Flexible Pavement

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16
Introduction
1.1
Importance of Transport
1.1.1Importance
a. Makes available
producers:
raw
materials
to
manufacturers
or
Transport makes it possible to carry raw materials from places where

they are available, to places
Where they can be processed and assembled into finished goods.
b. Makes available goods to customers:
Transport makes possible movement of goods from one place to
another with great ease and speed. Thus, consumers spread in
different parts of the country have the benefit of consuming goods
produced at distant places.
c. Enhances standard of living:
Easy means of transport facilitates large-scale production at low costs.
It gives consumers the choice to make use of different quantities of
goods at different prices. So it raises the standard of living of the
people.
d. Helps during emergencies and natural calamities:
In times of national crisis, due to war or internal disturbance, transport
helps in quick movement of troops and the supplies needed in the
operation.
e. Helps in creation of employment:
Transport provides employment opportunity to individuals as drivers,
conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc. who are directly
engaged in transport business. It also provides employment to people
indirectly in the industries producing various means of transport and
other transport equipments.
f. Helps in labor mobility:
Transport helps a lot in providing mobility to workers. You may be
aware that people from our country go to foreign countries to working
different industries and factories. Foreigners also come India to work.
In India, people also move from one part to another in search of work.
Similarly, it is not always possible to have workers near the factory.
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Most industries have their own transport system to bring the workers
from where they reside to the place of work.
g. Helps in bringing nations together:
Transport facilitates movement of people from one country to another.
It helps in exchange of cultures, views and practices between the
people of different countries. This brings about greater understanding
among people and awareness about different countries. Thus, it helps
to promote a feeling of international brotherhood.
1.1.2 Requirement of Rural Road Development
There are 5.76 lakhs villages in India. Of these only about 57 percent of
villages with population about 1500, 36.3 percent villages with
population 1000 to 1500 and 23 percent villages with population less
than 1000 were connected with ail-weather roads by 1980-81.
Realizing the urgency of developing the village roads, these have been
treated as a part of minimum needs programme since the fifth fiveyear plan.
It is estimated that Rs. 11,000 crores (as per 1980 cost estimates) will
be needed to provide all weather motor able road network so that on
the average any village is not more than 1.6 km from a road. During
the sixth five year plan (1980-85) out of the provision of Rs. 3439
crores for the road development and maintenance, Rs. 1165 crores was
set apart for the rural roads under the minimum needs programme.
The states are also actively engaged in the development of rural roads.
For example, a master plan for rural roads has been prepared for
Karnataka State at an estimated cost of Rs. 949 crores.
1.1.3 Transport in the Republic of India
Transport in the Republic of India is an important part of the nation's
economy. Since the economic liberalization of the 1990s, development
of infrastructure within the country has progressed at a rapid pace, and
today there is a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and
air.
Motor vehicle penetration is low with only 13 million cars on the
nation's roads. In addition, only around 10% of Indian households own
a motorcycle. At the same time, the Automobile industry in India is
rapidly growing with an annual production of over 2.6 million vehicles
and vehicle volume is expected to rise greatly in the future.
In the interim however, public transport still remains the primary mode
of transport for most of the population, and India's public transport
systems are among the most heavily utilized in the world.
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The demand for transport infrastructure and services has been rising
by around 10% a year with the current infrastructure being unable to
meet these growing demands.
1.1.4 Road Transport
Roads are the means that connect one place to another on the surface
of the land. You must have seen roads in your village, in towns and
cities. Not all of them look a like. Some of them are made of sand and
some may be of chips and cement or of tar. You find different vehicles
plying on roads like bullock carts, cycles, motorcycles, cars, truck,
buses, etc. All of these constitute different means of road transport.
The means of road transport may be divided into three types: 1. Man driven;
ii. Animal driven; and
iii. Motor driven.
You might have seen individuals carrying goods on their head or back,
in bicycles or on the last, move from one place to other. People also
ride a bicycle or use rickshaw to travel short distances. We also find
animal driven vehicles like carts (drawn by bullocks, camels, horses,
donkeys, etc.) used in rural areas to carry crops, straw, fodder and
sometimes even people. Sometimes even animals are directly used to
carry goods from one place to another.
In areas, which are normally covered with snow throughout the year,
we find sledges pulled by dogs used to carry both passengers and
goods.
Advantages of Road transport
(i) It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as compared to other
modes.
(ii) Perishable goods can be transported at a faster speed by road
carriers over a short distance.
(iii) It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is
possible at any destination. It provides door-to-door service.
(iv) It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to
another, in places which are not connected by other means of
transport like hilly areas.
Limitations of Road transport
(i) Due to limited carrying capacity road transport is not economical for
long distance transportation of goods.
(ii) Transportation of heavy goods or goods in bulk by road involves
high cost.
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(iii) It is affected by adverse weather conditions. Floods, rain, landslide,
etc., sometimes create obstructions to road transport.
1.2 Types of pavements
Basically, all hard surfaced pavement types can be categorized into
two groups,
Flexible pavement and
Rigid pavement.
1.2.1 Flexible pavement
Flexible pavements are those which are surfaced with bituminous (or
asphalt) materials. These can be either in the form of pavement
surface treatments (such as a bituminous surface treatment
(BST) generally found on lower volume roads) or, HMA surface
courses (generally used on higher volume roads such as the Interstate
highway network). These types of pavements are called "flexible" since
the total pavement structure "bends" or "deflects" due to traffic loads.
A flexible pavement structure is generally composed of several which
can accommodate this "flexing".
Fig. 1- Flexible pavement

1.2.2 Rigid Pavement
On the other hand, rigid pavements are composed of a PCC surface
course. Such pavements are substantially "stiffer" than flexible
pavements due to the high modulus of elasticity of the PCC
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material. Further, these pavements can have reinforcing steel, which is
generally used to reduce or eliminate joints.
Rigid pavements are so named because the pavement structure
deflects very little under loading due to the high modulus of elasticity
of their surface course. A rigid pavement structure is typically
composed of a PCC surface course built on top of either (1) the
subgrade or (2) an underlying base course. Because of its relative
rigidity, the pavement structure distributes loads over a wide area with
only one, or at most two, structural layers.
This section describes the typical rigid pavement structure consisting
of:
Surface course. This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC
slab.
Base course. This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and
generally consists of aggregate or stabilized subgrade.
Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base
layer. A Subbase is not always needed and therefore may often
be omitted.
Fig.2-Rigid Pavement
1.2.3 Compression expressing difference between flexible pavement
and rigid pavement
Flexible pavement
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Rigid pavement
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1. Deformation in the sub grade is

transferred to the upper layers.
1.Deformation in the subgrade is

not transferred to subsequent
layers.
2. Design is based on load

distributing characteristics of
the component layers.
2. Design is based on flexural

strength or slab action.
3. Have low flexural strength
3. Have high flexural strength.
4. Load is transferred by grain to

grain contact.
4. No such phenomenon of grain to

grain load transfer exists.
5. Have low completion cost but

repairing cost is high.
5. Have low repairing cost but

completion cost is high.
6. Surfacing cannot be laid directly

on the sub grade but a sub
base is needed.
6. Surfacing can be directly laid on

the sub grade.
7. No thermal stresses are induced

as the pavement have the
ability to contract and expand
freely
7. Thermal stresses are more

vulnerable to be induced as the
ability to contract and expand is
very less in concrete.
8. Force
of
friction
is
less
Deformation in the sub grade is
not transferred to the upper
layers.
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Study area
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Each of these pavement types distributes load over the subgrade in a
different fashion. Rigid pavement, because of PCC's high elastic
modulus (stiffness), tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide
area ofsubgrade .The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid
pavement's structural capacity. Flexible pavement uses more flexible
surface course and distributes loads over a smaller area. It relies on a
combination of layers for transmitting load to the subgrade.
Overall, it may be somewhat confusing
used versus another. Basically, state
select pavement type either by policy,
pavements generally require some
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highway agencies generally
economics or both. Flexible
sort of maintenance or
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rehabilitation every 10 to 15 years. Rigid pavements, on the other
hand, can often serve 20 to 40 years with little or no maintenance or
rehabilitation. Thus, it should come as no surprise that rigid
pavements are often used in urban, high traffic areas. But, naturally,
there are trade-offs. For example, when a flexible pavement requires
major rehabilitation, the options are generally less expensive and
quicker to perform than for rigid pavements.
2.1.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement

structure deflects, or flexes, under loading. A flexible pavement
structure is typically composed of several layers of material. Each
layer receives the loads from the above layer, spreads them out, then
passes on these loads to the next layer below. Thus, the further down
in the pavement structure a particular layer is, the less load (in terms
of force per area) it must carry.
In order to take maximum advantage of this property, material layers
are usually arranged in order of descending load bearing capacity with
the highest load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on
the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least
expensive) on the bottom.
This section
consisting of:
describes
the
typical
flexible
pavement
structure
Surface course. This is the top layer and the layer that comes in
contact with traffic. It may be composed of one or several
different HMA sub layers.
Base course. This is the layer directly below the HMA layer and
generally consists of aggregate (either stabilized or un
stabilized).
Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base
layer. A Subbase is not always needed.
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Fig.No - 3 C/S OF flexible pavement

After describing these basic elements, this section then discusses
subsurface drainage and perpetual pavements.
Basic Structural Elements
A typical flexible pavement structure consists of the surface course and
the underlying base and Subbase courses. Each of these layers
contributes to structural support and drainage. The surface course
(typically an HMA layer) is the stiffest (as measured by resilient
modulus) and contributes the most to pavement strength. The
underlying layers are less stiff but are still important to pavement
strength as well as drainage and frost protection. A typical structural
design results in a series of layers that gradually decrease in material
quality with depth.
2.1.1 A Surface Course

The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and
normally contains the highest quality materials.
It provides
characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and
shoving resistance and drainage. In addition, it serves to prevent the
entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying
base, Subbase and subgrade.
This top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two
layers :
Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. It
is meant to take the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and
replaced as it becomes worn. A properly designed (and funded)
preservation program should be able to identify pavement surface
distress while it is still confined to the wearing course. This way, the
wearing course can be rehabilitated before distress propagates into the
underlying intermediate/binder course.
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The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the wheel of
the vehicle. Usually constructed of material in which bitumen is used
as binder materials.
a. Bituminous Pavement:
Consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous

binder ranging from inexpensive surface treatment in or less
thick to asphaltic concrete.
For good service throughout the full life bituminous pavement

must retain following qualities.
Freedom from cracking or raveling.
Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat

and cold.
Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed

for contained stability of underlying base or subgrade).
Smooth riding and none skidding surface.
The design should be done so that to meet the above requirements for
considerable number of years (need proper design and construction
supervision)
Pavement meeting all the requirements above has been product if six
distinctly different construction processes as follows.
Heat a viscous bituminous binder to make it fluid, then in a plant mix it
with heated aggregate place and compact the mixture while it is hot.
Use fluid bituminous binder; mix it with aggregate at normal
temperature. Mixing may be done at a plant (plant mix) or on the
prepared roadway base (road mix). Spread and compact the mixture at
normal temperature.
1.
Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk of the
HMA structure. Its chief purpose is to distribute load.
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2.1.1.B Base Course
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It provides

additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and frost
resistance. Base courses are usually constructed out of:
1.
Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from

durable aggregates (see Figure 2.5) that will not be damaged by
moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be either stabilized or
unsterilized.
2.
HMA. In certain situations where high base stiffness is desired,
base courses can be constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. In
relation to surface course HMA mixes, base course mixes usually
contain larger maximum aggregate sizes, are more open graded and
are subject to more lenient specifications.
2.1.1.B1 Types of Base Course
1. Granular Base Course:
A mixture of soil particles ranging in size from coarse to fine. Processing
involve crushing oversized particles and screening where it is necessary
to secure the desired grading. The requirements of a satisfactory soil
aggregate surface are;
Stability
Resistance to abrasion
Resistance to penetration of water
Capillary properties to replace moisture lost by surface
evaporation upon the addition of wearing course requirement
change.
2. Macadam Base:
Successive layers of crushed rock mechanically locked by rolling and

