher).

EXAMPLES: ( -4 ) + (9'1 ~ 5 and (4) + ( 9) = 5.

SUBTRACTION
Change subtraction to addition of tbe opposite number:
a - b ~ a I ( b); that is , change the s ubtraction sign to addi
tion and also change the sign~()f the number dircc11 y behind
the subtraction sign to the oppos ite. Theil . to ll o\\' the add i

tion rules ahovC'.

EXAMPI.ES: (X)

( 1 2 )~( R) + ( 12) ~ 4 and

(12) - ( X) -I ( 1 1 ) ~ 20 and
(- 8) ( 1 2 ) ~ ( R) 1- (12) - 4. Notice the sign or thl' number
in front of the subtraction sign never c hanges.

( 8)

ADDITION
Write the decima l n umbers in a ve rti cal lorm w ith the deci
mal points line d up one under the other, so digits o f eq ual
p lace va lue are under each othe r.
' A dd
EXAMPLE: 23 .045 + 7.5 + 143 + .034 would become
23 .045
7.5
because there is an inv isib le deci ma l po int
143,0
beh ind the 143.
+
.034
173.579

-------------------------------MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION ~

Multiply or divide. then fililow these rules to determine

the sig n of the answer.

Ifthe numbers have the same signs. the answer is POSITIVE,

If the numbers have different Signs. th(, answer is NEGATI\'[,
-It makes no LlitTcrc ncc which Ilumncr is lanler \\ hen you an~
try ing to dL'h.:rmine the sign of the answer.'~
EXAMPLES: ( 2)( 5) - 10 and ( 7)(3) ~ 2 1 and
( -2)('1) ~- 18

SUBTRACTION
Write the decimal numbe rs in a ver tica l [arm wit h the deci
mal points lined up one unde r th e othe r.
Write add itional zeros aller the la st di git beh ind th e dec imal
point in thc minuend (num ber o n top ) if needed (both the
minuend and the s ubtrahend shou ld havc an eq ual num ber
of dig its behind the decimal point).
EXAMPLE: In 340. 06 - 27. 3057 , 340.06 on ly has 2 digits
beh ind the decimal po int , so it needs 2 m o re zeros because
27 .3057 has 4 digi ts behind th e decima l poin t; there fo re, the
problem becomes :
340.0600
-27 .3057

MULTIPLICATION
Multiply
Coun t the number of digits behind the decimal points in all
factors .
' Count the number o f d igits behi nd the decim al po int in the
answe r. T he answer must have the same numbe r of di gits
behind th e decima l po int, as there are digits behind the deci
m a l poi nts in all thc factors . It is no t necessary to line the
deci ma l poin ts up in multipl ication.
EXAMPLE: In (3.05 ) (.007), multiply the num bers and count
the 5 digits behind the decima l points in the problem so you
can p ut 5 digits behind the decimal poi nt in the product
(a nswer); therefore, ( 3 . 05 )(.007) ~ . 02 1 35. This process
works because .3 ti mes .2 can be written as fract io ns, )/10
ti mes 2/ 10, which equal s 6/ tOO, which eq uals .06 as a dec imal
number - two dig its behi nd the dec imal po ints in th e prob
lem and two digits behind the dec imal point in the an swer.

DIVISION
Rule : Always d ivide by a who le num ber.
'I fthe d iviso r is a whole number. simply di vide and bri ng the
decimal point up into the quotien t (answer ).

DOUBLE NEGATIVE

that is. the s ign ill ti'on! or the parentheses

changes the s ign of the contents of th e parentheses.
EXAMPLES: ( 3 )= +3 o r (3) 3; also. (5<1-6) 5a + 6.

' -(-a)~a;

FRACTIONS

REDUCIN G

Divide nUl1lerator (top ) and de nom inato r (bottom) by the

same number, there by renam ing it to a n cqui , alen t fraction
in lower terms. This process may be repeated .
EXAMPLE: ~O 4 5
.12 4

ADDITION

!.!.. + ~= ~,wherec;tO
c

Change to equivalent fractions with common d~nom i nator .

