Spe Concretes, ‘Modem concrete mix designs ean be complex. The design of a conerete, or the way the weights of the components ofa concrete is determined, is specified by the requirements of the project and the various local building codes and regulations. The design begins by determining the "durability" requirements of the concrete. These requirements take into consideration the weather conditions that the concrete will be exposed to in service, and the required design strength. The compressive strength of a conerete is determined by taking standard molded, standard-cured cylinder samples. Many factors need to be taken into account, from the cost of the various additives and aggregates, to the trade offs between, the "slump" for easy mixing and placement and ultimate performance mix is then designed using cement (Portland or ather cementitious material), coarse and fine aggregates, water and chemical admixtures. The method of mixing, will also be specified, as well as conditions that it may be used in. This allows a user of the concrete to be confident that the structure will perform properly. ‘Various types of concrete have been developed for specialist application and have become known by these names. Sprayed Concrete There are many applications where traditional formwork is not a suitable method of supporting concrete and so sprayed concretes.can be used. ‘These applications include: Shell roofs and domes Retaining walls Piled wall facings Silo structures Diaphragm walls Blast proof structures Bank vaults ‘Underground Construction ‘Tunnel linings Free form structures such as those seen in theme parks Water Retaining Structures: Sea and river walls Reservoirs and dams Aqueducts ‘Swimming pools* UGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE © Lightweight concrete is manufactured not only on account of its lightweight but also due to high thermal insulation compared with normal concrete. The self weight of conventional concrete is high. Density of normal concrete varies from 2200 to 2600 kg/m3. Due ta heavy weight, conventional concrete becomes an uneconomical structural material to some extent particularly ‘for high rise buildings. The density of lightweight concrete varies fram 300 to 1850 kg/m3. Lightweight concrete is prepared from the following materials. Binding Material Different types of cements can be used as binding material. The materials such as lime-slag, lime-cinder, ete. can also be used as binding material. = Ansrenates © The loose porous materials are used 25 aggregates for lightweight concrete. The natural porous _gpregates can be obtained by crushing light-weight ocks. The artificial porous aggregates canbe btained from industrial wastes + Steet! © As lightweight concrete is highty porous, the corrosion ef reinfarcament takes place, if nat properly patected. Hence, the lightweight cancrate should be made sufficiently dense when used for RCC work. Sometimes. the reinforcement is coated with anti-corrosive treatments, when lightweight concrets + Water # The strength of lightweight concrete mainly depends on the amount of water in the concrete mix. The use of potable water is necessary to prepare light weight concrete. The water-cement ratio should be carefully calculated to achieve optimum strength of lightweight concrete. When water content reaches its optimum value: there is corresponding increase in the strength of lightweight concrete. + Advantages © Following are the advantages of lightweight concrete : (a) The use of lightweight concrete results in the reduction of cost to the extent of about 30 to AK. © (b} The reduction in weight of concrete helps easy removal, transport and erection of pre-cast products. ‘© (c) The lightweight concrete can be propared by using the local industrial waste, if found ‘suitable, ‘© (d) The lightweight concrete has greater fire resistance as compared to the ordinary concrete. © (e) The sound absorption coefficient of the lightweight concrete is about twice that of the ‘ordinary concrete. The sound absorption of lightweight concrete is good because the air-borne used. ‘sound energy is converted into heat in the small channels of the concrete. © (f) The lightweight concrete has generally 2 lawer thermal expansion than ordinary concrete. © (g) The lightweight concrate increases the progress of construction werk. © Limitations © Following are the limitations ef lightweight concrete :© (a) The depth of carbonation, Le. the depth within which corrosion can occur under suitable conditions, is nearly twice than that of normal concrete. Hence, special care will have to be taken to provide sufficient cover to the reinforcement of the lightweight structures to take protection against corrosion. *# (b) The lightweight concrete has less strength as compared to the ordinary concrete. © (c) The lightweight concrete produces a harsh mix, therefore itis of low workability. + (d) Mixed design pracedures are not well established for the lightweight concrete. * Production © The various methods of producing fightwaight concrete depend on : © (a) The formation of air voids in the concrete by omitting Fine aggregates called as No-fine concrete © (0) The formation of air voids in a cement paste by the addition of some substance which causes a foam called as Aerated or Cellular or Gas or Foamed