bonded by stone screening (rock duct, stone chips etc).
3. In-water bound Macadam:
The crushed stones are laid, shaped and compacted and then finer
materials are added and washed into surface to provide a dense
material.
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4. Treated Bases:
Compose of mineral aggregate and additive to make them strong or
more resistant to moisture. Among the treating agents is bitumen.
It is layer of granular material provided above subgrade

generally natural gravel. It is usually not provided on subgrade of good
quality.
a. Function of Sub base in Road Cross Section
It enables traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in
subgrade.
It acts as a working plate form for the construction of upper
pavement layers.
Acts as a drainage layer, by protecting the subgrade from wetting
up.
It intercept upward movement of water by capillary action.
It acts as a separating layer b/w subgrade and road base. By this
it prevent the two layers from mixing up.
b. Characteristics of materials used in Sub Base:
The subgrade material should be clean and free from organic matter
and should be able to be compacted by roller, to form stable sub-base.
The material should have following characteristic.
Well graded uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) should not be less

than 3.
Fraction passing sieve #200 shall not be greater than 2/3rd of
the fraction passing sieve #40.
Should have a L.L not greater than 25%.
P.I not greater than 6
CBR should not be less than 25.
In coarse grain, aggregate retained by #10 sieves, %age of wear
shall not be greater than 5%.
The max diameter of any particle shall not be greater than 2/3rd
of the layer thickness of sub-base.
% By mass of total Aggregate
B.S Sieve Size
passing test sieve
50
100
37.5
80-100
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20
60-100
30-100
1.15
170-75
0.3
9-50
0075
5-25
TABLE NO: - 1 Sizes of material used in base course

2.1.1.C Subbase Course
The Subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. It
functions primarily as structural support but it can also:
1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the
pavement structure.
2. Improve drainage.
3. Minimize frost action damage.
4. Provide a working platform for construction.
The Subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base
course but better than the subgrade soils. A Subbase course is not
always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a
high quality, stiff subgrade may not need the additional features offered
by a Subbase course so it may be omitted from design. However, a
pavement constructed over a low quality soil such as swelling clay may
require the additional load distribution characteristic that a Subbase
course can offer. In this scenario the Subbase course may consist of
high quality fill used to replace poor quality subgrade (over
excavation).
It is the layer immediately under the wearing surface (Applies

whether the wearing surfaces is bituminous or cement concrete
and or more inch thick or is but a thin bituminous layer).
As base course lies close under the pavement surface it is
subjected to severe loading. The material in a base course must
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be of extremely high quality and its construction must be done
carefully.
2.2 Survey
2.2.1 RECONNAISSANCE
SURVEY:-
The second stage of surveys for highway location is the

reconnaissance to examine the general, character of the area for
deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey
party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field. Only very simple instrument
like abney level, tangent clinometers, barometer etc. are used by the
reconnaissance party to collect additional details rapidly (not
accurately). All relevant details not available in the map are collected
and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during
reconnaissance are given below:
(i) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures
and other obstructions along the route which are not available in the
map.
(ii) Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of
curves of alternate alignments.
(iii) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood
level and natural "ground water level along the probable routes.
(iv Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and
observation of geological features.
(v) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.
When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional
data regarding the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata,
seepage flow etc. may be observed so as to decide the stable and
unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment.
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the
terrain is difficult, may be done by an aerial survey.
From the details collected during the reconnaissance, the alignment
proposed after study may be altered or even changed completely. As a
result of the reconnaissance a few alternate alignments may be chosen
for further study based on practical considerations observed at the
site.
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2.2.2 Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:
To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the

reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical
information and details of topography, drainage and soil.
To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of
a good alignment.
To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other
construction aspects and to work out the cost of alternate
proposals.
The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is

given in following steps:
(i) Primary traverse: The first step in the preliminary survey is to
establish the primary traverse, following the line recommended in the
reconnaissance. For alternate alignments either secondary traverses or
independent primary traverses may be necessary. As these traverses
are open traverses no adjustment of errors is to possible later, so the
angles should be very accurately measured by the theodolite. The
length of the centre line should be measured by using very good and
accurate chaining methods or by tachometry or by modem
instruments.
(ii) Topographical features: After establishing the centre lines of
preliminary survey, the topographical features are recorded. All
geographical and other man made features along the transverse and
for a certain width on either side are surveyed and plotted. The width
to be surveyed is generally decided by the survey party, but the
absolute minimum width is the land width of the proposed alignment.
(iii) Leveling work: Leveling work is also carried out side by side to
give the centre line profiles and typical cross sections. The leveling
work in the preliminary survey is kept to a minimum just sufficient to
obtain the approximate earth work in the alternate alignments. To draw
contours of the strip of land to be surveyed, cross section levels should
be taken at suitable intervals, generally 100 to 200 meters in plain
terrain, up to 50 meters in rolling terrain and up to 30 meters in hilly
terrain.
(iv)Drainage
studies
and
Hydrological
data:
Drainage
investigations and hydrological data are collected so as to estimate the
type, number and approximate size of cross drainage structures. Also
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the vertical alignment of the highway, particularly the grade line is
decided based on the hydrological and drainage data, such as HFL,
ponded water level, depth of water table, amount of surface runoff,
etc.
(v) Soil survey: Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary
survey as the suitability of the proposed location is to be finally
decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey conducted at
this stage also helps in working out details of earth work, slopes,
suitability of materials, subsoil and surface drainage requirements and
pavement type and the approximate thickness requirements. All these
details are required to make a comparative study of alternate
proposals.
At this stage a detailed soil survey is not necessary. Post hole auger or
any other suitable types of hand augers depending on the soil type,
may be used to collect the soil sample up to a depth of 1 to 3 meters
below the likely finished road level or the existing ground level,
whichever is lower. When the road is expected to be constructed over
an embankment, the depth of exploration should extend upto twice the
height of embankment from the ground level. During the soil
exploration if the ground water table is struck, the depth from the
ground surface is also noted.
When the work has to be done rapidly, geophysical method of soil
exploration are best suited as accuracy is not very important during
the preliminary survey. The electrical resistivity method is commonly
used in road projects. The method is based on the principle that the
earth and rock materials may be identified by the different values of
the resistance to flow of a direct current.
The soil samples collected during the field work are subjected to
identification and classification test in the laboratory. Soil profile is
obtained by drawing the longitudinal section along the-proposed road
alignment up to the depth of exploration. The types of soils
encountered along the route up to the depth under consideration are
marked on the
Soil profile either symbolically or by suitable color coding.
(vi) Material survey : The survey for naturally occurring materials
like
stone
aggregates,
soft aggregates, etc. and identification of suitable quarries should be
made.
Also
availability of manufactured materials like cement, lime, brick, etc. and
their
locations may be ascertained.
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(vii) Traffic survey : Traffic surveys conducted in the region form the
basis for deciding the number of traffic lanes and roadway width,
pavement design and economic analysis of highway project. Traffic
volume counts of the classified vehicles are to be carried out on all the
existing roads in the region, preferably for 24 hours per day for seven
days. Origin and destination surveys are very useful for deciding the
alignment of the roads. This study may be carried out on a suitable
sample of vehicle users or drivers. In addition the required traffic data
may also be collected so that the traffic forecast could be made for 10
to 20 year periods.
Determination of final centre line: After completing the preliminary
surveys and conducting the comparative studies of alternative
alignments the final centre line ofthe road is to be decided in the office
before the final location survey. For this, the preliminary survey maps
consisting of contour plans, longitudinal profile and cross sections of
the alternate alignments should be prepared and carefully studied to
decide the best alignment satisfying engineering, aesthetic and
economical requirements. After selecting the final alignment, the grade
lines are drawn and the geometric elements of the horizontal and
vertical alignments of the road are designed.
Aerial photographic surveys are very much suited for preliminary
surveys, especially when the distance and area to be covered are vast.
The survey may be divided into the following steps:
(a) Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with
the required longitudinal and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are
necessary for the preparation of mosaics.
(b) The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control
points are selected for establishing the traverses of the alternate
proposals. The control points are located on the maps.
(c) Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently
contour lines may be obtained. Also from the stereo pairs the
topographical details may be noted down on the maps.
(d) Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological
features, soil conditions, drainage requirements etc.
2.2.3 Final Location and Detailed Survey
The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary
survey is to be first located on the field by establishing the centre line.
Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the
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information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction
details for the highway project.
:
Location
The centre line of the road finalized in the drawings is to be translated
on the ground during the location survey. This is done using a transit
theodolite and by staking of the centre line. The location of the centre
line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment finalized
after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are
established on the ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the
geometric design requirements, However modifications in the final
location may be made in the field, if found essential. The centre line
stakes are driven at suitable intervals; say at 50 meters intervals in
plain and rolling terrains and at 20 meters in hilly terrain.
2.2.4 Detailed survey
Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 meters and
at all drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final centre
line should be taken at all staked points. Leveling work is of great
importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and
drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cross
section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of 50 to
100 meters in plain terrain, 50 to 75 meters in rolling terrain, 50
meters in built-up areas and 20 meters in hilly terrain. The cross
sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and
where there is abrupt change in cross slopes. All river crossing, valleys
etc. should be surveyed in detail upto considerably distances on either
side.
All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using
conventional signs. Adequate hydrological details are also collected
and recorded.
A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil
profile. The depth up to which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5
to 3.0 meters below the ground line or finished grade line of the road
whichever is lower. However in case of high embankments, the depth
should be upto twice the height of the finished embankment. The
spacing of auger borings very much depends upon the soil type and its
variations. CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined
for designing the pavement.
The data during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete
for preparing detailed plans, design and estimates of the project.
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2.2.4.1 DRAWINGS AND REPORT
Drawings
The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project;
Key map
Index map
Preliminary survey plans
Detailed plan and longitudinal section
Detailed cross-section
Land acquisition plans
Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
Drawings of road intersections
Land plans showing quarries etc.
Key map should show the proposed and existing roads, and important
places to be connected. The size of the plan generally should not
exceed 22 x 20 cm. The scale of the map is chosen suitably depending
upon the length of road.
,
Index map should show the general topography of the area. The
details
are
symbolically represented. The index map should also be of suitable
scale, the size being 32 x 20 cm.
Preliminary survey plans showing details of the various alternate
alignments and all informations collected should be normally drawn to
scale of 10 cm = 1 km to 25 cm
Detailed plans show the ground plan with alignment and the
boundaries, contours at intervals of I to 2 meters in plain country a
scale of 1/2400 and in close country, a scale of 1/1200 may be adopted
for detailed plans. The size of the drawing may be A-2 size or 60 x 42
cm approximately.
Longitudinal sections should be drawn to the same horizontal scale
of the ground as in detailed plan. Vertical scale may be enlarged 10
times of the longitudinal scale. The longitudinal section should show
the details such as datum line, existing ground surface, vertical profile
of the proposed road and position of drainage crossings.
Detailed cross sections are generally drawn to natural scale of 1 cm
= 2.0 to 2.5 m. Cross section should be drawn every 100 m or where
there are abrupt changes in level. In hill roads the cross sections
should be drawn at closer intervals. The cross section drawings should
extend at least up to the proposed right of way. The cross section
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number, the reduced distances and the area of filling and/or cutting
should be shown on cross section drawings.
Land acquisition plans and schedules are usually prepared from the
survey drawings for land acquisition details. These plans show all
general details such as buildings, wells, nature of gradients and other
details required for assessing the values. The scale ad may be 1 cm =
40 m or less.
2.3 Traffic Characterization