EXAMPLE: To eva luate ~ + ~ + ~. lo llow these steps:

.1 .j 6

I. Find the least common d e nominator by dete rmi ning the

sm a ll est number which can be di vided e \ en ly (no remain
ders) by all of th e num bers in the de nominato rs
(bottoms).
EX4 MPLE: 3.4. and 6 divi de evenly into 12.
2. Multiply the n umerato r a nd denomin a tor of each
fraction so the fradion value has not changed but the
COllllllon de no minator has been obtai ned.

EXAMPL E:
2

.>

.1

.1

t2

t2

- x -+- x -+- X -~- I - I

10

12

3. Add the numerators and keep the same denominator

because the addition of fractions is counting equal parts.

EXAMPLE: 8
3 10 21
'}
3

- + - + - = - = 1- = 1
12 12 12 12
12
4

Definition: Comparison between two quantities.

3
Forms : 3 to 5, 3 : 5, 3/5,5'

PROPORTION

SUBTRACTION
"-_"-=~ ,wherec;<O

Definition: Statement of equality between two ratios or

tractions.
:J
9

Change to equivalent fractions with a common

denominator.
Find the least common denominator by determining
thc smallest number which can be divided evenly by all
of the numbers in the denominators (boltoms).

EXAMPLE:

'2 _-'

<) 3
2. Multiply the nu m erator and deno m inator by the samc
number so the fraction value has not changed, but the

common denominator has been obtained.

EXAMPLE:

'2 _ -'- x ~=L~

9

<)

<)

3. Subtract the numerators and keep the

same denominator because subtraction
of fraction s is finding the dinerenee
betwee n equal parts.

EXAMPLE:
3

~9

Forms: 3 is to 5 a s 9 is to 15,3:5::9:15, 5

15

SOLVING PROPORTIONS

2 = -'-'- becomes -'2 = -'-'-, so n = 15;

20 20

4 20
11+3 10
11+3 5

- - = - becomes ~- = - , so n + 3 = 5 and n = 2.

14
7
7

7
Cross-multiply and solve the resulting equation. NOTE:
Cross-multiplication is used to solve proportions illlh'
and mav ]'I;OT be used in fraction multiplication. Cross
multiplication may be de scribed as the product of the means
being equal to the product of the extremes,

EXAMPLES:
II
3
I
5n = 21, n = 21 +5, n = 4
7 5 5
3
7
I
'4"""';:;:2' 3 n + 6 =2 8, 3n=22, n= 7)

"- x"- = ~,wherc c;<O and d;<O

d

EXAMPLE: ~ x ~= 12
3 12 36

+~=-'12

2. OR - reduce any numerator (top) with

any de nominator (boltom) and then

multi p ly thc numerators and multiply the

denominators.

= "- x "- = " x d , where c;< 0; d ;< 0; b ;< 0

/,

eX /,

'Common denominators are NOT needed.

I. Change division to mul t iplication by the reci p rocal;
that is, Ilip the fraction in back of the division sign and

change the division sign to a multiplication sign.

EXAMPLE:

LI + ~ becomes LI x~ .
9

<)

2. Now, follow the steps for multiplication

uf fractions, as indicated above.

;ZI= }

PERCENT, RATIO &

PROPORTION

-7

GEOMETRIC FORMULAS
P E R 1M ETE R: The perimeter. P, o f a two-dimens io nal
shape is the SUIll of all side le ngths.
AREA: The area, A. 01' a two-di me nsional shape i, the
number of square units that can be put in the region
cncloscd hy the s ides. NOTE: Area is o btaincd thro ugh
some combination of multiplying he ights and bases . which
always form 90u angles with each othe r, except ill circl es .
VOLUME: Thc volullle, Y, of a threc-d imens iona l s hapc is
the numbe r of c ubic units that can be put ill the region
enclosed by all the sides.

