Name of presentation

The branch of biology

that deals with the
formation, early
growth, and
development of living
organisms.
Descriptive
embryology
Comparative
embryology
Experimental

embryology
Chemical
embryology
Teratology
Reproductive
biology
Developmental
biology

Concerned
with
understanding
the
basic
structural
pattern
of
the
embryonic body

 Tools: makes use of

techniques
in
serial - sections and
of
making
three - dimensional
wax
plate
reconstruction.
Compares the
development of one
species with that of
another
Provided insight to
the concept that
ontogeny

recapitulates
phylogeny
All v ertebrate embryos
follow a common
developmental path
due to their common
ancestry. All have a
set of very similar
genes (the homeobox
genes) that define
their basic body plan.
As they grow, the
differences that will
distinguish the
embryos as adults
become more and
more apparent.

 Provided
descriptive
information about
the chemical and
physiological
events in an
embryo
Concerned with the
study of
malformations
Deals with

practically oriented
problems involving
techniques of
fertilization and
contraception in
both humans and
domesticated
animals.
It puts heavy
emphasis on
normal
gametogenesis,
endocrinology of

reproduction,
transport of
gametes, early
embryon ic
development, and
implantation of the
mammalian
embryo.
Encompasses not
only embryology,
but even postnatal
processes such as
normal growth,

metamorphosis,
regeneration, and
tissue repair at
levels of
complexity ranging
from the molecular
to the orga nismal.
It focuses on
processes and
concepts rather
than specific
morphological
structures.

 Involves the
conversion of a
single cell, the
fertilized egg, into
a complex
organism

HOW
DOES
DEVELOP
MENT

WORK?
Conversion of germ
plasm into highly
specialized sex cells
(ova & spermatozoa)
capable of uniting at
fertilization and
producing a new
being.
SPERMATOGENESIS
OOGENESIS

 Gametes are formed

from germ cells
Future germ cells
become committed to
their fate at an early
stage of animal
development
In some cases,
cytoplasmic
determinants present
in the egg programs
cells that inherit it to

become germ cells

Associated with a
visible specialization of
the cell called the
GERM PLASM
Found in:
C. elegans polar
granules
D. melanogaster
pole plasm
Xenopus vegetally
localized germ plasm
rich in mitochondria

During embryonic

development, germ
cells undergo a period
of multiplication, then
migration
In mid-development,
sex determination is
made
In post embryonic
development, gamete
formation is done.
MEIOSIS
Takes place in sex cells
Produces 4 daughter cells

that are haploid

Used to produce haploid
cells
Includes 2 successive cell
division
Includes cytokinesis
Has 4 phases: Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, and
Telophase

EARLY
DEVELOP
MENT

 a process, not a
single event, that
begins when a sperm
cell
first
makes
contact
with
the
coverings of the egg
and ends with the
intermingling
of
maternal
and
paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase
plate
prior to the first
cleavage division.

Important
components:

 Initial
contact
egg and

membrane
between
sperm

Sperms come in
contact with the
jelly coat
motility is
increased.
acrosome
reaction is
stimulated.

Important
components:
Entry of the sperm
cell into the egg

Important

components:
Prevention of
polyspermy by the
egg
fertilization of
the egg by more
than one sperm;
will result to
polypoidy and
early disruption
of the development
and death of the
embryo

Important
components:
metabolic
activat ion of the

egg
activates a
program of events
patterned in the
egg.
these events
prepare the egg for
the main event in
fertilization:
the fusion of the
genetic material
from the egg and
the sperm.