Only commercial vehicles of laden weight of 3 tones or more are
considered for design. The initial daily average traffic is based on 7-day
24 hour classified traffic counts. The growth rate is assessed from past
trends, and when adequate data is not available, is taken as 7.5% for
rural routes. The design life is usually taken as 15 years for arterial
roads and as 10 years for other roads. If stage construction is being
considered, the first stage is chosen as not less than 5 years. A Vehicle
Damage Factor (VDF) is introduced as a multiplier for converting the
number of commercial vehicles of different axle body to the number of
standard axle loads (8.16 tonnes) repetitions. The AASHTO equivalence
factors have been recommended for this purposes, where axle load
survey data is available, When sufficient information is not available,
the values indicated in Table 12.1 arc recommended. For the
distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way, the following
distribution factors have been recommended for multiplying the total
number of commercial vehicles per day in both directions.
2, for single-lane roads, 3.75 m wide
1.5, for intermediate width roads. 5.5 m wide
0.75, for 2-lane single carriageway roads
0.40, for 4-lane single carriageway roads.
For dual two lane carriageway roads, the factor are 0.75 for CVD
in each direction. This factor shall be reduced by 20% for each
additional lane. It should be borne in mind that the design is based on
the more heavily trafficked lane and will be applied over the entire
carriageway width. Using the above guidelines the cumulative number
of standard axles (Ns) in the lane carrying maximum traffic is
estimated using the equation.
Ns=
365 [ ( 1+r )n1 ]

ADF
r
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Where,
A = Initial traffic in the year construction, in terms of CVD,
modified
For lane distribution,
r = annual growth rate,
x = design life, years, and
F = vehicle damage factor.
TABLE NO 2:-Indicative VDF values (as per irc37)
Initial traffic
intensity in
terms of
number
of commercial
vehicles/day
Terrain
Less than 1 50
Hilly
Rolling
Plain
Hilly
Rolling
Plain
Hilly
Rolling
Plain
150 - 1500
More than 1500
VDF
values
(standard axles of 8.16

tones per commercial
Unsurface Thin
bituminous
surfacing
0.5
1.5
2.0
0.75
1.75
2.25
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.25
2.75
Thick
1
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.5
2.4 Geometric elements

2.4.1 Importance of Geometric Design
The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and
layout of visible Features of the highway such as alignment, sight
distance and intersection.
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The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
The designer may be exposed to either planning of new highway net
work or improvement of existing highways to meet the requirements of
the existing and the anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct the pavement of a road in stages;
but it is very expensive and rather difficult to improve the geometric
elements of a road in stages at a later date. Therefore it is important to
plan and design the geometric features of the road during the initial
alignment itself taking into consideration the future growth of traffic
flow and possibility of the road being upgraded to a higher category or
to a higher design speed standard at a later stage.
2.4.2 Geometric design of highways deals with following
elements:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Cross section elements

Sight distance considerations
Horizontal alignment details
Vertical alignment details
Intersection elements
Under cross section elements, the considerations for the width of

pavement, formation and land, the surface characteristics and cross
slope of pavement are included. The sight distance or clear distance
visible ahead of a driver at horizontal and vertical curves and at
intersections govern the safe movements of vehicles.
The change in the road directions are made possible by introducing
horizontal curves. Super-elevation is provided by raising the outer edge
of pavement to counteract the centrifugal force developed on a vehicle
traversing a horizontal curve; extra pavement width is also provided on
horizontal curves. In order to introduce the centrifugal force and the
super-elevation gradually, transition curve are introduced between the
straight and circular curves. The gradients and vertical curves are
introduced in the vertical alignment of a highway.
Design of road intersections with facilities for safe and efficient
traffic movement needs adequate knowledge of traffic engineering.
Highway geometrics are greatly influenced by the topography,
locality and traffic characteristic and the requirements of design speed.
The factors which control the geometric design requirements are
speed, road user and vehicular characteristics.
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2.4.2.1 Width of Pavement or Carriageway
The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic
lane and number of lanes. The carriageway intended for one line of
traffic movement may be called a traffic lane. The lane width is
determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side
clearance which may be provided for the safety. When the side
clearance is increased ( up to a certain limit ) there is an increase in
operating speed of vehicles and hence an increase in capacity of the
traffic lane. Keeping all these in view a width of 3.75 m is considered
desirable for a road having two or more lanes, width of 3.5 m per lane
is
considered sufficient.
Traffic separators of medians
The main function of traffic separator is prevent head-on collision
between vehicles moving in opposite directions on adjacent lanes
The separators may also help to
Channelize traffic into streams at intersections
Shadow the crossing and turning traffic
Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
The traffic separators used may be in the form of pavement markings,
physical
dividers or area separators. Pavement marking is the simplest of all
these.
The
mechanical separator should be designed in such a manner that even
if wheels of avehicle encroach, no part of vehicle body should be
designed.
Area separators may be medians, dividing island or parkway strips,
dividing the two directions of traffic flow. It is desirable to have wide
area separator of 8 to14 m width. But the width should be decided in
conformity with the availability of land and its cost. A minimum of 6 m
is required to reduce head light glare. The glare can be reduced in
narrower strips by planting trees or shrubs.
The IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5.0 m for medians
of
rural
highways, which may be reduced to 3.0 m where land is restricted. On
long bridges the width of the median may be reduced upto 1.2 to 1.5
m. The medians should normally be of uniform width on a particular
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road, but where change in width is unavoidable, a transition of 1 in 15
to 1 in 20 must be provided.
TABLE NO 3:- Width of Carriageway
On urban highways with six lanes or more, medians should invariably

be provided. The minimum recommended width of medians at
intersection of urban roads are 1.2 m for pedestrian refuge, 4.0 to 7.5
m for protection of vehicle making right turn and 9.0 to 12 m for
protection vehicles crossing at grade. The absolute minimum width of
median in urban area is 1.2 m and desirable minimum is 5.0 m.
2.4.2.2 Kerbs
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder; or
sometimes island or foot path or kerb parking space. It is desirable to
provide kerbs on urban roads. There are verity of kerb designs. Kerbs
may be mainly divided into three groups based on their functions.
Figure no:-4 Krebs
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Kerb and Traffic Separator
(1) Low or mountable type kerbs which though encourage traffic to
remain
in
the
through traffic lanes, yet allow the driver to enter the shoulder area
with
little
difficulty. The height of this type of shoulder kerbs is about 10 cm
above
the
pavement edge with a slope or batter to help vehicles climb the kerb
easily.
This
type of kerb is provided at medians and channelization schemes and is
also
useful for longitudinal drainage system.
(2) Semi-barrier type kerb is provided on the periphery of a roadway
where
the
pedestrian traffic is high. This type of kerb has a height of about 15 cm
above
the pavement edge with a better of 1:1 on the top 7.5 cm. This kerb
prevents
encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is
possible
to
drive
over this kerb with some difficulty.
(3) Barrier type kerb is provided in built-up areas adjacent to foot paths
with considerable pedestrian traffic. The height of kerb stone is about
20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter of 1.0 vertical
0.25 horizontal.
2.4.2.3 Road Margins
The various elements included in the road margins are shoulder,
parking lane, frontage road, driveway, cycle track, footpath, guard rail
and embankment slope.
Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency
lane
for
vehicle compelled to be taken out of the pavement or roadway.
Shoulders also act as service lanes for vehicles that have broken down.
Refer Fig.4.4, which gives cross section details of roads in embankment
and cutting. The width of shoulder should be adequate to
accommodate stationary vehicle fairly away from the edge of adjacent
lane. It is desirable to have a minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that
a truck stationed at the side of the shoulder would have a clearance of
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1.85 m from the pavement edge. The minimum shoulder width
recommended by the IRC is 2.5 m.
2.4.2.4 Cross Section Details
The shoulders should have sufficient load bearing capacity to support
loaded truck even in wet weather. The surface of the shoulder should
be rougher than the traffic lanes so that vehicles are discouraged to
use the shoulder as a regular traffic lane. The color of the shoulder
should preferably be different from that of the pavement so as to be
distinct.
Parking lanes are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking. As far
as possible only parallel parking should be allowed as it is safer for
moving vehicles. Also the clearance available between the parked
vehicles and the edge of adjacent lane is more in the case of parallel
parking than in angle parking. The parking lane should also have
sufficient width; 3.0 m width is required for parallel parking.
Lay-byes are provided near public convenience with guide maps to
enable drivers to stop clear off the carriageway. Lay-byes should
normally be of 3.0 width and atleast 30 m length with 15 m end tapers
on both sides.
Bus bays may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with
moving traffic. Bus bays should be located atleast 75 m away from the
intersection.
Frontage roads are provided to give access to properties along in
important highway with controlled access to express way or free way.
The frontage roads may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by
a separator, with approaches to the through facility only at selected
points, preferably with grade separation.
Drive ways connect the highway with commercial establishment like
fuel-stations, service-station etc. Drive ways should be properly
designed and located, fairly away from an intersection. The radius of
the drive way curve should be kept as large as possible, but the width
of the drive way should be minimized to reduce the length of cross
walks.
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle
traffic on the road is very high. Refer Fig. 4.10. A minimum width of 2
m is provided for the cycle track and the width may be increased by
1.0 m for each additional cycle lane. The layout of the cycle tracks
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should be carefully decided in large highway intersection and traffic
rotaries.
Footpath or sidewalks are provided in urban areas when the vehicular
as
well
as
pedestrian traffic are heavy, to provided protection to pedestrians and
to decrease accident.
The footpath should be provided with a surface as smooth as or even
smoother than the adjacent traffic lane so as to induce the pedestrian
to keep on the footpath. The cross fall should be 2.5 to 3.0 percent.
Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is
constructed on afill so that vehicles are prevented from running off the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m.
various design of guard rails are in use. Guard stones ( painted with
black and white strips ) are installed at suitable intervals along the
outer edge of the formation at horizontal curves of roads running on
embankments along rural areas so as to provide better night visibility
of the curves under head lights of vehicles
Embankment slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose of
safe
traffic
movement and also for aesthetic reason. Though from the slope
stability points, a steeper slope may be possible, the slope may be
kept as flat as permitted by economic considerations. Road side
landscaping can improve the aesthetic features of road side, making
road travel more pleasant.
2.4.2.5 Width of Roadway or Formation
Width of formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavements or
carriageway
including separators if any; and the shoulders. Formation or roadway
width is the top width of the highway embankment or the bottom width
of highway cutting excluding the side drains.
Width of Roadway of various classes of road
Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. The width of this acquired land is known as land width and
it depends on the importance of the road and possible future
development. A minimum land width has been prescribed for each
category of road. A desirable range of land width has also been
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suggested for each category. While acquiring land for a highway it is
desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of adjoining land
invariably increase very much, soon after the new highway is
constructed. Also road side developments start talking place making it
difficult later on to acquire more land if required for future widening or
for other improvements.
In some cases the lower width within the suggested range may have to
be adopted in view of high cost of land and other existing features.
Figure no: 5 control lines in road