A = 48 st.J Lmre un ilS

If h= 8 and b= 12. th-en : A = '/,IK I( 12)

A = 48 square unit s
-

Il'h=6 and b=l). then: A=(6){YI

A = 54 square units

Improper fractions a re fracti ons that have a numerator

(top numbe r) large r tha n the de nominator (bollom number) .
Conversions
I. Mixed number to impmper fraction : Multiply the denom
inator (bottom) by the whole number
EXAMPI.E:
and add the numerator (top) to fi nd
.,.
the numerator of the improper trac
2
3x5+2
17
5- = - - =
tion. T he denominator of the
3
3
3
improper fi'3ction is the same as the
denominator in the mixed number.

...

2. Improper fraction to mixed num ber:

Divide the de nominator into the

numerator and write the remainder

over the divisor (the divi sor is the
same number as the denominator in
thc improper fraction).

Rectan gle Arca: A = hb. or A = Iw

If h=4 and b = 12, then : A =( 4){ 121

ParallclognllTl Area: A = hh

EXAMPLE:
,..(2 ", I

-3~

Trian gle A rea: A = II., bh

Description of mixed num bers : W hole numbers follo wed

by fracti ons; that is, a whole number added to a frac tion.
I

DIVISION
"- + "-

MIXED NUMBERS &

IMPROPER FRACTIONS

EXAMPLE: 42 means 41 2 ; 4 /111t!

-3~ =

arc equal in a square, the-n:

A = 64 sq uare: units

GENERAL COMMENTS

EXAMPLE:

l)

6 -= 5 + - - = 5
7
7
7

Square Area: A = hb
If h=g, then b=H: also. as all sides

ex d

Common denominators are ]'I;OT needed.

I. Multiply the numerators (tops) and mUltiply the denomi
nators (bottoms), then reduce the answer to lowest terms.

EXAMPL E:
' 2+ 7,

MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION

Change the fractions to equivalent fractions with common

denominators , set numerators (tops) equal to eaeh other,
and solve the rcsulting statement.

EXAMPLES:

Change each In ixcd nu mbe r to a n impro per frae! io n and

fo llow the steps for multip lyi ng and di vid ing frac tions.

-~- ,

MULTIPLICATION

Short Cut For Borrowing:

Reduce the who le nwnbe r by
one, replace the numerator by
the sum (add) of the numera

tor and denom inator of the

fraction, and keep the same

denominator.

EXAMPLE:

3~
17
5
- nleans 5}T7
5
15

Cin.:le Area: A = rcr:!'

If1[= 3. 14 and 1'=5, th~n: A=13.1 4 )(:i)',
A;;; 78.5 square units
Cin:ulllference: C = 2rcr
C=(2)(3.14)(5)=31.4 units
Pythagorea n Th eorem
If a ri g ht triangle has hypo te nuse c. and
:,ides a and b. then c 2 ~a2 +b2

hc:r7

Rectangular Prism Ytllull1c

V=lwh ; ifl= 12. w=:1, h=4. then:
V=( 12 1( 31(4). V= 144 cubic units

C ubc Volume. Y= e'\

Each edge le ngth . c. j:-. equal to the

other edges in a cube.

If e =8. then: v= (XIIX)iS).

V= 512 cubic units

PERCENTS
Definition: Percent means " out of I00" or " per 100."
Percents and equivalent fractions
I. Percents can be written as fractions by placing the
number over 100 and simplifying or reducing.

EXAMPLES: 3IJ% = 30

100 10

45
9

4,5% =
= I.IX)(I = 21KI

2. Fractions can be changed to percents by writing them

with denominators of 100. The numerator is then the
percent number.
4.5

100

EXAM PlE' 2~~x 20

- . 5 5 20

= ~ =()O%
100

Percents and decimal numbers

I.
To change a percent to a decimal number, move
".... the decimal point 2 places to the left because percent
I{
mean s " out of 100" and decimal numbers with two
I'
digit s behind the decimal point also mean "out of 100."
EXAMPLE: 45'% =~; 125'% = 18 ; 6% = ~;
3.5% = ,035 bccause the 5 was already behind the decimal
point and is not counted as one of the digits in the " move
two places."
2. To change a decimal number to a perccnt, move the
decimal point two places to the right.