concrete. * (c) The presence of air voids in the aggregate called as Lightweight aggregate concrete. * Types Following are the types of lightweight concrete: * (a) Lightweight aggregate concrete # (6) No-fines concrete © (c)Airents © Light weight Aggregate Concrete © Lightweight aggregates can be classified intertwo categories namely natural lightweight aggregates and artificial ightweight aggregates. Following are the examples of natural lightweight aggregates. © (a) Rice husk —(b}Pumice (c) Voleanic cinders {d) Diatomite (e) Sawdust _(F) Scoria d concrete * Follawing are the examples of artificial ight weight aggregates. © (a) Thermocole beads (bb) Artificial cinders (c} Expanded perlite (d) Coke breeze fe) Foamed slag (f) Exfoliated vermiculite (g) Sintered fly ash (h) Expanded shales and state (i) Bloated clay. ‘© Natural ightwoight aggregates are not found in many places. They are also not of uniform quality. Therofore, thay are not used widely in making lightweight concrete. Pumice is the onty natural lightweight aggregate which is ured widely, Lightweight aggregate cancrete is made by tho use-of ightwoight aggregates. + Ditterent lightwoight aggregates have differont densities. Strength of lightwoight concrete depends on the density of concrete. Less porous aggregate which is heavier in weight produces stronger concrete particularly with higher cement content. The grading of aggregate. the water- cement ratio and the degree af compaction also affect the strength of concrete. Lightweight aggregate concrete exhibits higher moisture movement than the narmal concrete. Cancrete ‘while wetting swells more and while drying shrinks mare. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrote made with lightweight aggregate is generally much lower than ordinary conerete.© No-fines Concrete © This concrete is obtained by omitting fine aggregate fram the mix so that there is an agglomeration of nominally one-size coarse aggregate particles, each surrounded by a coating of cement paste up to about 1.3 mm thick. There exists, therefore, large pores within the body of ‘the concrete, theirlarge size means that no capillary mavement of water can take place and consequently the rate of water penetration is low. © The density of no-fines concrete depends primarily on the grading of the aggregate for agiven type of the aggregate. With one-size aggregate, the density is about 10% lower than when well- graded aggregate of the same specific gravity is used. The usual aggregate size is 10 to 20 mm. No-fines concrete campacts very little as compared to ardinary concrete, The compressive strangth of no-fines concrete varies generally from 1.£ MPa to 14 MPa. * Air-entrained Concrete © The cement concrete, prepared by mixing aluminium in it, is called air entrained or cellular or aerated or gas or foamed concrete. Following are the types of air entrained concrete © GasConcrete © itis obtained by mixing finely divided aluminum powder in cement matrix, A chemical reaction ‘takes place with hydroxide or alkali or calcium, It liberates hydrogen which forms the bubbles. Hydrogan peroxide can also be used which generates oxygen. © Foamed Concrete © Its produced by adding foaming agent tothe mia. It introduces and stabilizes air bubbles during mixing at high speed. © Airentrained concrete may nat contain the aggregate. Powdered zinc can also be used in this, concrete. Depending upon density. strength and thermal conductivity also vary. Mixes have densities between 480 ky/m3 to 1120 kg/m3 © Cellular concrete has a high thermal shrinkage and moisture movement. These can be minimized by high pressure steam curing. it also increases the compressive strength of concrete. Cellular concrete offers betterfire resistance than ordinary concrete. It has good resistance to frost. ‘= Cellular concrete is mostly suited for partitions for heat insulation purposes due to its low ‘thermal conductivity and for fire proofing. = HEAVY CONCRETE ‘© Heavy concrete is also called as heavy-weight concrete or high density conerete. Heavy concrete can be produced by using specially heavy weight aggregates and compacting well by mechanical means. Both natural and artificial heavy aggregates are available. The high density aggregates are heavy iron ores such as magnesite or haematite, etc. Fine natural sand is used as fine aggregate. The density of such concrete is around 3400 kg/m3. The heavy aggregate is crushed to produce a fine material and this is used as a fine aggregate instead of sand to produce extra heavy concrete. Stee! shots and iron punching are the artificial aggregates. Artificial aggregate used should be free from oil, which prevents bond.