The land width is governed by following factors :
(1) Width of formation depending on the category of highway and
width of roadway and road margins.
(2) Height of embankment or depth of cutting which is governed by
topography and the vertical alignment.
(3) Side slopes of embankment or cutting which depend on the height
of the slope, oil type and several other considerations including
aesthetics.
(4) Drainage systems and their size, which depends on the rainfall,
topography, and run off.
(5) Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves, as there is
restriction to the visibility on the inner side of the curve due to
obstruction
such
as
building
structures etc. At sharp curves it is desirable to acquire a wider strip of
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land
in
order to avoid obstructions to visibility.
(6) Reserve land for future widening is to be planned in advance based
on anticipated future development and increase in the traffic.
It is desirable to control the building construction activities on either
side of the road boundary, beyond the land width acquired for the
road, in order to reserve sufficient space for future improvement of
roads. Therefore it is necessary to disallow the building activities up to
building lines with sufficient setback from the road boundary. In
addition, it is desirable so exercise control of the nature of building
upto further set back distance up to the control lines. The overall
width requirements between the building lanes and between the
control lines on either side of the road, recommended by the IRC for
different classification of roads in rural areas at different terrain
conditions are given in Table .It may be seen from that the normal land
width enquired for the National and Stage Highways on open plain
terrain is 45 m and the maximum land width required is 60 m, the
corresponding width between the building lines is 80 m and that
between the control lines is 150 m, thus allowing set back distances of
10 and 45 m beyond the road boundary lines with the maximum
recommended
road
width.
Table no:-4 Recommended land width for different classes of

rural roads (meter)
The recommended land widths for different classes of urban roads are,
50 to 60 m for arterial roads (high types of urban roads meant for
through traffic, with controlled access), 30 to 40 m for sub-arterial
roads, 20 to 30 m for collector streets (urban roads and streets meant
for collecting traffic from local streets and feed to the arterial and subarterial roads ) and 10 to 20 m for local streets.
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2.4.2.6 Design speed
The design speed (rulling and minimum) standardized by the IRC for
different classes of roads on different terrains in rural areas are given
in Table 4.8. The ruling design speeds are the guiding criteria for the
geometric design. However, minimum design speeds may be accepted
where site conditions or economic considerations warrant. The ruling
design speeds suggested for the National and State Highways of our
country passing through plain terrain is 100 kmph and through rolling
terrain is 80 kmph.
Table 5 Design Speeds on Rural Highways
Speed restrictions have been imposed for heavy vehicles (other than
passenger cars) like buses, trucks and vehicles pulling trailer units
under Motor Vehicles Act, Also speed limits are specified for different
categories of vehicles by regulatory signs on urban roads and on some
stretches of rural highway when warranted due to safety
considerations.
The recommended design speeds for different classes of urban roads
are
:
(i) for arterial roads 80 kmph
(ii) Sub-arterial roads 60 kmph,
(iii) Collector streets 50 kmph and
(iv) Local streets 30 kmph
2.4.3 SIGHT DISTANCE
The safe and efficient operation of vehicle on roads depends, among
other factor on the road length at which an obstruction, if any,
becomes visible to the driver in the direction of travel. In other words
the feasibility to see ahead, or the visibility is very important for safe
vehicle operation on a highway.
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Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the
road surface, which a driver from a specified height above the
carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving objects. In other
words, sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at
any instance.
Restriction to sight distance may be caused at horizontal curves, by
objects obstructing vision at the inner side of the road or at vertical
summit curves or at intersections.
Sight distance required by drivers applies to both geometric design of
highways and for traffic control.
Three sight distance situation are considered in the design:
(i) Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance
(ii) Safe overtaking or passing sight distance, and
(iii) Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections
The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following three
conditions:
(i) Driver traveling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or
length of road Visible ahead to stop the vehicle, in case of any
obstruction on the road ahead, Without collision.
(ii)Driver traveling at the design speed should be able to safely
overtake, at Reasonable intervals, the slower vehicle without causing
obstruction or hazard to traffic of opposite direction.
(iv)Driver
entering
an
uncontrolled
intersection
(particularly
unsignalised
Intersection) has sufficient visibility to enable him to take control of his
vehicle
and to avoid collision with another vehicle.
Apart from the three situations mentioned above, the following sight
distance are
Considered by the IRC in highway design :
(i) Intermediate sight distance- This is defined as twice the stopping
sight
distance. When overtaking sight distance cannot be provided,
intermediate
sight distance is provided to give limited overtaking opportunities to
fast
vehicles.
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(ii) Head light sight distance- This is the distance visible to a driver
during night driving under the illumination of the vehicle head lights.
This sight distance is critical at up-gradients and at the ascending
stretch of the valley curves.
2.4.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
should
be
of
sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely
without collision with any other obstruction. The absolute minimum
sight distance is therefore equal to the stopping sight distance, which
is also sometimes called non-passing sight distance.
The sight distance available on a road to a driver at any instance
depends on
(i) Features of the road ahead,
(ii) height of the drivers eye above the road surface.
(iii) Height of the object above the road surface.
The features of the road ahead which affect the sight distance are
the horizontal alignment and vertical profile of the road, the traffic
condition and the position of obstructions. At vertical summit curves
the height of drivers eye and the object above road level are more
important factors affecting the visibility. The height of an object to be
considered for stopping a vehicle depends on what might be a source
of danger to the moving vehicle.
For the purpose of measuring the stopping sight distance or visibility
ahead. IRC has suggested the height of eye level of drivers as 1.2 m
and the height of the object as 0.15 m above the road surface.
Hence the stopping distance available at a summit curve is that
distance measured along the road surface at which an object of height
0.15 m can be seen by a driver where eye is at a height of 1.2 m above
the road surface.
The distance within which a motor vehicle can be stopped depends
upon the factors listed below:
(a) Total reaction time of the driver
(b) Speed of vehicle
(c) Efficiency of brakes
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(d) Frictional resistance between the road and the tyres and
(e) Gradient of the road, if any
Total reaction time
Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the
object is visible to the driver to the instant the brakes are effectively
applied. The amount of time gap depends on several factors. During
this time the vehicle travels a certain distance at the original speed or
the design speed. Thus the stopping distance increases with increases
in reaction time of the driver. The total reaction time may be split up
into two parts.
(i) Perception time
(ii) Brake reaction time
TABLE NO 6 :- safe stopping sight distance
The perception time is the time required for a driver to realize that
brakes must be applied it is the time from the instant the object comes
on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he realizes that the
vehicle needs to be stopped. The perception time varies from driver to
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driver and also depends on several other factors such as speed of the
vehicle, distance of object and other environmental conditions. The
brake reaction also depends on several factor including the skill of the
driver, the type of the problems and various other environment factor.
Often the total brake reaction time of the driver is taken together.
Perception time is the time required for the sensation received by the
eyes
or
ears
to
be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal
cord
in
other
words, it is the time required to perceive an object or situation.
Intellection time is the time required for understanding the situation. It
is
also
the
time
required to comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and
registering
new
sensation.
Emotion time is the time elapsed during emotional sensation and
disturbance such as fear, anger or any other emotional feeling such as
superstition etc, with reference to the situation. Therefore the emotion
time of a driver is likely to vary considerably depending upon the
problems involved .
Volition time is the time taken for the final action
It is also possible that the driver may apply brakes or take any avoiding
by the reflex action, even without thinking.
The total reaction time of an average time driver may vary from 0.5
second
for
simple situation to as much to as 3 to 4 seconds or even more in
complex problems.
Speed of vehicle
The stopping distance very depends very much on the speed of the
vehicle. First, during the total reaction time of the driver the distance
moved by the vehicle will depend on the speed. Second, the braking
distance or the distance moved by the vehicle after applying
2.4.3.2 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
If all the vehicles travel on a road at the design speed, then
theoretically there should be no need for any overtaking. In fact all
vehicles do not move at the designed speed and his is particularly true
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under mixed traffic conditions. In such circumstances, it is necessary
for fast moving vehicles to overtake or pass the slow moving vehicles.
It may not be possible to provide the facility to overtake slow moving
vehicles throughout the length of a road. In such cases facilities for
overtaking slow vehicles with adequate safety should be made possible
at frequent distance intervals.
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending
to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite
direction is known as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or
the safe passing sight distance available.
The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the distance measured along
the centre of the road which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the
road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road
surface.
Fig Measurement of Overtaking Sight Distance
Some of the important factors on which the minimum overtaking sight
distance required for the safe overtaking maneuver depends, are :
(a) speeds of ( i ) overtaking vehicle (ii) overtaken vehicle and (iii) the
vehicle coming from opposite direction, if any.
(b) Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the
minimum spacing depends on the speeds.
(c) Skill and reaction time of the driver
(d) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
(e) Gradient of the road, if any
Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
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Figure no :-6 Overtaking sight distance

Figure shows the overtaking maneuver of vehicle A traveling at design
speed, and another slow vehicle B on a two-lane road with two-way
traffic. Third vehicle C comes from the opposite direction. The
overtaking maneuver may be split up into three operations, thus
dividing the overtaking sight distance into three parts, d1,d2 and d3.
d1 is the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction
time t sec of the driver from position A1 toA2
Effect of grade in overtaking sight distance

Appreciable grades on the road, both tending as well as ascending,
increase the sight distance required for safe overtaking. In downgrades
though it is easier for the overtaking vehicles to accelerate and pass
the overtaken vehicle may also accelerate and cover a greater
distance b during the overtaking time.
On upgrades, the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle will be less
and hence passing will be difficult; but the overtaken vehicle like
heavily loaded trucks may also decelerate as steep ascends and
compensates to some extent the passing sight distance requirement.
Therefore the OSD at both ascending and descending grades are taken
as equal to that at level stretch. However, at grades the overtaking
sight distance should be greater than the minimum overtaking
distance required at level.
The IRC has specified the safe values of overtaking sight distance
required for various design speeds between 40 and 100 Kmph. These
values have been suggested based on the observation that 9 to 14
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seconds are required by the overtaking vehicle for the actual
overtaking maneuver depending on the design speed.
This overtaking time may be increased by about two-third to take into
account the distance covered by the vehicle from the opposing
direction in the case of two-way traffic road, during the overtake.
Table :- 7 safe overtaking sight distance
2.4.4 Inclined Carriageway: Super elevation

To ensure design speeds even at relatively small radii, it is common to
provide super elevation, i.e. raising the outer edge of the carriageway over
the inner edge. Such a provision, as shown in Fig. has a greater potential
to resist the centrifugal force, when the carriageway is sloping inwards
laterally towards the centre of the curve at an angle to the horizontal.
For equilibrium perpendicular to carriageway N = W cos a + P sin
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Figure no:-7 super elevation
Figure no :-8 Graph of super elevation IRC 73:1980

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2.4.4.1 The Design Process
Keeping the above analysis in view, IRC has formulated the following
procedure for computation of super elevation and the minimum radius of
horizontal curve.
Step 1: Calculate the super elevation required for three-fourths the design
speed, assuming that the rest is taken care by lateral friction. (This condition
is meant to take care of mixed traffic.) Then
e+ f =
V2
127 R
Where
e
= super elevation in m/m
= vehicle speed in km/h, and
= radius of the circular curve, m.
Step 2: If the super elevation obtained in Step I is less than the following
limits,
but greater than the road camber, provide the same.
:
Plain and rolling terrain 1 in 15 (7 per cent)
Snow bound areas 1 in 15 (7 per cent)
Hilly areas not bound by snow 1 in 10 (10 per cent)
Step 3: If the super elevation obtained in Step I is less than the road
camber, no super elevation is provided and the normal cambered section
should be continued. The radii of horizontal curves for different camber
rates, beyond which super elevation is not required, is given in Table 9.11 as
a function of design speed.
Table no :8 Radii beyond which super elevation is not
required (IRC)
Design
speed
20
25
30
35
40
KSOU
Radius (m) for camber of

