11 March 2013

Manoj Barsaiyan

CONTENTS
Motor Fundamentals

Construction Details of Motor

Specifications of Motor
Energy Efficiency Opportunities
Motor Enclosures

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ELECTRIC MOTOR

An electric motor is an electromechanical device

that converts electrical energy to mechanical

energy.

The mechanical energy can be used to perform

work such as rotating a pump impeller, fan, blower,

driving a compressor, lifting materials etc.

Input
Output
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= Electrical Power
= Mechanical Power
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How the Electric motors work

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BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE

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How Does an Electric Motor Work?

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DC Motor example

Dc motor working
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How Does an Electric Motor Work?

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How Does an Electric Motor Work?

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How Does an Electric Motor Work?

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Type of Electric Motors

Electric Motors

Alternating Current (AC)

Motors

Synchronous

Induction

Single-Phase

Three-Phase

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Direct Current (DC)

Motors

Separately
Excited

Series

Self Excited

Compound

Shunt

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Structure of Motors
Stator
Rotor
Terminal Box
Enclosure

Insulation
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DC Motor
Although AC motors are the most common type of motor

used in industry, direct current (DC) motors are also

used.
One common use for a DC motor is as a backup motor
for a critical process.
DC motors can run on the direct current supplied by a
battery when there is a failure in the alternating current
supplied to an AC motor.
For example, a DC motor can used with a backup pump
that supplies oil to the bearings in a large piece of
equipment.
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Commutaor

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Commutaor

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DC Motor
Sparking or arcing near the brushes or on the

commutator can mean that the brushes need to be

replaced or that they are not making good contact with
the commutator.
In addition, brushes can chip, which impairs their
effectiveness.
The commutator should also be checked periodically. Any
scoring or grooving on the face of the commutator may
indicate a problem.

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AC MACHINES
NEMA MG 1-2003 has the following definitions:
An induction machine is an asynchronous machine that
has a magnetic circuit interlinked with two electric
circuits, or sets of circuits, rotating with respect to each
other. Power is transferred from one circuit to another
by electromagnetic induction.
A synchronous machine is an alternating-current

machine in which the average speed of normal

operation is exactly proportional to the frequency of the
system to which it is connected.
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Synchronous Motor
Synchronous

motors have fixed stator windings

electrically connected to the AC supply.
Three-phase stator is similar to that of an induction
motor.
A separate source of excitation connected to a field
winding on the rotating shaft.
The rotating field has the same number of poles as the
stator, and is supplied by an external source of DC.
Magnetic flux links the rotor and stator windings
causing the motor to operate at synchronous speed.
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Synchronous Motor

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Synchronous Motor
An important drawback of a synchronous motor is that

it is not self-starting and auxiliary means have to be

used for starting it.
A synchronous motor starts as an induction motor, until
the rotor speed is near synchronous speed where it is
locked in step with the stator by application of a field
excitation.
When the synchronous motor is operating at
synchronous speed, it is possible to alter the power
factor by varying the excitation supplied to the motor
field.
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Synchronous Motor Speed

A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed or not

at all. Its speed is constant (synchronous speed) at all

loads.

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Synchronous Motor On Load

In d.c. motors and induction motors, an addition of load

causes the motor speed to decrease. The decrease in

speed reduces the counter e.m.f. enough so that
additional current is drawn from the source to carry the
increased load at a reduced speed.
This action cannot take place in a synchronous motor
because it runs at a constant speed (i.e., synchronous
speed) at all loads.

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Synchronous Motor On Load

What happens when we apply mechanical load to a

synchronous motor?
The rotor poles fall slightly behind the stator poles while
continuing to run at synchronous speed. The angular
displacement between stator and rotor poles (called
torque angle a) causes the phase of back e.m.f. Eb to
change w.r.t. supply voltage V. This increases the net
e.m.f. Er in the stator winding. Consequently, stator
current Ia ( = Er/Zs) increases to carry the load.

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Torque Angle

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Pull-Out Torque
There is a limit to the mechanical load that can be

applied to a synchronous motor. As the load increases,

the torque angle also increases so that a stage is
reached when the rotor is pulled out of synchronism
and the motor comes to a standstill.
This load torque at which the motor pulls out of
synchronism is called pullout or breakdown torque.
Its value varies from 1.5 to 3.5 times the full load
torque.

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Synchronous motor power factor

One of the most important features of a synchronous

motor is that by changing the field excitation, it can be

made to operate from lagging to leading power factor.

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Synchronous motor power factor

Under excitation: When the rotor is underexcited, i.e.

the induced e.m.f. E is less than V, the stator current

has a lagging component to make up for the shortfall in
excitation needed to yield the resultant Weld that must
be present as determined by the terminal voltage, V.
Normal excitation: With more field current , however,

the rotor excitation alone is sufficient and no lagging

current is drawn by the stator.

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Synchronous motor power factor

Over excitation: And in the overexcited case, there is so

much rotor excitation that there is effectively some

reactive power to spare and the leading power factor
represents the export of lagging reactive power that
could be used to provide excitation for induction motors
elsewhere on the same system.

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Synchronous motor power factor

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INDUCTION MOTOR

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Advantages: Induction motor

Three-phase induction motors are the most common and
frequently encountered machines in industry
Simple design
Rugged
Inexpensive
High power to weight ratio
Easy to maintain
Direct connection to AC power source
Easy maintenance
Wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to MW
Run essentially as constant speed from zero to full load
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Disadvantages: Induction motor

Speed is fixed for a fixed voltage and frequency
Low power factor at start and no load condition
High starting current for a cage induction motor
Always operates at lagging power factor.

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Types of Induction Motors

Squirrel Cage

3 phase winding in stator

Copper bars in rotor

Wound Rotor

3 phase winding in stator

3 phase winding in rotor
(Shorted internally)

Wound Rotor
with Slip Ring

3 phase winding in stator

3 phase winding in rotor
(Terminated to slip rings)

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Induction Motor
The induction motor derives its name from the fact

that AC voltages are induced in the rotor circuit by the

rotating magnetic field of the stator
An Induction motor operates on the principle of
induction.
The rotor receives power from the stator due to
Induction The rotor is not connected to an external

source of voltage (Singly excited m/c).

The induction motor is the most commonly used type
of AC motor as It is simple, rugged in construction and

low in cost
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Rotating Magnetic Field

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Induction Motor
The Stator in an AC motor is a wire coil, called a stator

winding, when this coil is energized by AC power, a

rotating magnetic field is produced
This rotating field is produced by the contributions of
space-displaced phase windings carrying appropriate
time displaced currents by 120 electrical degrees
When a magnetic field comes close to a wire, it
produces an electric voltage in that wire
This is called induction (as Faraday's law)
In induction motors, the induced magnetic field of the
stator winding induces a current in the rotor
This induced rotor current produces a second
magnetic field necessary for the rotor to turn
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Induction Motor
The rotating magnetic field generated in the stator induces a

magnetic field in the rotor.

The two fields interact and cause the rotor to turn
To obtain maximum interaction between the fields, the air gap

between the rotor and stator should be very small

As you know from Lenz's law, any induced emf tries to oppose

the changing field that induces it, here the changing field is the
motion of the resultant stator field
A force is exerted on the rotor by the induced emf and the

resultant magnetic field

This force tends to cancel the relative motion between the rotor

and the stator field and the rotor, as a result, moves in the same
direction as the rotating stator field
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SLIP
The rotor reacts to the magnetic field, but does not
travel at the same speed
Also the rotor speed actually lags behind the speed of
the magnetic field and rotor runs at the speed Nr
which is close to the speed of the stator field, Ns at no
load, but the rotor speed decreases as the load is
increased

The term slip quantifies the slower speed of the rotor

in comparison with the rotating speed of the stator
magnetic field and is expressed mathematically as:

S=(Ns-Nr)/Ns
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SLIP
The rotor is not locked into any position and therefore will

continue to slip throughout the motion

The speed of the rotor depends upon the torque requirements

of the load, higher the load, stronger the turning force needed
to rotate the rotor
The turning force can increase only if the rotor-induced e.m.f.

increases and this e.m.f. can increase only if the magnetic field
cuts through the rotor at a faster rate
To increase the relative speed between the field and the rotor,

the rotor must slow down

Therefore, for heavier loads the induction motor turns slower

than for lighter loads and the amount of slip increases

proportionally with increase in load
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Torque Speed Characteristic

Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

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Common terms
Locked rotor torque the minimum torque that the motor
develops at rest for all angular positions of the rotor at rated
voltage and frequency.
Locked rotor current the steady state current from the line at
rated voltage and frequency with the rotor locked.
Breakdown torque the maximum torque that the motor
develops at rated voltage and frequency without an abrupt
drop in speed.
Pull up torque the minimum torque developed during the
period of acceleration from rest to the speed that breakdown
torque occurs.

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Analysis of Operation
On start-up the slip is s=1 and the starting torque (also known

as a breakaway torque) is sufficiently large to accelerate the

rotor (the rotor has previously been 'locked' - stationary)
As the rotor runs up to its full-load speed the torque increases
in essentially inverse proportion to the slip
After the torque reached its maximum, it rapidly falls to zero, at
the synchronous speed, Ns
Looking backwards: as rotor speed falls below Ns the torque
increases almost linearly to a maximum dictated by the full
load (plus rotor losses)
the speed only falls a little when the load is raised from 0 to its
full value - this is a normal operating region

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Components Of Induction Motor

A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts:
A stator consisting of a steel frame that supports a
hollow, cylindrical core of stacked laminations. Slots on
the internal circumference of the stator house the
stator winding.
A rotor also composed of punched laminations, with
rotor slots for the rotor winding.

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Induction Motor - Construction

Stator
consisting of a steel
frame that supports a
hollow, cylindrical core
core, constructed from
stacked laminations,
having a number of
evenly spaced slots,
providing the space for
the stator winding
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Stator Frame

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Wound Stator Core

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Stator coils

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VPI of Stator Winding

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Stator core insertion

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COMPONENTS OF INDUCTION MOTOR

There are two-types of rotor windings:
Squirrel-cage windings, which produce a squirrel-cage
induction motor (most common)
Conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated
wire, which produce a wound-rotor induction motor
(special characteristics)

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Induction Motor: Squirrel cage rotor

Squirrel cage rotor consists of copper bars, slightly longer

than the rotor, which are pushed into the slots.

The ends are welded to copper end rings, so that all the
bars are short circuited.
In small motors, the bars and end-rings are diecast in
aluminium to form an integral block.

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Squirrel Cage Rotor

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Induction Motor: Wound Rotor

A wound rotor has a 3-phase winding, similar to the stator

winding.
The rotor winding terminals are connected to three slip rings
which turn with the rotor. The slip rings/brushes allow
external resistors to be connected in series with the winding.
The external resistors are mainly used during start-up
under normal running conditions the windings short
circuited externally.

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Rotor before end ring brazing

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Rotor with end ring

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Rotor
Squirrel cage rotor

Wound
rotor
Notice
the slip
rings

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Induction Motor
Slip
rings

Cutaway in
a typical
woundrotor IM.
Notice the
brushes and
the slip
rings

Brushes
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Induction Motor

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Making of an induction motor

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NEMA class A
large bars near
the surface

NEMA class B
large, deep rotor
bars

NEMA class C
double-cage
rotor design

NEMA class D
small bars near
surface

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Typical torque-speed curves for different rotor designs

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Induction motor speed

At what speed will the IM run?
Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the

same speed of the rotating magnetic field, then the

rotor will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic
field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the
rotor. So, no induced current will flow in the rotor and
no rotor magnetic flux will be produced so no torque
is generated and the rotor speed will fall below the
synchronous speed
When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will
cut the rotor windings and a torque is produced

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Specifications
Following basic parameters are embossed on motor name plate

Voltage
Frequency
Current
Kilo Watt
Phase
Serial number
Frame
Efficiency
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Bearing
Insulation class
Degree of protection
Duty
RPM
Cooling
Mfg. details
Ambient Temperature
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Motor Fundamentals
f = P N / 120

(Where f is frequency in Hz, P is no. of pole and N is speed

in rpm)
1 H.P. = 746 Watts = 0.75 KW (approx.)
P D2 L n
(Where P is output, D is diameter, L is length and n is
speed)
slip s = (ns - nr) / ns
(Where ns is synchronous speed in rpm and nr is rotor
speed in rpm )
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Example
The nameplate details of a motor are given as
Power, P = 15 kW, Efficiency, = 0.9
Using a power meter the actual three phase
power drawn is found to be 8 kW
Find out the loading of the motor

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Example
The nameplate details of a motor are given as
Power, P = 15 kW, Efficiency, = 0.9
Using a power meter the actual three phase
power drawn is found to be 8 kW
Input power at full-rated power in kW, Pir = 15 / 0.9
= 16.7 kW

Percentage loading
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=
=

8 / 16.7
48 %
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Efficiency of Electric Motors

Motors loose energy when serving a load
Fixed loss
Rotor loss
Stator loss
Friction and Windage
Stray load loss

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Motor Losses
Core Losses: A combination of eddy-current and hysteresis

losses within the stator core. Accounts for 15 to 25 percent of

the overall losses.
Friction and Windage Losses: Mechanical losses which occur
due to air movement and bearings. Accounts for 5 to 15
percent of the overall losses.
Stator Losses: The I2R (resistance) losses within the stator
windings. Accounts for 25 to 40 percent of the overall losses.
Rotor Losses: The I2R losses within the rotor windings.
Accounts for 15 to 25 percent of the overall losses.
Stray Load Losses: All other losses not accounted for, such as
leakage. Accounts for 10 to 20 percent of the overall losses.
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Motor Losses

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Power Factor

kW
Power Factor Cos
kVA
As the load on the motor reduced, the magnitude of active current reduces. However,
there is not a corresponding reduction in the magnetizing current, with the result motor
power factor reduces, or gets worse, with a reduction in applied load.

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Use energy efficient motors
Reduce under-loading (and avoid over-sized

motors)
Size to variable load
Improve power quality
Rewinding
Power factor correction by capacitors
Improve maintenance
Speed control of induction motor
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Use Energy Efficient Motors

Power Loss Area

Efficiency Improvement

1. Fixed loss (iron)

Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current
losses. Longer core adds more steel to the design, which reduces
losses due to lower operating flux densities.

2. Stator I2R

Use of more copper & larger conductors increases cross sectional area
of stator windings. This lower resistance (R) of the windings & reduces
losses due to current flow (I)

3 Rotor I2R

Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section,

lowering conductor resistance (R) & losses due to current flow (I)

4 Friction & Windage

Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement

5. Stray Load Loss

Use of optimized design & strict quality control procedures minimizes

stray load losses

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Range of losses in Induction motors

Energy Loss at
Full Load (%)

Range
1 - 10

HP

10 - 50

HP

9.0 - 15

50 - 200

HP

6.0 - 12

200 - 1500

HP

4.0 - 07

1500 - HP & ABOVE

2.3 - 04

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14.0 -

35

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Duty Cycles

S1: Continuous operation at rated load

S2: Short time operation
S3: Intermittent periodic operation
S4: As for S3 but with starting
S5: As for S3 but with electric braking
S6: Continuous cyclic operation
S7: As for S6 but with electric braking
S8: As for S6 but with related load/speed characteristic

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Temperature Rise
Air cooled motors
70 deg. C by resistance method for both class B&F
insulation.
Water cooled Motors
80 deg. C over inlet cooling water temperature
mentioned elsewhere, by resistance method for
both class B&F insulation

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Types of Enclosures
Type of Enclosures (IP55, IP23 etc.)
Provides protection to person against contact with live wire

and moving parts and to machine against ingress of solid

foreign bodies and harmful ingress of water
Ingress protection code consists of the letter IP followed by
two numbers, first numeral designates the extent of
protection to person and protection to machine against solid
foreign bodies, while the second designates the extent of
protection to machine against water
General suffix letter for protection IP XY

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Types of Enclosures

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Types of Enclosures

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Cooling
All motors shall be either Totally enclosed fan cooled
(TEFC), Totally enclosed tube ventilated (TETV), or Closed
air circuit air cooled (CACA) type. However, motors rated
3000kW or above can be Closed air circuit water cooled
(CACW)
Suitable single phase space heaters shall be provided on
motors rated 30KW and above to maintain windings in
dry condition when motor is standstill. Separate terminal
box for space heaters & RTDs shall be provided

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TETV VENTILLATION CIRCUIT

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VENTILATION ARRANGEMENT for CACA MOTOR

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