© Theartificial aggregates are very costly compared to natural aggregates. Heavy concrete produced from artificial aggregates may have a density of about 5500 kg/m3 The density of heavy weight concrete varies from 3360 to 5280 kg/m3. Heavy weight concretes can be suitably used for gravity dams, retaining walls or speci atomic power plants, vessels, etc. It is also suited for preparing counterbalance weights. for lift bridges and ballast blocks for ships, where the high density of heavy concrete reduces the volume of concrete required fo produce the same dead weight, leading to economy... High-performance concrete High-performance concrete (HPC) and Ultra-high-performance concrete are relatively new terms used to describe concrete that conforms toa set of standards above those of the most common applications, but not limited to strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high- performance, not all high-performance concrete is high-strength. Notable concrete-mixtures are: Ductal, concrete mixed with titanium oxide, ... Some examples of such standards currently used in relation to HPC are: + Ease of placement + Compaction without segregation Early age strength Long-term mechanical properties Permeability Density Heat of hydration ‘Toughness Volume stability Long life in severe environments Depending on its implementation, environmental “The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern times, ‘with large scale research being carried out at Columbia University in New York. This ‘greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of the concrete, Recent research findings have shown that concrete made with recycled glass aggregates have shown better long term strength and better thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass ‘aggregates Polymer Concrete(PC)In polymer concrete, thermosetting resins are used as the principal polymer component due to their high thermal stability and resistance to a wide variety of chemicals, Polymer concrete is also composed of aggregates that include silica, quartz, granite, limestone, and other high quality material. The aggregate must be of good quality, free of dust and other debris, and dry, Failure of these criteria can reduce the bond strength between the polymer binder and the aggregate. Uses: Polymer concrete may be used for new construction or repairing of old concrete. The adhesion properties of polymer concrete allow patching for both polymer and cementitious concretes. The low permeability af polymer concrete allows it to be used in swimming pools, sewer pipes, drainage channels, electrolytic cells for base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids. It can also be used as a replacement for asphalt pavement, for higher durability and higher strength. Advantages of polvmer concrete include: «Rapid curing at ambient temperatures + High tensile, flexural, and compressive strengths * Good adhesion to most surfaces © Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles + Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions * Good chemical resistance + Good resistance against corrosion © Lightweight «May be used in regular wood and steel formwork May be vibrated to fill voids in forms Allows use of regular form-release agents Disadvantages: ‘Some safety issues arise out of the use of polymer concrete. The monomers can be volatile, combustible, and toxic. Initiators, which are used as catalysts, are combustible and harmful to human skin. The promoters and accelerators are also dangerous.Polymer concretes also cost significantly more than conventional concrete Geopolymet green concrete Geopolymer concrete is a greener alternative to ondinary Portland cement made from inorganic aluminosilicate (AL-Si) polymer compounds that can utilise 100% recyeled industrialwaste (e.g fly ash and slag) as the manufacturing inputs resulting in up to 80% lower carbon dioxide emissions. Greater chemical and thermal resistance, and better mechanical properties, are said to be achieved by the manufacturer at both atmospheric and extreme conditions Elber-reinforced concrete (FRC): It is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers each of which lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of fiber-reinforced concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation, and densities Effects of fiber in concrete: Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying shrinkage. They also reduce thepermeability of conerete and thus reduce bleeding of water, Some types of fibers produce greater impact- abrasion and shatter-resistance in concrete, Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, and so cannot replace moment-resisting orstructural steel reinforcement. Indeed, some fibers actually reduce the strength of concrete. The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the composite (concrete and fibers), termed "volume fraction” (Vi). Vs typically ranges from 0.1 to 3%. The aspect ratio (Ud) is calculated by dividing fiber length (1) by its diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio, Ifthe fiber's modulus of elasticity is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material, Increasing the aspect ratio of the fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibers that are too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create workability problems, Benefits Pol Jene and Nylon fibers + Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances + Improve freeze-thaw resistance + Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire«Improve impact resistance + Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing ‘Steel fbers cam: «Improve structural strength © Reduce steel reinforcement requirements «Improve ductility + Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability + Improve impact and abrasion-resistance: + Improve freeze-thaw resistance Blends of both steel and polymeric fibers are often used in construction projects in order to combine the