4.0%
3.0%
2.5%
2.0%
1.7%
50
70
100
140
180
60
90
130
180
240
70
110
160
220
280
90
140
200
270
350
100
150
240
320
420
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50
65
80
100
280
470
700
1100
370
620
950
1500
450
750
1100
1800
550
950
1400
2200
650
1100
1700
2600
Step 4: If the super elevation calculated in Step I is more than what

is permitted in Step II, then find the lateral friction required with the
help of Eq.(9.14(a using the full design speed and the maximum
permissible superlevation. In case, the calculated lateral friction ()
is not more than 0.15, then provide the maximum superelevation. In
case / is more than 0.15, either the design speed is to be restricted
or the radius has to be increased. The minimum radii for different
terrains at design speeds are presented in Table 9.12 as per IRC. If
the road geometry does not permit the provision of the minimum
radius, the permissible speed can be obtained by using Eq.
substituting the maximum permissible values of e and/.
2.4.4.2 Provision of Superelevation
The regular cambered section of a road with two-way slope has to be
changed to a super elevated section, with a one-way slope, in a
gradual manner. This is usually done in two stages as described
below.
In Stage I, the adverse camber in the outer half of the pavement is
first raised until it is the level and continued till the entire cross section
of the road has a one-way slope equivalent to the camber. The first
part of this (i.e. raising till the outer half is level) is to be done before
the(stout$ of the curve, as otherwise negative superelevation will
prevail. Stage I accomplished in two ways either by rotating the
outer slope round the crown, as in Fig. 9.12(a) or by shifting the crown
gradually to the outer edge (designated diagonal crown method).
Though there is poor drainage in the first method, it is preferred over
the latter because in the former the negative superelevation keeps
continually changing to positive value, unlike the diagonal crown
method wherein there is a negative superelevation till the full width is
covered. The first method is also easier to adopt in construction, as no
special templates are required.
In Stage II, the superelevation is gradually built-up over the full width
of
the
carriageway.
This can be accomplished in three different ways, viz.,
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(i)by revolving the pavement about the centre line, as in Fig

(ii)by revolving the pavement over the inner edge, as in Fig. and
(iii by revolving the pavement over the outer edge as in Fig
Out of these, the first method is preferred and used normally,
because the level of the centre line is not disturbed, there is least
distortion of the pavement and it can be easily adaptable when there
are no physical controls. But the valley created at the outer edge
may be difficult to drain. The second method, is preferred when
drainage is the controlling factor and the road is mostly running
along ground level. In the third method, the outer edge most
noticeable to drivers is maintained at the same level throughout as
such it improves the overall appearance, but may cause unnecessary
problems of drainage at the inner edge. On the whole, it may be
Inner edge
Outer edge
Inner edge
raising edge
Figure no :-9
Provision of superelevation
Methods of building superelevation equal to camber (b, c, d) Methods of building

superelevation higher than camber.
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Concluded that an appropriate method conditions. Would largely

depend upon the site schematic diagram showing typical cross
sections during the attainment of superelevation by rotation around
the centre line is given in Fig. The superelevation is provided
gradually over the full length of the transition curve, such that it
attains full value at the beginning of the circular curve. Where no
transition curves are possible, two-thirds of the superelevation is
attained on the straight section i.e., before the start of the circular
curve and the full value by one-third the curve length. It should also
be kept in mind that the rate of change of superelevation is not
steeper than 1 in 150 for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 in
mountainous sand steep terrain.
2.4.5 Camber
The camber is given a parabolic elliptic or straight line shape in the
cross section. Parabolic or elliptic shape is given so that the profile is flat
at the middle and steeper towards the edges, which is preferred by fast
moving vehicles as they have to frequently cross the crown line during
overtaking operation on a twolanehighway.
When very flat cross slope is provided as in cement concrete
pavements, straight line shape of camber may be provided. Steel tyred
wheels of animal drawn vehicles can cause considerable damage to the
pavement surface due to high stresses. The wheel does not have full
contact increasing further the contact stress under these steel tyred
wheels when the vehicle travels along the center of the pavement with
straight camber. Sometimes a combined camber with parabolic central
portion and straight line camber at the edges.
PARABOLIC CURVE
Table
no: 9
RANGE OF CHAMBER
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Range of camber in areas of rainfall range
Sr. NoTypes of road surface
Heavy
to
Light
1.
Cement concrete and high type bituminous surface

1 in 50 (2.0%) to 1 in 60 (1.7%)
2.
Thin bituminous surface
3.
Water bound macadam, and gravel pavement1 in 33 (3.0 %) to 1 in 40 (2.5 %)
4.
Earth
1 in 40 (2.5 %) to 1 in 50 (2.0 %)
1 in 25 (4.0 %) to 1 in 33 (3.0 %)
2.4.6 Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with
respect to the horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit
to x horizontal units). Sometimes the gradient is also expressed as a
percentage, n I e, 1 in 100.
When the angle of gradient, a is small (Refer Fig. 4.34a) the gradient
which is 1 in a or tan a is approximately equal to the circular measure
or a in radians (a). All angles within the practical range of gradients on
roads may be treated as small. Hence gradients which are generally
represented as 'n' percent, would mean that this is the value of the
tangent of the angle made by the gradient with horizontal, i.e., n% =
tan a. The ascending gradients are given positive signs and are
denoted as + n\, + n2 etc., and descending gradients are given,
negative signs and are denoted as n3, - n4 etc. The angle which
measures the change of direction at the intersection of two grades is
called the deviation angle N which is equal to the algebraic difference
between the two grades. In Fig. 4.34b the deviation angle,
N = <DBC = <BAC +
= + n , - (-n 2 ) = n, + n 2
Where ni is ascending gradient of AB and - 112 the descending
gradient of BC.
z
Figure no :-10 Gradient = 1 in z
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Design Of Flexible pavement 2010-11

While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the
vertical curve. Very steep gradients are avoided as it is not difficult to
climb the grade, but also the vehicle operation cost is increased. The
engineer has to consider all aspects such as construction costs,
practical problems in construction at the site and the vehicle operation
cost in such alternative proposals before finalizing the gradients.
Gradients are divided into the following categories:
Ruling gradient
Limiting gradients
Exceptional gradients
Minimum gradient
2.4.6.1 Ruling gradient

Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the designer
attempts to design the vertical profile of a road. Gradients up to the
ruling gradient are adopted as a normal course in design of vertical
alignment and accordingly the quantities of cut and fill are balanced.
Hence ruling gradient is also known as design gradient. However flatter
gradients may be preferred where ever practicable.
The selection of ruling gradient for the purpose of design is a
complex job as several factors such as type of terrain, the length of the
grade, the speed, pulling power of vehicles and presence of horizontal
curves are considered. In flat terrain or plain country it may be possible
to adopt a flat gradient : but in hill roads it may not be economical or
some time not even possible to, adopt the same gradient because of
large difference in levels to be covered in short length of road.
A vehicle which travels with a certain speed on a level ground, with
the same tractive effort put in, would lose speed at grades; the speed
would steadily decrease with increase in length of grade. With the
maximum pulling power, the vehicle would be able to sustain the same
speed even on long sections only up to a certain gradient. This is when
the maximum power developed by the engine is equal to the power
required to overcome the resistances to motion on the grade at this
speed. Therefore this gradient, is the one which should be adopted at
a ruling gradient by the designer for this vehicle and the design speed.
But the problem is not so simple as different vehicles have different
values of hauling power and varying tractive resistances and the
commercial vehicles in particular have to carry different amount of
WCE ,Sangli
Dept of Civil Engg.[PW]
45

load. Further in India due consideration is to be given to the pulling
power of animal drawn vehicle, especially the bullock carts.
Thus it is not possible to lay down precise standards of ruling
gradient applicable for the mixed traffic and for the country as a whole.
The IRC has recommended ruling gradient values of 1 in 30 on plain
and rolling terrain, 1 in 20 on mountainous terrain and 1 in 16.7 on
steep terrain.
2.4.6.2 Limiting gradients

Where topography of a place compels adopting steeper gradients than
ruling gradients, limiting gradients are used in view of enormous
increase in cost in constructing roads with gentler gradients. However
the length of continuous grade line steeper than ruling value should be
limited. On rolling terrain and on hill roads, it may be frequently
necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient; but
care should be taken to separate such stretches of steep gradients by
providing either a level road or a road with easier grade.
2.4.6.3 Exceptional gradients

In some extra ordinary situations it may be unavoidable to provide
still steeper gradients at least for short stretches and in such cases the
steeper gradient upto exceptional gradients may be provided.
However the exceptional gradient should be strictly limited only for
short stretches not exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.
The maximum length of ascending gradient which a loaded truck can
operate without undue reduction in speed is called critical length of
grade for a design. A reduction in speed of about 25 kmph may be
considered reasonable limit. The critical length for design depends on
several factors such as size, power, load and grade ability data of the
truck, its initial speed at the beginning of the ascending grade and the
desirable limit of the minimum speed at the end of the grade so as to
avoid unreasonable interference with the movement of other vehicles.
The critical length of ascending gradients should therefore be limited
to lower values at steeper gradients.
The road can be level, with little or no gradient. In such cases there
will be problems of drainage. Though the surface water can be drained
off to the side drains by providing proper camber on the pavement
surface and cross slope on shoulders, a certain longitudinal slope is
WCE ,Sangli
46

essential, to drain the water along the side drains, depending on the
surface of the drains.
Table no:-10 Gradients for Roads in Different Terrains

Terrain
Ruling
gradient
Plain or rolling
3.3 per
cent (1 in
30)
Mountainous terrain, and 5 per cent
steep terrain having
(1 in 20)
elevation more than
3,000 m above the mean
sea level
Steep terrain upto 3,000 6 per cent
m height above mean sea (I in 16.7)
level
Limiting
gradient
5 per cent (f
in 20)
Experimental gradient
6.7 per cent (1 in 15)
6 per cent (1 7 per cent (1 in 14.3)

in 16.7)
7 per cent (1 8 per cent (1 in 12.5)

in 14.3)
2.4.6.4 Minimum gradient

Suppose the road is with zero gradient passing through level land and
open side drains are provided with a gradient of say 1 in 300. It may
then be necessary to deepen the downstream end of the drain by
about 3.3 m for one kilometer length of road. This course is not
possible from practical considerations. Hence it is desirable to have a
certain minimum gradient on roads from drainage point of view,
provided topography favours this. The minimum gradient would
depend on rain fall run off, type of soil, topography and other site
conditions.
A minimum gradient of about 1 in 500 may be sufficient to drain
water in concrete drains or gutter; but on inferior surfaces of drains a
slope of I in 200 or 0.5 percent may be needed where as on kutcha
open drains (soil drains) steeper slopes upto 1 in 100 or 1.0 percent may
be needed.
WCE ,Sangli
47
2.5 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

2.5.1 Flexible Pavement Design Methods
As discussed earlier, the flexible pavements are built with number of
layers. In the design process, it is to be ensured that under the
application of load none of the layers is overstressed. This means that
at any instance no section of the pavement structure is subjected to
excessive deformation to form a localized depression or settlement.
The maximum intensity of stresses occurs in the top layer of the
pavement. The magnitude of load stresses reduces at lower layers.
Hence the superior pavement materials are used in top layers of
flexible pavements.
In the design of flexible pavements, it has yet not been possible to
have a rational design method wherein design process and service
behavior of the pavement can be expressed or predicted theoretically
by mathematical laws. Flexible pavement design methods are
accordingly either empirical or semi-empirical. In these methods, the
knowledge and experience gained on the behavior of the pavements in
the past are usefully utilized. The design methods therefore include
methods based on soil classification like group index value and
methods based on soil strength like California Bearing Ratio; California
Resistance Value (R-value) and subgrade support based on plate
bearing test
Besides these, the method based on stress-deformation characteristics
of the pavement layers utilizing the theoretical considerations of
elastic layered system analysis advocated by Burmister has
considerable scope. An .understanding of theoretical analysis by the
designer is imperative since this helps to recognize the complexity of
the phenomenon involved.
Various approaches of flexible pavement design may be thus classified
into three broad groups.
(a)Empirical methods
WCE ,Sangli
48

(b)Semi-empirical or semi theoretical methods
(c)
Theoretical methods
Empirical methods are either based on physical properties or strength
parameters of soil subgrade. When the design is based on stress-strain
function and modified based on experience, it may be called semiempirical or semi-theoretical. There are design methods based on
theoretical analysis and mathematical computations. Each one of the
approaches has its own advantages and limitations. Out of the various
flexible pavement design methods available, the following are
discussed here.
2.6 Flexible Pavement Design Methods

(1)
(2)
(3)
Group Index method

Asshto method
CBR method (current Indian procedure)
Of the design methods, the group Index, CBR, Stabilometer and

McLeod methods are empirical methods. - The Triaxial test method is
a theoretical method using empirical modifications as suggested by
Kansas State Highway Department and therefore may be considered
as a semi-empirical method.
2.6.1 Group Index Method
D. J. Steel in 1945 provided a discussion on the paper dealing with
the Highway Research Board method of soil classification which
included the suggested thickness requirements based on Group Index
values. As discussed in article 6.1.6 the group index (GI) value is an
arbitrary index assigned to the soil types in numerical equations
based on the percent fines, liquid limit and plasticity index. Refer Eq.
6.1. The GI values of soils vary in the range of 0 to 20. The higher the
GI value, weaker is the soil subgrade and for a constant value of
traffic volume, the greater would be the thickness requirement of the
pavement.
The traffic volume in this method is divided in three groups :
Table no :11 groups of The traffic volume
Traffic volume
(commercial
Light
Medium
Heavy
WCE ,Sangli
Number of vehicles
per day
Less
than 50
50 to 300
Over 300
49

The appropriate design curve is chosen from Fig. 7.9-b and the total
thickness of pavement (surface, base and sub-base course) is found
from the Group Index design chart corresponding to the GI values of
the soil.
Discussion
The GI method of pavement design is essentially an empirical
method based on physical properties of the subgrade soil. This method
does not consider the strength characteristics of the subgrade soil and
therefore is open to question regarding the reliability of the design
based on the index properties of the soil only.
2.6.2 ASSHTO method of flexible pavement design.