EXAMPLES: .47=47'Yo; 3.2 = 320.%; .205= ~5'%

ADDITION
Add thc whole numbe rs.
Add thc ,,'actions by follow ing the stcps for addition of li'ac
tions in the fract ion section o f th is study gu ide.
I f the answer has an improper fraction, change it to a
mixed nu mber
EXAMPLE:
and add the
res ult ing who le
number to the
who le numbe r in
the answer.

Cy linder Volume. V= 1[r' h

If radius, 1' =9, h =8 . the n:

Y= 1[( 9 1' 18i, Y= 3.14(8 1\(SI.

Y=2034.72 cubi c unit s

Cone Vo lume. V = l !3n r1 h

If r=6 and h = 8, thell:

V= 1/ 1 1((6)1(8 ).

Y= 'I; (3. 14)(36)(81

V=30 1.44 cu bic uni ts

Trian g UI.<Ir Prism VOIUIl1.l'": V=(area 0 1" Irian g l c ) h c 2 # _

SUBTRACTION

If

Subtract the fractions first.

I. If the fraction ufthe larger number is larger tha n the frac
tion of the s maller number, then follow the steps of
subtracting fractions in the fraction section of this study
guide and then subtract the whole nu mbe rs.
5
I
4
2

EXAMPLE: 7--2-=5-=5
()
6
6
3
2. If that is not the case, then

borrow ONE from the

whole number and add it to
the fracti on (must have
common denominators)
before subtracting.

EXAMPLE:
7 2
9

6 -= 5 +-+ -=5
7
7 7
7
5
-3
7

IHis an area equal (()

S h

12
'/ 2 (5)1121.

then: V=30h alld if h= 8. thell:

Y=(30j(XI, V=240 cubi~ units
Rectangular Pyramid V()lulllc:

V= 1/.1, (:.trca of r~L'l a nglc)h

I f I 5 and w = 4. the rCdanglc h a~

all

arca of 20, the n:

V='/,(20Ih and irh=9.

thcn: 'V= '/ ,(20)191. V= nll cubic units

Sphere VUIUIllI.!, V= 4/[,J Irradius, 1'= 5,

4(3.1.~ )(5)~ then:

V=

1.:70. V= 523.J cuhic unih

\1

PERCENT APPLICATIONS

"IS" & "OF"

% INCREASE

Any problems that are or can be stated with percent and the
words "is" and "of' can be solved using these formulas:

C:'
FORMULAS: _~(_!i_"c_r_t'l_ls_

IO!)

amount oj'incI't:(lse
origi/la/l',Jilie

or

(original "alue) x (% increase) ~ amount ofincrease

If the amount of increase is not given, it may be fOllnd
(new value) -(original value) ~ amount of increase.

EXAMPLE: The Smyth Company had 10,000 employees in

1992 and 12.000 in 1993. Find the % increase. Amount of
increase ~ 12,000 - 10,000 = 2,OO()

i7io -

x 125 ~ 50: in either case, the percent ~ 40%.

% DISCOUNT
';" diS ( UIIII{ =

WI1011llIo(dis("()f1ll1

or

originol \',dlle

100

(original price) x (%1 discount) = $ discount

If not given, ($ discount) = (original price) - (new price)

125

EXAMPLE 2: What number is 125% of 80" 125 ~ -"- or

HXI

( 1.2S)(80) = II. In either ease, the number

KO

100.

% DECREASE
FOR~,tULAS:

% decrease =

II

decrease: 10() =

~.(XX)

12.()(IO'

so, n=25 and the (% del'fcase

25(~/~1.

EXAMPLE: The Smyth Company put suits thai usually sell

for $250 on sale for $ISO. Find the percent disCLlunt.
II
$llXI
% discount: 100 ~ $250
so,

II

= 40

and the (;0 discount '----

4U 1%.

or (total amount) ~

(principal) + interest

Vv'hcrc i = interest
p = principal: money borrowed or lent
r = rate: percent ratl'
t .": : time: expressed in the same period as the rate,
i.e., ifrak is per year. then time is in years or part ora year.
Ii'rate is per month. then time is in months.

i~prt.

EXAMPLE: Carolyn borrowed S5,000 Irom the bank at 6%

simple inkrest per year. I f she borrowed the money for only

3 months, find the total amount that she paid the bank.
S interest = prl ~ ($5,000) (6"1.,) (.2S) " $75
Notice that the 3 momhs was changed to .25 of a year.