benefits of both products; structural improvements provided by steel fibers and the resistance to explosive spalling and plastic shrinkage improvements provided by polymeric fibers. COLCRETE Colcrete is grouted and is generally suitable for underwater. It is made by introducing co grout into the voids of pre-placed coarse aggregates by injection method. The surface area of coarse ‘aggregate in 1 m3 of concrete amounts to about 68800 m? in the conventional concrete of 1:2: 4 mix. Practically, itis difficult to wet and activate the above area Properties, {a} The separation of smaller particies of cement is achieved efficiently. (bj It makes it nearly immiscible in water. It prevent aggregation of sand and reduces bleeding to a {c) ts uidity permitsit to be pumped to considerable distances to the point of placement. (d) Every particle of cement in the mixis completely wetted. The cement is thoroughly mixed with other constituents. ee The materials for colerete are : (a) Water, {b) Coment,(e) Sand, (d) Coarse aggregate (e} Admixtures. Water Water should have the same properties as the mixing water far conventional concrete. Cement All cements as per IS specifications are suitable for colerete work, Send The grading of sand should be continuous without gap. It should not have excess of larger, medium or ‘smaller particles as these have predominant effect on the strength of colcrete. The percentage of ‘oversize should be less than 586. The fineness madulus of sand should not vary more than plus or minus 0.10. Coarse 2 The size of coarse aggregate should not be less than 40 mm and more than 5 % by weight of the particles smaller than this specified size. The coarse aggregate acceptable for concrete may be used for colcrete, Admixtures ‘Adimixtures like surkhi fyash, pumice, pozzolanas.can be incorporated in the mix to substitute cement. On ignition, flyash should nat show 8 %% loss. Properties Following are the properties of colcrete {a} Colerete-has higher strength. (b) The compressive strength of cube increases with the increase in mixing time. It becomes unworkable after a total mixing time of 90 seconds. (c) The strength decreases by about 205 when dirty aggregates are used. (d) The use of very coarse sand is not beneficial in colgrout works although compressive strength increases with fineness modulus.{e) When fineness modulus of sand is between 1.5 to 2.2, bleeding is minimum. It increases bath ways with increase or decrease of fineness modulus. (1) The compressive strength af colcrete reduces by the use of elongated and flat aggregates. (g) Sand-cement ratio increases with the increase in water-cement ratio. It is more true in case of fine sand than coarse sand. VACUUM CONCRETE High water-cement ratio is harmful to the quality of concrete and low watercement ratiodoes ot give sufficient workability. In concreting thin sections like stab and walls a fluid mix with water- cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.85 is required to facilitate the placing and compaction, Such a mix will have relatively low strength and poor abrasion resistance. In such situations, the vacuum treatment of concrete, involving the remaval of excess water and air by using suctian can be helpful The process, when properly applied, produces concrete of good quality. It also permits removal of formwork at an early age to be used in other repetitive work. The equipment consists of a vacuum pump, water separator and filtering mat. The duration of treatment depends upon the water-cement. ratio and the quantity of water to be removed. It generally ranges from 1 to 15 minutes for slabs varying inthickness from 25 mm to 125 mm. The vacuum treatment isnot very effective far water-cement ratios below 0.4, The vibration of concrete before vacuum treatment can assist the process. The application of vibration simultaneausly with vacuum treatment after initial vibration is very defective. Vibration beyond 90 s may damage the structure of concrete and hence the vibrations should be stopped beyond this period and only vacuum needs to be applied for the remaining duration of the treatment. Vacuum-trested concrete pravides'a good bond with the underlying concrete. The vacuum treatment has been found to considerably reduce the time af final finishing of floor and stripping of wall forms, The strength of concrete and its resistance to wear and abrasion increases and total shrinkage is reduced. Vacuum treatment can be effectively used in the resurfacing and repair of road pavements, Vacuum concrete has been extensively used for factory production of plain and reinforced concrete Units. It is also used in construction of horizontal and sloping cancrete stabs, such as floor slabs, road and air pavements, thin load-bearing and partition wall, MASS CONCRETE ‘Mass concrete can be defined as concrete which is placed in massive structures like dams, canal locks, bridge piers, etc. A large size aggregate (up to 150mm maximum size) and a low slump are adapted to reduce the quantity of cement in the mix to about 5 bags per cubic meter of mass concrete. The mix is relatively harsh and dry and hence requires pawer vibrators of the immersion type for compaction. This concrete is generally placed in open forms. The heat of hydration may lead to a considerable rise of temperature because of