The AASHTO (originally AASHO) pavement design guide was first
published as an interim guide in 1972. Updates to the guide were
subsequently published in 1986 and 1993. The AASHTO design
procedure is based on the results of the AASHO Road Test conducted
from 1958-1960 in Ottawa, Illinois.
Approximately 1.2 million axle load repetitions were applied to
specially designed test tracks in the most comprehensive pavement
test experiment design ever conducted. The original AASHO design
process was strictly empirical in nature; subsequent updates have
included some mechanistic provisions, such as, classifying the
subgrade stiffness in terms of resilient modulus and accounting for
seasonal variation in material stiffness.
AASHO design originated the concept of pavement failure based on
the deterioration of ride quality as perceived by the user. Thus,
performance is related to the deterioration of ride quality or
serviceability over time or applications of traffic loading.
Also developed at the AASHO Road Test was the rendering of
cumulative traffic loading in terms of a single statistic known as the 18kip equivalent single axle load (ESAL).
Flexible Design
Flexible design using the AASHTO procedure requires the designer to
derive a structural number (SN) that is adequate for the anticipated
traffic over the length of a desired performance period. The SN is
WCE ,Sangli
50

equivalent to the sum of a layer coefficient (a), layer thickness (D), and
drainage coefficient (m) for each layer.
2.7 CBR method (current Indian procedure)

2.7.1 Current Indian Procedure
Till the year 1984 the design of flexible pavements in India was carried
out by using
the guidelines prepared by Indian Roads Congress (IRC: 37-1970). This
method
essentially adopted the original TRRL design curves (which have long
since betn
superseded in U.K.) based on CBR values. These were revised in 1984
in the light
of the fact that heavier axle loads have come into play.
2.7.2 Performance of the CBR Test
The test is to be conducted in the laboratory on remolded samples. For
new the test is to be performed on soaked specimens compacted at
Proctor optimum
This is a penetration test developed by the California Division of
Highways, as a method for evaluating the stability of soil subgrade and
other flexible pavement materials. The test results have been
correlated with flexible pavement thickness requirements for highways
and air fields. The CBR test may be conducted in the laboratory on a
prepared specimen in a mould or in-situ in the field.
WCE ,Sangli
51

The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter
with a base plate and a collar, a loading frame with the cylindrical
plunger of 50 mm diameter and dial gauges for measuring the
expansion on soaking and the penetration values.
Briefly the penetration test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger
of 50 mm diameter to penetrate a pavement component material at
1.25 mm/minute. The load values to cause 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm
penetration are recorded. These loads are expressed as percentages of
standard load values at respective deformation levels to obtain CBR
value. The standard load values obtained from the average of a large
number of tests on 2 crushed stones are 1370 and 2055 kg (70 and
105 kg/cm) respectively at 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration.
The specimen in the mould is subjected to four days soaking and the
swelling and water absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight
is placed on the top of the specimen in the mould and the assembly is
placed under the plunger of the loading frame as shown in Fig. 6.13.
The load values are noted corresponding to penetration values of 0.0,
0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5 mm. The load
penetration graph is plotted as shown in Fig. Alternatively the load
values may be converted to pressure values and plotted against the
penetration values. ,. .
Two typical types of curves may be obtained as shown in Fig. 6.14.
The normal curve is with convexity upwards as for Specimen o.l and
the loads corresponding to 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration values are
noted. Sometimes a curve with initial upward concavity is obtained,
indicating the necessity of correction as for Specimen no. 2. In this
case the corrected origin is established by drawing a tangent AC from
the steepest point A on the curve. The load values corresponding to 2.5
and 5.0 mm penetration values from the corrected origin C are noted.
The causes for the initial concavity of the load-penetration curve
calling for the correction in origin are due to : (i) the bottom surface of
the plunger or the top surface of the soil specimen not being truly
horizontal, with the result the plunger surface not being in full contact
with the top of the specimen initially and (ii) the top layer of the
specimen being too soft or irregular.
CBR%=
LOAD SUSTAINED BY THE SPECIMEN AT 2.55 MM PENETRATION

LOAD SUSTAINED BY STANDERD AGGREGATE AT THE CORRESPONDING PENETRATION LEV
WCE ,Sangli
52

Normally the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration which is higher than
that at 5.0 mm is reported as the CBR value of the material. However,
if the CBR value obtained from the test at 5.0 mm penetration is higher
than that at 2*5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for checking. If the
check test again gives similar results, the higher value obtained at 5.0
mm penetration is reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value
of three test specimens is reported to the first decimal place, as the
CBR value of the material, ff the variation in CBR value between the
three specimens is more than the prescribed limits, tests should be
repeated on additional three samples and the average CBR value of six
specimens is accepted.
The CBR test is essentially an arbitrary strength test and hence
cannot be used to evaluate the soil properties like cohesion or angle of
internal friction or shearing resistance. Unless the test procedure is
strictly followed, dependable results cannot be obtained. Presence of
coarse grained particles would result in poor reproducibility of results.
Material passing 20 mm sieve is only used in the test. The field CBR
test is carried out using in-situ penetration test.
The test is meant for soils and is also carried out on sub-base and
granular base course materials.
2.7.3 Stepwise procedure:

1. Sieve the sample through 20mm I.S sieve. Take the material passing
20mm I.S sieve for the test.
2. Weigh the portion retained on 20mm I.S sieve and discard it.
3. Take an equal amount of soil passing 20mm I.S sieve but retained on
4.75mm I.S sieve. Add this to the soil passing through 20mm I.S sieve
in order to make an allowance for larger size material. This gives us a
representative soil sample,
4. Take about 4.5 to 5.5 Kg of the material. Mix it thoroughly with the
required quantity of water.
5. If the sample is to be compacted at optimum moisture content and
the corresponding dry density, as found by compaction test, take exact
quantity of water and the soil to make sure that water content is equal
to the optimum moisture content.
WCE ,Sangli
53

6. Fix the extension collar to the top of the mould. Also fix the base plate
to the bottom.
7. Place the spacer disc over the base, with central hole of the disc at
the lower face. Place filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
8. Take the soil sample in the mould. Compact it using light compaction
rammer. For light compaction, the soil is compacted in 3 equal layers,
each layer is given 56 blows by 2.6 Kg rammer with drop of 31Omm.
9. Remove the extension collar. Trim even the excess compacted soil
carefully with a straight edge with the top of the mould. " 10. Any hole that may form on the surface of the compacted soil by the
removal of the coarse particles should be patched with small size
particles and leveled.
11. Loosen the base plate. Remove the base plate and the spacer disc.
12. Weigh the mould with compacted soil.
13.Place a filter paper disc on the base plate. Invert the mould with the
compacted soil. Clamp the base plate. Place a perforated disc fitted with
an extension stem on the specimen top after placing a filter disc.
14. Place annular masses to produce a surcharge equal to the mass of
the base material and wearing coat of the pavement expected. Each 2.5
Kg annular mass is equivalent to 70mm of the construction material.
However, a minimum of two annular masses should be placed.
15. Immerse the mould assembly in a tank full of water. Allow free
access of water to the top and bottom of the specimen.
16. Mount the tripod of the expansion measuring device on the edge of
the mould, and take the initial reading of the dial gauge.
17. Keep the mould in the tank undisturbed for 96 hours. Take the
readings of the dial gauge every 24 hours, and note the time of reading.
18. Maintain water level constant in the tank. Take the final reading at
the end of 96 hours.
19. Remove the tripod. Take out the mould from the tank. Allow the
specimen to drain off for 15 minutes. Remove all the free water on the
mould, without disturbing the surface of the specimen.
20. Weigh the mould with the soaked specimen.
WCE ,Sangli
54

21. Place the mould containing the specimen, with the base plate in
position, but the top face.
22.Exposed on the lower plate of the loading machine. Place the
required surcharge masses on the top of the soaked specimen.
23. Seat the penetration plunger at the center of the specimen to
establish full contact between the plunger and the specimen. The
seating load should be about 4 Kg.
24. Set the load dial gauge and displacement dial gauge to zero. The
initial load already applied to the plunger should be considered as zero.
25. Apply the load on the plunger. Keep the rate of penetration as 1.25
mm/min.
26.Record the load corresponding to
0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5,3.0,4.0,5.0,7.5 and 10.0
penetrations
of
0.0,
27. When the penetration reaches 12.5 mm stop the machine. If the
maximum load occurs before the penetration of 12.5 mm, record the
load and penetration.
28. At the end of the test, raise the plunger, and remove the mould
from the loading machine.
29. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil specimen from the top 30 mm layer for
water content determination.
3. OUT PUT
3.1 CBR TEST RESULTS
Observation
Optimum moisture content: Weight of empty mould: Weight of mould + compacted soil: WCE ,Sangli
8.88%
8250g
14970g
55

Weight of compacted soil :-
6720g
Table no:- 12 Observation of CBR test :SR NO

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
PENETRATION IN mm
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
LOAD IN kg
0.0
31.0
54.0
78.0
103.0
125.0
147.0
167.0
184.0
205.0
222.0
239.0
CALCULATION
CBR value=
penetration load
100
standerd load
CBR for 2.5 mm=
125
100
1370
= 9.12%
222
CBR for 5 mm=
100
2055
10.80%
RESULT
So adopt CBR value for design 9%
Table No: 13 CBR Value and its strength
CBR VALUE
3% and less
SUBGRADE STRENGTH
Poor
WCE ,Sangli
COMMENTS
" Capping is required
56

3% - 5%
Normal
5% - 15%
Good
Widely encountered CBR range capping

considered according to road category
"Capping" normally unnecessary except
on very heavily trafficked roads.
LOAD IN kg
300
250
200
LOAD IN kg
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure no: - 11
3.2 AS PER IRC: 37 2001
Graph
Thickness design
Design traffic ,
WCE ,Sangli
57

365 [ ( 1+r )n1 ]
Ns=
A D F
r
Where
o
o
o
o
o
A =
r =
n=
F=
D=
way.
Initial traffic in terms of CVPD

Traffic growth rate during the design life
Design life in number of years
Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage
Ns=
365 [ ( 1+0.075 )151 ]