~T__
_()Ia_I __
A n____
,()uI't_=____
I) ' i____()(
~ $'5 , _______
)t) ' $ 7 5____O__
~ S:5 ,_7 5.__________...

a:

% COMMISSION
FORl\lULAS:

expellses

, S C.\{'('llses

7:

I ()()

SIMPLE INTEREST
FORMULAS:

% EXPENSES OR COSTS
FORMULAS: %

'~-(~ cOf1lmissiun

S cOlI/missioll

I(}I)

S .';alt.'s

rOfU/ S illnJ/11('

or (tolal $ income)x(% expenses) ~ $ expenses

EXAMPLE: The Smyth Company had a total income or
5250,000 and $7,500 profit last month. Find the percent
expenses. $ expenses: = $250,000 - $7 ,SOO = $242,5()O
(% expenses:~:::::: 242.~
IIXI 250.t)(X)
so. II = 97 and the (!/(I expenses = 97 1!-r(1.

COMPOUND INTEREST
FORMULA: A =
Whcre:

1'( I +~

A = total amount
p=principal; money saved or invested
r=rate of interest: llsually a 1% per year
t= time: expressed in years
II = total number of periods
fit

EXAMPLE: John put S I 00

. .

II1to a savings account a~ 4(%
compounded quarterly for R
years. How much was in the
account at the end of 8 years?

($ sales) x (% commission) ~ S commission

EXAMPLE: Missy earned 4'1, on a hOLlse she suld for

II

..
(
A -- 100 I +

.(M,
~ )

(4 8
~ x 1

A = I OO( 1.0 I ),1

100( 1.3749)

A ~ 137.49

S125,000. Find her dollar commission.

ALGEBRA

\/~) commission: ~:::::: ' C()!1I111is,~ or

ItXI
($ 12S,()(XlI x (4%) = $ commission, so

$1 co. (X~I

% MARKUP
FORl\lULAS: ~'I/

Il/wJ.lljJ

100

S lIIurkllP
or

origil/a! IJI"ic('

(original price)x('Yo markup) ~ $ markup

lfnot given, ($ markup) ~ (new price) - (original price)

EXAMPLE: The Smyth Company bought blouses lor S20

each and sold them lor $44 each. Find the percent markup.
S markup ~ $44-$20~$24 '1;' markup: ~ ~ 24,
lOCI
20
so, n = 120 and the f% markup = 120(%.

% PROFIT
FORMULAS: "(, Cmlit _

S prulil

lolu/ S illCOlllt'

or (total $ income) x (% profit) ~ $ profit

if not givcn, S profit ~ (total $ income) - ($ expensesl.

J()()

I:

Z
~

VOCABULARY

S cOl1lmission ~ $5,000.

EXAMPLE: The Smyth Company had expenses of

$ISO,OOO and a profit of $1 0,000. Find the 'Yr, profit.

total S incomc - $150,000+ $1 UJ)OO = $160,()OO

% profit: ~ ~ 10.000 or

100 16lJ,(JIlO

($ I60,(JOO) x (n)=S I 0.000. In either case, the 0;., profit ~ 6.2S%.

oVariables are letters used ill represent numbers.

oConstants arc specific numbers that arc not multiplied by
anv variables.
oC,iefficients are numbers that are multiplied by one or more
variables.
EXAMPLES: -4xy has a coefficient of-4: 9m' has a coef
ficient of 9: x has -an invisible coefficient of I.
Terms are constants or variable expressions.
EXAMPLES: .la: -Sc 4d: 25 mp J r,; 7 are all terms.
Like o r similar ternlS arc terms that have the same vari
ables to the same degree or exponent value. Coelficients do
not,- matter, they n~ay be eq;lal or. nut.
ExAMPLES: 3rn- and 7m~ are like terms because they bOlh
have the same variable to the same power or cx~onent valuc.
- ISa"b and 6a"b are like terms, but 2,4 and 6x are not like
terms because although they have the same variable, x, it is to
the power of 4 in one term and to the puwer uf 3 in the other.
oAlgebraic expressions arc terms that are connected by
either addition or subtraction.
EXAMPLES: 2s , 4a1 - 5 is an algebraic expression with 3
terms: 2s, 4a1 and 5.
oAlgebraic equations arc statements of equality between at
least two terms.
EXAMPLES: 4z ~ 28 is an algebraic equation.
3(a-4) 'c 6a= IIJ-a is also an algebraic equation. Notice
that both statements have equal signs in them.
oAlgebraic inequalities are statements that have either > or
< between at least two terms.
EXAMPLES: 50 <-2x is an algebraic inequality.
3(2n + 7) > - lOis an algebraic inequality.

I ~~~--------------~
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ISBN-13:
ISBN - l0:

or llh.:dlal1 ic:d

1X'[(\lI~ ~ ((l!l

978-157222506-0
157222506 - 8

911~ 11I)llII ~III!1!IJ~ll~llllrl l l il l lll

!\OTICI:: 1'0 STUDE'T Thi s Oui<.:kSllId y gllid..: j , a liall!!),

a!1nohll<.'d ~.'U id~ to baSIC m;r tli <,:Olll'>CS
\ 11 righl~~ rclit' rH'd. Nil pan oj' lhi~
duco.!d or Ir,lIls mi a .... d in
1"(l1"l11. ell

using the FOIL Method j'.r Products of Binomials

(sec Algebra I chart). This is a pupular method "".
multiplying 2 terms by 2 terms only. FO IL means firs!
term timcs first term. outer term times outer term. inn!.!!"
term times inner tcnn. and last tcrm tirncs last term.

o RU LE: Co mbine (acid or subtrael) only the eoellie ient,; of

like terms and never change the c ,\poncnt~ during addition

or subtraction: a + a = 2a.
EX4MPLES: 4",3 and _7v3, arc like tcrl1l ~ . even thouch the
x and yl arc 1l9t iii th~' S~l11lt: or9cr. and may be comhined 111 Ihi"
mantleI': 4~y;l + 7y -'x =. ] xv " ; notice only th e cn('trici~nt"
\vere combined and no CXpO~1Cl1t chan~ed: I)a 2lx' and 3bca:'
arc not likt..' terms bt..'l"[\usl.' the CXplllll.'nts o f Ihl.' a art..' no! tht..'

sallie in both terms. ~o they Illay not he added or ~tlbtrat..'tl.'d.

MULTIPLYING TERMS
o Definition: 3 5 (3)(3)(3)(3)(31: that is, 3 is called the bali<' and
it is multiplied by itself 5 times because the exponenl is 5.
am~(a)(a)(a) ... (a): that is, the a is multiplied by itselfm time,.
o Product Rule for Exponents: (am)(II") ~ a""": that i,.
when Illultiplying the sam . . . hase, a in this cas...... simply add
the exponents.
Any terms may he Illultiplied. not just like terllls.
o RULE: Multiply the coelri,'icnts and multiply the \1IriahJc,
(this m~aJ1 S you have tn add the cxpon . . . llt ~ ()ftlle same \ariable).
EXAMPLE: (4a~c)(-12a2h.1c)=-4!1ablc2: notice that 4
times - 12 became - 4X. a 4 time s a 2 belam.: at" c tim ~~ .."
became c 2 . and thL' b J \vas written 10 intiiGltc Illultiplication
by b, but the expunent did not cltange un the h heeause thcre
was only one h in the problem.

SOLVING A FIRSTDEGREE

EQUATION WITH ONE VARIABLE

A- P (I +.':.)

A~

a(c+d) + b(c+d) ~ ae + ad + be + bd

(adding or subtracting)

originol mille

(original value)x(% decrease) ~ amount of decrease

Irnot given, amount ordecrease~(original value) (new value)
EXAMPLE: The Smyth Company had 12,OO() employees in
1993 and 9 ,000 in 19l)4. Find the percent decrease.
Amount of decrease = 12,000 - 9,000 = 3,000
~/o

b)(e+d)~

EX1MPLE: (2x + y)(3x - 5v) 2x t:lx -5y ) + y(3x-S y ) ~ 6x1I Oxy + 3xy - 5y1 ~ Iix 2 - 7xy: 5y' . T hi s may als,) be clone b)

COMBINING LIKE TERMS

or

Oil/Olin! o(deCfCUSt'

IfJf)

a(c+d) ~ ae+ad

o'lype 2: (a +

EXAMPLE I: What percent of 12S is 50" -"- ~ ~ or

II

oType I:

EXAMPLE: 4x-'(2xy -t y' ) ~ 8x4y + 4x 3y '

"is" numher
"of' number

or "of' means multiply and "is" means equals.

2,O()()

I (X) 10,000
SO,11 = 20 .Uld the (!~. incrc:-L';C = 2fY~) becatlse 1Y;) means "out of 100:'

FOR~1ULAS:

Vi;

I!~)

through this subtraction:

'% increase:

FORMULAS:

DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY

FOR POLYNOMIALS

o Eliminale any fractions by l"inl' the Multiplicatiun PfIlpr:11)

or Equality (could be tric~y if not handled properly) .
~
EXAMPl.E: 1/2( 3 a + S) ~ 2!3 (7a 5) + ~ "ould be lTlulti
plied on both sides of the sign by thl? IO\\'l?st cornl11oll
S'. j
denominator of 1/2 [Ind 2/3 \vhil"h is 6: the result \\Quld
be 3(3a + 5) ~ 4(7a 5) + 54: notice that only 1,, 2'1. and
9 were multiplied by 6 and not the co ntcilts-ofti le par,'ntheses:
the parentheses will be handled in Ihe next ,tep, di"tribution.
[)istribute to remove any J1arl'nthe~l" s . ifthcre arC' all )'.
EXAMPLE: 3(3a + 5) 4(7a 5) + 5-1 becomes
9a + 15 ~ 28a - 2() + 54.
Comhine allY like h:Tll1S that arc 011 the sanll' s ide l.lfthe l'qual..; sign.
EXAMPLE: 9a + 15 = na 10 + ~4 becomcs
9a + 15 ~ 28a + 3-1 because the only like terms on the same
side of the equals sign were the 20 and the +S4.
Use the addition property (If equality to add the same terms
on both sides of the equals sign. This may be done mOI"l: than
oncc. The objective here is to get all terms with th.. . ~arnc vari
able on one side of the equals Sign and all constants \\ ithulI!
the variable on the other side of the equals s ign.
EXAMPLE: 9a + 15 ~ na T 34 becollles 'Ia + 15 - 28a
15 =2 ~a 1-3 4-288-15. Notice that both - 2Sa and 15 wcre
added to both ~ ide s of the equal s " ign at the same time. This
results in - llJa = 19 after lik..: terms arc added or subtracted.
o Use the lIlultiplication property of "'qualit~ to make the
coellicient
the variable a I.
EXAMPLE: 19a ~ 19 would be multiplied (In both s ides b)
'l,y (or divided by 10) til get" I in front of the a, so th e
equation would become la 19( _ I/ ,y )or s implya- - I.
oCheck the answer by " ubstituting it Il)r the variable in the
original equation to sec if it works.

or

SOLVING A FIRSTDEGREE
INEQUALITY WITH ONE VARIABLE
Follow the same steps tor solving a first -degree equality as
described above, except for one step in the process. This
exception follows.
o Exception: When applying the multiplication property. the
inequality sign must turn artlund if ~'ou multiplied b~ a
negative number.
EXAMPLES: In 4m > -48, you need to multipl y both ~
sides or the > symbol by II.. Therefore,
J
4m( 1/4 -48( 1/4 ), This results in Ill > 12 . otiee the '>
did not turn around hecause you multipli ed hy a posi
tive 1/4 . However, in 5x > 65. you need to multipl y both
sides by _ 1/5 ' Therefore, 5x( 1/, ) < 65( 1/ 5 ). Thi s re>ldts in
x < 13. Notice the > did turn around and bC'L0111C < becall se
you multiplied by a negative number, _ 1/5'
Check the solution by substituting some Ilumerical \alu..: s
of the variable in the original inequalit y.