the large mass of the concrete. It results in extensive and serious shrinkage cracks. These shrinkage cracks can be prevented by using low cements and placed bycontinuous proper curing of concrete. Placing the concrete in shorter lifts and allowing several days before the placement of the next lift of concrete can help in the dissipation of heat. Circulation of cold water through the pipes buried in the concrete mass may prove useful Alternatively, where possible, concreting can be done in the winter seasan such that the peak temperature in concrete can be lowered, or the aggregates may be cooled before use. Mass concrete develops relatively high strength during the first manth because of the temperature rise due to heat of hydration. At later periods, the strength will be fess than that of a continuously cured concrete at normal temperatures. The volume changes of mass concrete during setting and hardening are very small but large creep can occur a later ages. High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete Fly ash, a principal by-product of the coal-fired power plants, is well accepted as a pozzolanic ‘material that may be usad either as a companent of blended portland cements or as a mineral admixture in concrate. In commercial practice, the dosage of fly ash is limited to 159%-20% by mass of the total cementitious materi Usually, this amount has a beneficial effect on the workability and cost economy of concrete but it may not be enough to sufficiently improve the durability to sulfate attack, alkali-silica expansion, and thermal cracking. For this purpose. larger amounts of fly ash. on the order of 2596-35% are being used. Although 25%-35% fly ash by mass of the cementitious material is considerably higher than 158-2056, this is not high enough to classify the mixtures as HVFA concrete according to the definition proposed by Mathotra and Mehta (3). From theoretical considerations and practical experience the authors have determined that, with 5036 or more cement replacement by fly ash, it is possible to produce sustainable, highperformance concrete mixtures that show high workability, high ultimate strength, and high durability. The characteristics ining a HVFA concrete mixture + Minimum of 50% of fly ash by mass of the cementitious materials must be maintained. + Low water content. generally less than 130 kg/m3 is mandatory. + Cement content, generally no more than 200kg/m3 is desirable. ‘= For concrete mixtures with specified 28-day compressive strength of 30 MPa or higher, slumps >150 mm, and water-to-cementitious materials ratio of the order of 0.30, the use of high-range water- reducing admixtures (superplasticizers) is mandatory. * For concrete exposed to freezing and thawing environments, the use of an air-entraining admixture resulting -void spacing factor is mandatory. adequate a‘= For concrete mixtures with slumps less than 150 mm and 28-day compressive strength of less than 30 MPa, HVFA concrete mixtures with a water-to-cementitious materials ratio of the order of 0.40 may be used without superplasticizers, Epoxy Resins: Epoxy resins are adhesives used in construction, home repair and maintenance as well as the metal working industries. A catalyzing agent is used to harden the resin into an adhesive, Epoxy resins have many unique properties, making them as versatile as they are useful, Epoxy, also known as polyepoxide, is a thermosettingpolymer formed from reaction of an epoxide "resin" with polyamine "hardener". Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including fiber-reinforced plastic materials and general purpose adhesives. Epoxy is a copolymer: that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" or "compound" and the “hardener” or “activator”. The resin consists of ‘monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A. though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals ‘ropertics and Applications of epoxy resi The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and other thermosettingresins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic), ‘The chemistry of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations allows cure polymers to be produced with a very broad range of properties. In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties. Many properties of epoxies can be modified (for example silver-filled epoxies with good electrical conductivity are available, although epoxies are typically electrically insulating). Variations offering high thermal insulation, or thermal conductivity combined with high electrical resistance for electronics applications, are available Screed: litation: screed is a flat board. or a purpose made aluminium tool, used to smooth concrete after it has been placed on a surface. Also used to assist in leveling the application of plaster. In the UK, screed is a thin, top layer of material (traditionally sand and cement), poured in situ om top of the structural concrete or insulation, om top of which other finishing materials can be applied, or itcan be left bare to achieve an effect similar to that in buildings,Itis becoming more common to use "self levelling" poured screeds which use materials other than cement as their binder. A recent development in the UK is the delivery, mixing, and pumping of screed from a single vehicle. Where