450 2 2.5
0.075
=21.44msa
A
r
= 450
= 0.075
Initial traffic in terms of CVPD

Traffic growth rate during the design
life
n = 15
Design life in number of years
F = 2.5
Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
D = 2 Distribution of commercial traffic over the
carriage way.
Total pavement thickness for CBR 9% and traffic 21.44msa from IRC:
37 2001 = 575 mm
Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from
Pavement Design Catalogue (IRC:37 2001).
(a)
bituminous concrete
= 40 mm
(b)
base
= 290 mm
(c)
sub base
= 245 mm
WCE ,Sangli
58
Figure no:- 12 graph CBR vs. Traffic
3.3GEOMETRIC DESIGN
(1)Design speed
TYPE of road
Rulling
ODR
Minimum
65 km/hr
50 km/hr
Adopt 65 km/hr for 1 lane other district road
(2)Lane width
1980
3.75m with normal earthen shoulder AS Per IRC 73:
(3)Right of way
For ODR
Single Lane
7.5m
AS Per IRC 73:
1980
(4)Camber
Thin bituminous surfacing
2 to 2.25% (1 in 50 to 1 in 40 )
AS Per IRC 73: 1980
Type of camber Parabolic Camber
Calculation:
WCE ,Sangli
59

2
y=
2x
nW
Provide rate of camber 1 in 50 rates

Riseof Crown=
7.5 1
2 50
Riseof Crown
= 0.075 M
(5)Stopping side distance in plan

Calculation:
SD=0.278 vt +
v2
254 f
Where
v= Design Speed in km/hr

t= Reaction time
f = friction factor
2
SD=0.278 65 2.5+
65
254 0.36
= 91.38m AS Per IRC 73: 1980
(6)OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

O.S.D = (d1+d2)
V=65 kmph
V b=V-15 =60-15 = 50kmph, A = 4.00kmph/sec, t=2sec
D1=0.28Vbt=0.28 50 2=28 m
WCE ,Sangli
60

D2=0.28vbt+2s
Where,
S=0.28vb+6
=0.28 50+6 =16M
t=
14.4 s
14.4 16
=
=7.5 sec
A
4
So,
D2=0.2 50 7.5+2 6
=137M
So overtaking sight distance=28+137
=165M
(7)DESIGN OF HORIZANTAL CURVE
Figure no 13 elements of curve

DATA:Angle of intersection: -
1650
Length of cord: -
40m
Peg interval:WCE ,Sangli

20m
61

Calculation:
= 150
1
40
2
R=
15
sin
2
R= 153m
O0=R R 2
160m
L
2
O0 =1.25m
OX
RX
-(R-O0)
=0.00
(8) Super elevation:
Super elevation at curve
e+ f =
V2
127 R
Here,
F=0.15,
V=65kmph
R=160m
652
e+0.15= 127 160 =0.20
e=0.20-0.15=0.05
i.e. super elevation rate is 1in 20 since 0.05 is less than 0.07,the
superelevation0.05may adopted the total width of pavement =3.75m
rising of outer edge with respect to centre
WCE ,Sangli
62

B.e
3.75
0.05=0.09 m
=
2
2
E=
Figure no 14 : super elevation
3.4 DESIGN OF CULVERT

Data:Rain fall
: - 560mm
Catchment area
: - 600 50=30000
m2 = 0.03
k m2
Velocity = velocity of water = 1.52
m
sec
So discharge in culvert = by ingles formula

Q =
WCE ,Sangli
123 A
A+10.4
123 0.03
0.03+10.4
63

3
= 1.15
m
sec
Area of pipe required for above discharge

Q
= V
Area
1.15
1.52
= 0.75
m2
So diameter of pipe
D=
4 .75
= 0.97 m
1.00 m
Say 1 meter
Slope to pipe = 0.0015
ft
ft
From drawing height of HW

= 8.5 ft
Height of tail water
= 4.24 ft
Length of culvert = 6 m = 19.68 ft
Check for head water depth
HW = h+ h0 - Ls
= 0.4+ 3 (19.68 0.0015)
= 3.37
3.5EARTH WORK STATEMENT

WCE ,Sangli
64

Table no :-10
SR
NO
.
FORMA
TION
LEVEL
100.42
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
100.42
5
100.42
5
100.42
5
100.42
5
100.42
5
100.42
5
100.42
5
100.36
6
100.24
8
100.13
0
99.989
99.894
99.776
99.659
99.541
99.423
99.305
19
20
99.187
99.069
11.76
21
22
98.952
98.834
28.64
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
AREA OF AREA
AVG.
CUTTING OF
AREA
EMBANK
.
13.87
CHAINAG
E
VOL.OF
CUTTING
VOL.OF
EMBANK
S.
10.88
20
217.6
6.99
20
139.8
5.435
20
108.7
2.93
15.5
37.045
0.83
.5
0.415
1.173
20
34.26
1.479
0.597
20
16.4
29.58
9.790
2.89
7.445
4.6
20
13.294
149.100
10.44
5
20
208.900
20.2
20
4047.00
0
26.36
5
20
527.300
7.89
6.09
4.78
1.662
1.764
1.194
5.78
9.13
WCE ,Sangli
65

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
98.716
98.598
98.480
98.362
98.244
98.127
98.009
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
24.09
37
38
39
40
41
42
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
10.99
43
44
97.925
97.925
14.17
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
97.925
8.96
22.11
20
442.200
19.64
20
392.800
15.31
5.735
20
7
306.200
40.145
2.545
8.015
13
20
33.085
160.30
13.69
20
273.80
13.71
5
20
274.30
9.853
20
197.06
9.968
20
199.36
12.69
5
20
253.90
11.56
5
20
231.30
7.664
20
153.28
5.704
20
114.08
4.605
20
92.100
3.78
20
75.600
4.195
20
83.900
4.015
20
80.300
2.635
20
52.700
8.105
20
162.100
20.13
19.15
11.47
WCE ,Sangli
5.09
10.94
16.44
8.716
11.22
6.368
5.04
4.17
3.39
5
3.03
2.24
13.97
66

2987.8
M3
3
2511.21 M
Total
3.6 Estimate of road

FACE SHEET
NAME OF WORK
District Road
: Construction of single lane Other
TOTAL COST OF ROAD
= 20, 27,590 RS
CONTENGENCES
=60827.00
3%
WORK CHARGED ESTABLISHMENT 3%

TOTAL COST
=60827.00
=21, 49,245.00
IN WORDS
NINE
= TWELVE LACS FORTY

THOUSAND TWO HUNDREAD
FORTY FIVE ONLY
COST OF ROAD PER KILOMETER
=33, 79,316 RS
3.6.1 ABSTRACT SHEET

S.R
QTY
DESCRIPTION
WCE ,Sangli
NO
RAT
E
PER
UNIT
TOTAL
AMOUNT(Rs
)
67
2987.8
M3
2
2511.21
M
Item no: 1
Excavation
for
roadway in earth, soil
of all' sorts, sand/" -gravel
or soft in a rum including
dressing section to the
required
grade,
camber
and
side
slopes and conveying
the
excavated
materials with all lifts
up to a lead of 50
meter and spreading
for embankment or
stacking as directed,
DSR 2010-11 I/P 5/151
- 70.00
ITEM NO2
Preparing
embankment
with.
approved
materials
-obtained 'from the
road cutting including
laying - in layers of 20
centimeter
to
30
centimeter breaking
clocks, dressing to the
required lines, curves,
grades and section
and compacting with
power roller for a lead
of over:-300 to idiocy
meters
inclusive,'
from.. the to the siteof
WCE ,Sangli
75
M3
224085.00
35
M3
87892.35
68

3
2987.8
M3
4
2511.2
M
5
1008
ITEM NO : 3
25
M3
74695.00
34
M3
85381.14
225
Conveying materials
obtained from road
cutting including all
1ifts, laying inlayers,
breaking clods, resign
to the required lines,
curves, grades and
section for a lead of
over
300
meters
to500 eaters from the
site of excavation to
the site of deposition as
directed.
ITEM NO : 4
Watering
and 1
compacting
embankment formed
of materials obtained
from the road cutting,
within a1 lead of 50
meter to 95 percent cf
standard
proctor
density after laying
them in layers of
20centimetre to 30
centimeter. With power
roller
ITEM NO:-5
Supplying
80 1
millimeter trap stone
metal at the road site
for filling the voids in
the soiling including
stacking complete. By
breaking boulders.
WCE ,Sangli
226800.00
69

6
1032.75
336
344.25
2250
9
10
336
ITEM NO:6
Supplying
60 1
millimeter trap stone
over size metal at the
road site including
conveying
and
stacking
complete.
By breaking boulders.
ITEM NO:7
Supplying
hard
murum at the road
site
including
conveying
and
stacking etc.complete.
ITEM NO: 8Supplying
soft murum at the road
site,
including
conveying
and
stacking
etc.
complete. Rate as per
R. A.
ITEM NO:9
Spreading of 80mm
trap
stone
metal
complete.
ITEM NO:10
Spreading
of
gravel /hard murum/
etc all complete.
WCE ,Sangli
235
M3
115
38640.00
110
M3
37867.50
32
M2
72000.00
25
242696.25
8400.00
70

11
2250
12
2250
13
2250
14
344.25
15
2250
ITEM NO:11
Compacting the sub
grade / gravel /
oversize metal (200
millimeter
loose)
layers with power
roller
including
necessary
Labor,
materials and artificial
watering
complete.
ITEM NO:12
Spreading ' 4 0
/ 60
millimeter
metal
including
sectioning
complete.
ITEM NO:13
Compacting the
oversize metal in
layers with power
roller including
necessary labor,
materials and
artificial watering.
ITEM NO:14
Spreading of soft
murrum
etc
all
complete.
9.5
1
21375.00
M2
72000.00
32
9.50
21375.00
M
ITEM NO:15
1
Providing arid applying
primer
coat
with
bitumen emulsion on
prepared surface of
garanuaier
base
including clearing of
road
surface
dad
spraying primer at the
rate of 0.60 kilogram
per
square
meter
WCE ,Sangli
M2
25
M3
8606.25
23
51750.00
71
16
90
17
2250
-using
mechanical
means R3t,e as per R.
A.
ITEM NO:16
Providing and laying
40 millimeter thick 1
bituminous concrete
with/to - 60 tones per
hour barrel type hot . mix
an
: plant producing
average output of 35.;
tones per hour using
crushed
aggregates
of specified grading,
premixed
with
bituminous binder at
the rate of .5percent.
of mix and cement
filler,transporing
the
hot mix to work site,
laying
with
hydrostatic
paver
finisher with sensor
control
to
the
required grade, level
and alignment, rolling
^with
smooth
wheeled,
vibratory
and
tandem rollers
to .achieve the desired
compaction. as
per
Ministry of
Road
Transport
and
Highways
Specification.Clause
number-509 complete
in all respects.
ITEM NO:17
Providing and laying 1
WCE ,Sangli
646
3.00
581670.00
35.0
72
18
1
19
600RMT
20
seal coat sealing the

voids in a bituminous
surface laid to the
specified level and cross
fall using type A and B
seal coats. Type 'A1 Using
bulk
asphalt
grade 60/70 Rate as per
R. A.
ITEM NO:18
Providing and fixing 1
reinforced
cement
concrete 1:2:4 ordinary
kilometer
stones
including
painting,
numbering,
etc.
complete for National
Highway way, State
Highway and major
district roads etc. as per
Indian road congress
design for highway
Kilometer stone and
fixing in standard size of
cement concrete 1:4:8
block, complete.
ITEM NO:20
Excavation for catch / 1
side water gutter in a
strata to the specified
section
including
stacking the excavated
stuff -'in a
regular
bund and disposing .
off
excess stuff as directed
in all sorts of soils.
ITEM NO:20
Providing and fixing 3
WCE ,Sangli
M2
78750.00
165
0.00
NO
80.0
0
1650.00
RMT
48000.00
73