5. Completion of
meiosis by the egg

Important
components:
6. Formation and

fusion of male and

female pronuclei,
leading to the first
cleavage division

Leads to the
formation of a
zygote.
The rapid mitotic div
ision of a zygote
with decrease in siz
e of individual cells
or blastomere s and
the formation of a

morula.
The
one
cell
embryo undergoes a
series of cleavage
divisions,
progressing
through
2 - cell,
4 - cell, 8 - cell and
16 cell stages.
The
cells
in
cleavage
stage
embryos are known
as blastomeres.
Soon

after

development of the
8 - cell or 16 - cell
embryo (depending
on the species),
the
blastomeres
begin
to
form
tight
junctions
with one another,
leading
to
the
formation
of
a
mulberry - shaped
mass
of
cells
called a morula .
change in shape of
the
embry o
is
called

compaction .
Stage of genetic
maternal effects.
The properties of
the
cleavage - stage
embryo
depends
entirely on the
genotype of the
mother and not of
the embryo
embryo s own genome
remains
inactive
during part or all
of the cleavage
phase
protein synthesis

is directed by mRNA
transcribed
during
oogenesis
(maternal mRNA)

Patterns
Cleavage:

of

1.
Holoblastic
cleavage : occurs in
isolecithal
eggs
(mammals,
sea
urchins).
The
entire
egg
is
cleaved during each
division.
2.
Meroblastic
cleavage
occurs
when eggs have a lot

of yolk. The egg does

not
divide
completely at each
division.
Two
types:

Patterns
Cleavage:

of

Two types:
a.
Discoidal
cleavage is limited
to a small disc of
cytoplasm at the
animal pole. All of
the
yolk
filled
cytoplasm fails to
cleave
(characteristic of

telolecithal
eggs
such as birds).

Patterns
Cleavage:

of

Two types:
b.
Superficial
cleavage is limited
to a thin surface
area of cytoplasm
that
covers
the
entire
egg.
The
inside of the egg
that is filled with
yolk fails to cleave
(centrolecithal
eggs
such
as
insects).

 consist of layers
of
blastomeres,
known
as
the
bla stoderm , which
surrounds
a
cavity,
the
blastocoele
In
mammals
the
blastula
is
referred to as a
blastocyst .
a
significant
amount of activity
occurs within the

early embryo to
establish
cell
polarity,
cell
specification,
axis
formation,
and regulate ge ne
expression.
the mid blastula
transition (MBT)
is a crucial step
in
development
since the maternal
mRNA is degraded
and control over
development
is

passed
embryo.

to

the

C haracterized by the
morphogenetic
movements of cells
that creates the 3
ger m
layers:
the
ectoderm,
mesoderm,
and
endoderm
Each layer gives
rise
to
specific
tissues and organs
in the developing

embryo.

Laying
down
of
body plan of the
embryo: region of
cells committed to
become
a
particular
body
part;
not
yet
differentiated
Phylotypic stage
stage
at
which
different members
of an animal group
show
maximum
similarity to each

other.
Radially
symmetrical

unfertilized egg
Cytoplasmic
rearrangement
creates
bilateral
symmetry
Occurs
fertilization

Change
symmetry
establishes

after

of
the

dorsal
side

an

ventral

Establishment
of
meridional
planes
occur
after
the
formation
of
bilateral symmetry
Medial
(sagittal)
plane divides the
right and the left
side;
often
the
plane of the first
cleavage

 Frontal plane the

meridional
plane
at right angle to
the first; often the
plane of the 2 nd
cleavage
Anteroposterior
plane
(craniocaudal
or
rostrocaudal)

head to tail axis;

occurs
after
gastrulation

 Dorsoventral
top - bottom axes
Mediolateral
left - right axes

Principal
body
parts
become
visible
after
completion
of
gastrulation.
Segmentation
occurs first at the

anteroposterior
axis.
Situs
solitus
asymmetrical
arrangement
body parts

of

Sets of genes whose

expressions
control
the
state
of
commitment
of
different cells.
The entire group of
processes that mold

the
external
and
internal
configuration of an
embryo
Encode
transcriptional
factors
whose
function is regulating
the activity of other
genes.

concerned with the

shapes of tissues,
organs and entire

organisms and the

positions
of
the
various specialized
cell types
Throughout
these
processes,
cell
movements,
rearrangements,
and shape changes
contribute to the
final
form
tha t
defines the tissues,
organ, or organism.

 PATTERN

FORMATION laying
down of the
morphogenetic
blueprint
o Example:
Antero - posterior
axes patter ning in
Drosophila
melanogaster
Morphogenesis of the
fruit fly Drosophila
melanogaster starts
with the construction
of asymmetries within

the oocyte and

proceeds to patter n
for mation along the
embryonic axes

Process
where
the
effect
of
one
embryonic tissue (the
inductor/source)
on
another is so that the
developmental

course
of
the
responding tissue is
qualitatively changed
from what it would
have been in the
absence
of
the
inductor.
Example: formation of
eye lens as a result of
the inductive action
of the optic cup.

When t he inducing
factors can illicit
more
than
one

threshold responses
that brings about
the formation of a
complex
pattern
in one step.
Gradient
controls
the
types
of
territories,
their
sequence
in
space,
and
the
overall orientation
or polarity of the
ser ies
of
new
structures.

 To
set
up
a
concentration
gradient,
a
continuous pulse of
morphogens should
be produced from
a
source
and
destroyed in a sink.
2 important
properties of
concentration
gradient

 Should be able to
divide the competent
zone of cells into
several states of
commitment by
means of threshold
responses
It should be able to
impart polarity and
pattern to the
responding tissue

One that can

convert one body
part into another.

 May happen if:

a 2 nd gene in the
series cannot be
turned on. In this
case, the 2 nd body
segment will
become a duplicate
of the 1 st body
segment. Fate of
the 3 rd segment
cannot be
predicted
(loss - of - function
homeotic mutation);
will produce

anteriorizat ion

May happen if:

a 2 nd gene in the
series is always
turned on. In this
case, the 1 st body
segment becomes a
copy of the 2 nd
body segment. The
head will have an
abnormal coding
(gain - of - function
homeotic mutation);
will produce

posteriorization

Genes that encode

transcription
factors
Encode a
sequence of 60
basic amino acids
which form their
DNA binding
domain
(homeodomain)
Mostly concerned
with development

 Genes that are

responsible for
determining the
anteroposterior
identity of bod y
levels.
Activated at an
early stage in
body - plan
formation
Maximally
expressed around
the phylotypic

stage
Expressed in both
CNS and mesoderm
Includes
movements and
changes in cell
shape
Achieved through
gastrulation
CELL MOVEMENT
o Important in
migration,
differential adhesion

or shape change
o Evident in fibroblasts
with lamellipodium,
embryo cells with
filopodia, cells that
use motor proteins

CELL ADHESION
o An important
property of
embryonic
structures wher e like
cells tend to stick
together and sort
out from cells of a

different kind.
o FUNCTIONS:

hold together
components of solid
tissues
important for the
function of migratory
cells
important during
embryonic
development for the
process of
morph ogenesis

CELL ADHESION
o Ca - mediated

adhesion
Calcium ions bind
glycoproteins
protruding from
the surface of two
adjacent cells
Cadherin the
glycoprotein
involved in this
type of adhesion
1. E - cadherin
(uvomorulin or
L - CAM) found in
many types of
epithelial cells and

cleaving mammalian
embryos

CELL ADHESION
o Ca - mediated
adhesion
2. N - cadherin
found on cells of
the heart, lens, and
nerves, and is also
expressed in the
mesodermal cells
of embryos during
gastrul ation and
morphogenesis;

expressed in the
neural cells and the
mesenchymal cells
like fibroblasts;
associated with cell
motility and
invasion.

CELL ADHESION
o Ca - mediated
adhesion
3. P - cadherin found
on the placenta
and certain
epithelial cells;

engaged in various
cellular activities
including motility,
invasion, and
signaling of tumor
cells, in addition to
cell adhesion.
In the absence of
calcium, exposed
cadherins are
subjected to
proteolysis.

CELL ADHESION
o Homophilic binding

 B inding between
like molecules
Involves N - CAM
(neural cell
adhesion
molecule)
N - CAM molecules
of adjacent cells
bind directly with
one another in the
absence of
calcium
Involved in a
number of
morphogenetic

events during
embryogenesis

CELL ADHESION
o Heterophilic binding
Lock and key
fashion between
complementary
saccharides
Occurs during
mammalian
fertilization, when
the head of a
spermatozoon
encounters the

membrane (zona
pellucida)
surrounding the
egg.

CELL ADHESION
o Tight junction
seal adjacent
epithelial cells
form fluid - tight
seals between
cells like that in a
Ziploc bag thus
forming an

impermeable
barrier to the
outside.
Common among
epithelial cells
that line the
stomach, intestine,
and urinary
bladder.

CELL ADHESION
o Tight junction
They prevent fluid
in a cavity from
leaking into the

body by passing
between cells.
block movement
of integral
membrane
proteins between
the apical and
basolateral
surfaces of the
cell.

CELL ADHESION
o Adherens junction

 built from:
cadherins transmembrane
proteins whose
extracellular
segments bind to
each other and
whose intracellular
segments bind to
catenins
catenins connected to
actin
microfilaments of
the cytoskeleton

 CELL ADHESION
o Adherens junction
provide strong
mechanical
attachments
between adjacent
cells by
connecting to the
microfilaments of
the cytoskeleton.

 hold cardiac
muscle cells tightly
together as the
heart expands
and contracts.

CELL ADHESION
o Adherens junction
May anchor cells
to extracellular
matrix.

 May be
responsible for
contact inhibition.
Loss of functioning
adherens junctions
may also lead to
tumor metastasis.

CELL ADHESION
o Desmosomes

 Localized patches
that hold two cells
tightly together in
small spots.
common in
epithelia (e.g., the
skin).
serve as focal
points for the
attachment of
intermediate
filaments

 CONDENSATION
INVAGINATION
INVOLUTION
CAVITATION
DELAMINATION
CONVERGENT
EXTENSION
PLANAR CELL
POLARITY

 EPIBOLY
BRANCHING
MORPHOGENESIS

Growth involves
cell division
Apoptosis
programmed cell

death
Involves a
molecular pathway
that culminates in
the activation of
proteases c alled
caspases

May consist of short

migrations by individual cells

or massive dislocation of
groups of cells (ex. Epithelial
cells)

 Examples: migration of neural

crest cells, spreading out of

mesodermal cells, movement
of epithelial cells

process by which cells

commit suicide; it is repeated

in the embryo a number of
times

a form of programmed cell

death

Genetically determined.
involves a series of

biochemical events leading

to variety of morphological

changes, like changes to the

cell membrane such as loss of
membrane asymmetry and
attachment, cell shrinkage,
nuclear fragmentation,
chromatin condensation,
and chromosomal DNA
fragmentation.

FUNCTIONS:
1. Cell Termination.
o Occur when a cell is damaged
beyond repair, infected with a
virus, or undergoing stress
conditions such as starvation.
o DNA damage from ionizing
radiation or toxic chemicals
may induce apoptosis via the
actions of the

tumour-suppressing gene p53.

o The "decision" for apoptosis can
come from the cell itself, from
the surrounding tissue, or from a
cell that is part of the immune
system.

FUNCTIONS:
1. Cell Termination.

o In these cases apoptosis

functions to remove the
damaged cell, preventing it
from sapping further nutrients
from the organism, or to prevent
the spread of viral infection.
o Apoptosis also plays a role in
preventing cancer

FUNCTIONS:
2. Homeostasis.

o To keep the number of cells

relatively constant through cell
death and division. Cells must
be replaced when they
become diseased or
malfunctioning; but proliferation
must be compensated by cell
death. Required by living
organisms to maintain their
internal states within certain
limits.
o Consequence of disrupting
homeostasis:
if cells are dividing faster than they
die, a tumor is developed.
if cells are dividing slower than
they die, a cell loss disorder results.

FUNCTIONS:
3. Development.

o Development of an organ or
tissue is often preceded by the
extensive division and
differentiation of a particular
cell, the resultant mass is then
"pruned" into the correct form
by apoptosis.
o During development, apoptosis
is tightly regulated and different
tissues use different signals for
inducing apoptosis. Bone
morphogenetic proteins (BMP)
signaling is used to induce
apoptosis in the interdigital
tissue.

Increase in mass
Embryos exhibit differential
growth (unproportional

increase in dimensions)
Major patterns in animals:
1. Determinate growth Body grows to a point that is
characteristic of the species
then ceases
2. Indeterminate growth Growth continues throughout
the lifespan but reduced rate