previously screed jobs required a separate pump to administer the screed, these new machines can now administer the screed directly from the mixing pan to the floor at a range of up to 60 metres. Screeding is leveling and smoothing the top layer of a material that is poured, such as concrete, so the material is the same height as the forms, or guides, that surround it, Whilescreeding concrete is a common example used in gardening and home improvement, one can also use the concept of screeding in the kitchen. When a person measures a cup of flour, then uses a knife to smooth the top, the flour is compacted and has a smooth top layer. This is sereeding in its basic form. The most common use of screeding is in gardening and landscaping, applications, such as building a back patio. The contractor pours eoncrete into the pre-set forms or guide and allows it to fill toa certain height. Screeding must be done after this step to ensure the concrete area will be level when it dries. To do this properly, one must use-a tool that is larger than the guides and slowly move it over the guides. At the same time, the tool must be moved in a back and forth motion while sereeding to level and smooth the concrete. Emerging trends in it of fine ies: 1.The Use of Sheet Glass Powder as Fine Aggregate Replacement in Concrete: For a given mix,the water requirement decreases as the SGP content increases. The compressive strength of cubes and cylinders of the concrete for all mix increases as the % of ‘SGP increases but decreases as the-age of curing increases due to alkali silica reaction. The Tensile strength of cubes and cylinders of the concrete for all mix increases than that of conventional concrete age of curing and decreases as the SGP content increases, ‘The Flexural strength of the beam of concrete for all mix increases with age of curing and decreases as the SGP content increases. 100% replacement of SGP in concrete showed better results than that of conventional concrete at 28 days and 45 days curing but later it started to decrease its strength because of its alkali silica reactions The density of SGP concrete is more that of conventional concrete, SGP is available in significant quantities as a waste and can be utilized for making concrete. This will goa long way to reduce the quantity of waste in our environment. The optimum replacement level in fine aggregate with SGP is 10%. 2 of waste, artial replacement for fine ate In concrete. With the replacement of waste glass for fine aggregate the flexural and compressive strength of concrete can be improved, Also the workavility of concrete will be higher than that of conventional concrete.3.Palm Kernel Shells as a Partial replacement for Coarse Aggregate In Asphalt Concrete: 1. Palm kernel shells can be used as partial replacement for coarse aggregate up to 10% for heavily trafficked roads and 50% for light trafficked roads. 2. For the very lightly trafficked roads in the rural communities palm kernel shells can be used as full replacement for the coarse aggregates. This will go a long way into reducing construction and maintenance casts of these roads. 3. The quest by governments in developing countries, especially those in Africa south of the Sahara for use of locally available materials in infrastructure development will be met with the use of palm kernel shells as a road construction material 4, The economic power of the rural dwellers will be enhanced if they are encouraged to plant palm trees from which these shells could be gotten 4. Effect pat cement with Class F fly ash on the mechani les of aaa 1.Compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity of fineaggregate (sand) replaced fly ash concrete specimens were higher than the plain concrete (control mix) specimens at all the ages. The strength differential between the fly ash concrete specimens and plain concrete specimens became more distinct after 28 days. 2.Compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity of fineaggregate (sand) replaced fly ash concrete continued to increase with age for all fly ash. percentages. 3.The maximum compressive strength occurs with 50% fly ash content at all ages. It is 40.0 MPa at 28 days, S14 MPa at 91 days, and $4.8 MPa at 365 days. 4.At all the ages, the maximum splitting teasile strength was observed with 50% fly ash content. Itis 3.5 MPa at 28 days, 4.3 MPa at 91 days, and 4.4 MPa at 365 days. 5:The maximum flexural strength has been found to occur with 50% fly ash content at all ages. It is4.3 MPaat 28 days, 5.2 MPa at 91 days, and 5.4 MPa at 365 days. 6.At all ages, the maximum value of modulus of elasticity occurs with 50% fly ash content. It is 24.5 GPa at 28 days, 28.0 GPa at 91 days, and 29.0 GPa at 365 days. 7.Results of this investigation suggest that Class F fly ash could be very conveniently used in structural concrete,‘S.Use of copper slag as a replacement for fine aggregate In reinforced concrete slender columns: The use of copper slag as a replacement for fine aggregate in construction will reduce damage to the environment due to the waste resulting from the copper manufacturing process and help in saving natural resources. Increasing the copper slag beyond this ratio accelerates the buckling, which leads to premature (before steel yields) failure load and a larger deflection.