3
reinforced cement
concrete
1:2:4
boundary stones as
per
type
design
including
painting,
numbering, fixing in
standard
size
of
cement concrete 1:4:8
block complete
480.
00
1440.00
NO
TOTAL
=1985072.00
3.6.2 ABSTRACT OF CULVERT
SR
NO
1
QUANTITY
1.56
1.16
M3
M3
DESCRIPTION
ITEM NO1:
Providing
uncoursed rubble
trap stone masonry
in cement mortar
1:5 for, wings, ,
including
striking
joints of the non
exposed faces and
pointing
the
exposed
faces
with
cement
mortar.
1:3
including
scaffolding
and
watering masonry
complete
ITEM NO2:
Providing uncoursed -
rubble trap'" -.stone
masonry in cement
mortar
1:5
for,
headwalls,
etc.
WCE ,Sangli
NO
RATE
PER
UNIT
TOTAL
AMOUNT
M3
2633.28
1
1688.00
M3
1
1688.00
1958.08
74

including
striking
joints of the non
exposed faces and
pointing
the
exposed faces with
cement mortar 1:3
including
scaffolding
and
watering masonry
complete including
bailing out of water.
3
0.156 M
4
1.472
M3
ITEM NO3:
Providing uncoursed
rubble trap stone 1
masonry in cement
mortar 1:5 for
parapet
etc.
including
striking
joints of the non
exposed faces and
pointing
the
exposed faces with
cement mortar 1 :
3including
scaffolding and .
watering masonry
complete including
ITEM NO 4
Providing un coursed
rubble trap stone
masonry in cement
mortar
1:5
for 1
FOUNDATION
parapet
etc.
including
striking
joints of he non
exposed faces and
WCE ,Sangli
1688.00
M3
263.32
M3
1688.00
2484.73
75
5
0.736
M
3 nos
pointing
the
exposed faces with
cement mortar 1 : 3
including scaffolding
and
.
watering
masonry complete
including bailing out
of water.
. ITEM NO 5
1
Providing
and
laying
in
situ
cement concrete of
1:4:8 proportion with
trap
metal
in
foundations including
necessary formwork,
compacting
and
curing etc. complete.
R.C.C.
pipe
1000mm dia 2.5m 3no
long with collar s
I.R.C
2100.00
11211.0
0
nos
1545.6
33633
TOTAL=
42518.01
3.6.3 MEASUREMENT SHEET
S
R
N
O
1
DESCREPTION
Item no: 1
Excavation for roadway in
earth, soil of all' sorts, sand/"
-gravel or soft in a rum including
dressing section to the
required grade, camber and
side slopes and conveying
the excavated materials with
all lifts up to a lead of 50
WCE ,Sangli
N LENGT
O H
BREAD
TH
HEIG
HT
FROM EARTHWORK
STATEMENT
QTY
2987.8
M3
76

meter and spreading for
embankment or stacking as
directed, DSR 2010-11 I/P
5/151 - 70.00
ITEM NO ; 2
Preparing embankment with.
approved materials -obtained
'from
the
road
cutting
including laying - in layers of
20
centimeter
to
30
centimeter , breaking clocks,
dressing to the required lines,
curves, grades and section
and compacting with power
roller for a lead of over:-300 to
iiOC
meters
inclusive,'
from..*the to the siteof
ITEM NO : 3
Conveying
materials
obtained from road cutting
including all 1ifts, laying
inlayers,
breaking
clods,
dressing to the required
lines, curves, grades and
section for a lead of over 300
meters to500 meters from the
site of excavation to the site of
deposition as directed.
ITEM NO : 4
Watering and compacting
embankment
formed
of
materials obtained from the
road cutting, within a1 lead of
50 meter to 95 percent cf
standard proctor density after
laying them in layers of
WCE ,Sangli
From
FROMearthwork
EARTHWORK
statement
STATEMENT
2511.21
M3
FROM EARTHWORK
STATEMENT
FROM EARTHWORK
STATEMENT
2987.8
M
2987.8
M
77

20centimetre
to
30
centimeter. With power roller
ITEM NO:-5
Supplying 80 millimeter trap 1 600
stone
metal
at the road site for filling the
voids
in
the soiling including stacking
complete.
By breaking boulders.
3.75
0.4
2% for camber
10% for curve
6
18
90
ITEM NO:6
Supplying 60 millimeter trap 1 600
stone
over
size metal at the road site
including
conveying
and
stacking
complete.
By
breaking boulders.
3.75
0.45
20.25 M
1012.5
M
WCE ,Sangli
1032.75
M
ITEM NO:7
Supplying hard murrum at 1
the road site including
conveying
and
stacking
etc.complete.
ITEM NO:
1
8Supplying soft I murrum at
1008
2% for camber
900
1
1008
3
3
336 M
344.25
78

the road site, including
conveying and stacking etc.
complete. Rate as per R. A. No.
-4
1
1032.75
3
ITEM NO:9
Spreading of 80mm trap 1 600
stone metal complete.
10 ITEM NO:10
Spreading of gravel /hard 1
murum/ etc all complete.
11 ITEM NO:11
Compacting the sub grade / 1 600
gravel / oversize metal (200
millimeter loose) layers with
power
roller
including
necessary Labor, materials
and
artificial
watering
complete.
M3
3.75
336
3.75
12 ITEM NO:12
Spreading ' 4 0
/
60 1
millimeter
metal including
sectioning complete.
13 ITEM NO:13
Compacting the oversize
metal in layers with power
roller including necessary 1
labor,
materials
and
artificial watering.
14 ITEM NO:14
Spreading of soft murum 1
etc all complete.
15 ITEM NO:15
Providing ar.d applying primer 1 600
ooat with bitumen emulsion
on prepared surface of
WCE ,Sangli
2250 M
M3
2250
2250
M2
2250
344.25
M
3.75
2250
79
M2

aranuaier base including
clearing of road surface dad
sprayingr primer at the rate of
0.60 killogram per square
metre -using mechanical
means R3t,e as per R. A. No. 5
16 ITEM NO:16
Providing and laying 40
millimeter
thick
bituminous concrete with/to - 1 600
60 tones per
hour
ba~eh'--..type hot . mix : plant
producing an average output of
35.; tones per hour using
crushed
aggregates
of
specified
grading,
premixed
with bituminous
binder at the rate of .
5percent.
of mix
and
cement filler,transporing the
hot mix to work site, laying
with
hydrostatic
paver
finisher with sensor control
to the required grade, level
and alignment, rolling ^with
smooth wheeled, vibratory
and
tandem rollers to
.achieve
the
desired
compaction. as per Ministry
of
Road
Transport
andHighways
Specification
.clause
number509
complete in all respects.
17 ITEM NO:17
Providing and laying seal coat
sealing the voids in a 1 600
bituminous surface laid to the
WCE ,Sangli
3.75
3.75
0.04
90
2250
80
M2

specified level and cross fall
using type A and B seal
coats. Type 'A1 - Using bulk
asphalt grade 60/70 Rate as
per R. A.
18 ITEM NO:18
Providing
and
fixing 1
reinforced
cementconcrete
1:2:4
ordinary
kilometer
stones including painting,
numbering, etc complete for
National Highway way, State
Highway and major district
roads etc. as per Indian road
congress design for highway
Kilometer stone and fixing in
standard size of cement
concrete
1:4:8
block, complete.
19 ITEM NO:20
Excavation for catch / side water
gutter
in a strata to the specified 2 600
section
including stacking the excavated
stuff-'in a regular bund and
disposing . off excess stuff as
directed in
all sorts of soils.
20 ITEM NO:20
Providing
and
fixing
reinforced cement
3
concrete
1:2:4
boundary
stones as per type design
including
painting,
numbering, fixing
in
standard
size of cement
concrete 1:^:8 block complete
1 NO
600RMT
3 NO
MEASUREMENT SHEET OF CULVERT

WCE ,Sangli
81
S
R
N
O
1
DESCREPTION
ITEM NO1:
Providing
uncoursed
rubble
trap
stone
masonry
in
cement
mortar 1:5 for, wings, ,
including striking joints of
the non exposed faces
and
pointing
the
exposed
faces
with
cement
mortar.
1:3
including scaffolding and
watering
masonry.complete
including bailing out of
N
O
LENGT
H
BREADT
H
HEIGH
T
QTY
0.26
1.5
1.56
M3
ITEM NO2:
Providing uncoursed - rubble
trap'" -.stone masonry in
cement mortar 1:5 for,
headwalls, etc. including
striking joints of the non
exposed
faces
and
pointing the exposed
faces
with
cement
mortar 1:3 including
scaffolding
and
watering
masonry
complete
including
2.00
0.26
1.5
1.56
M3
0.78
0.26
0.40
M
Deduction for pipe

3
ITEM NO3:
Providing
uncoursed
WCE ,Sangli
82
rubble
trap
stone
masonry in cement mortar
1:5
for
parapet etc. including
striking joints of the non
exposed
faces
and
pointing the exposed
faces with cement mortar
1 : 3including scaffolding
and . watering masonry
complete including bailing
out of water.
ITEM NO 4
Providing
un
coursed
rubble
trap
stone
masonry in cement mortar
1:5 for foundation parapet
etc.
including
striking
joints of he non exposed
faces and pointing the
exposed faces with cement
mortar 1 : 3 including
scaffolding and . watering
masonry
complete
including bailing out of
water.
ITEM NO 5
Providing and laying in
situ cement concrete of
1:4:8 proportion with trap
metal
in
foundations
including
necessary
formwork, compacting and
curing etc. complete.
a) with natural sand Rate as
ITEM NO6
R.C.C. pipe 1000mm dia
2.5m long with collar
I.R.C
WCE ,Sangli
0.26
0.15
0.156
M3
0.46
0.4
1.472
M3
0.46
0.2
0.736
M
3 no
83
4. Conclusion
The
road
which
is
designed
can
increase
employments in this village in more amounts.

In India there are lots of people which are living
in inaccessible area; this road can give good
access to people which are living there.
This
road
can
become
good
medium
of
development for these villagers.
Also this road can be approach for murrum

quarry.
WCE ,Sangli
84
5.BIBLOGRHPHY
Books
Highway engineering
-S.K.KHANNA
-C.E.G. JUSTO
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTAND HIGHWAY

ENGINEERING
-G.V. RAO
DESIGN
CULVERTS
OF
HIGHWAY
BRIDGES
AND
-MILO.S.KETCHUM
Websites
WCE ,Sangli
85
http://trainning.ce.washingtone.edu/wsdot/Modules/04design-parameters/04-4body.
http://trainning.ce.washingtone.edu/wsdot/Modules/07construction/07-2.body
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/ch01.htm
http://www.highwaysmaintenance.com/cbrtext.htm#RO
AD PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUALS AND PUBLICATIONS
USING CBR VALUES
MANUAL
MSBTE Manual of GEO TECHNICAL ENGINEERING
6. ANNEXURE
WCE ,Sangli
86
TABLE.N
NAME OF TABLE
PAGE NO.
O.
1
Sizes of material used in base 11

course
Indicative VDF values
19
Width of Carriageway
22
Recommended land width for

different classes of rural roads
(meter)
27
Design Speeds on Rural Highways
28
Safe stopping sight distance
31
Safe overtaking sight distance
34
Radii beyond which super

elevation is not required (IRC)
37
Range of camber
40
10
Gradients for Roads in Different

Terrains
44
11
Groups of The traffic volume
46
12
Observation of CBR test
52
13
CBR Value and its strength
53
WCE ,Sangli
87

Flexible Pavement

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Flexible Pavement

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DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

Transport makes it possible to carry raw materials from places where

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

Fig. 1- Flexible pavement

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

1. Deformation in the sub grade is

1.Deformation in the subgrade is

2. Design is based on load

2. Design is based on flexural

3. Have low flexural strength

3. Have high flexural strength.

4. Load is transferred by grain to

4. No such phenomenon of grain to

5. Have low completion cost but

5. Have low repairing cost but

6. Surfacing cannot be laid directly

6. Surfacing can be directly laid on

7. No thermal stresses are induced

7. Thermal stresses are more

8.Force of friction is high.

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

as to why one pavement is

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT -16

2.1.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT