Smarthinking

Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1
Introduction

Purpose?
What's That?
Objective

In this lesson,
you'll learn
why

determining
your purpose,
or reasons,
for writing
should be the

first step in
the writing
process.

What is
Purpose?
Why consider

your purpose
for writing?
More to the
point, why
study the

purpose for
writing
college
papers? Isn't
it enough

simply to
know that
your
professor
wants a

paper, and
you have to
write one to
pass the

class?
Finding the
purpose of

each writing
assignment is
the first step
of the writing
process. Just

as a builder
has to start
by carefully
examining the
blueprints

before laying
the
foundation of
a building, a
writer has to

know who he
or she is
writing to,
what he or
she is writing

about, and
how he or she
should
approach the
topic before

starting to
write. When
you ask
yourself these
questions,

you're
figuring out
your purpose
for writing.

Actually,
there are
several good

reasons to
think more
deeply about
purpose for
your writing,

even for class

assignments.
Understandin
g your
reasons for

writing helps
you to
consider the
audience, or
reader/s, for

whom you are

writing; what
main ideas
you want to
present;

which details
are necessary;
and whether
you want to
use a formal

or informal
voice.
Imagine that

you're taking
a chemistry
class, and the
professor tells
you to write a

paper about a
recent lab
experiment.
You ask

yourself:
What kind of
paper does he

want?
To whom
should I
write?

How should I
write the
paper?
Just asking

these
questions
suggests some
answers:

The professor
probably
wants a lab

report
S/he is my
audience, or
primary

reader
I should
probably
write using a

logical,
objective
voice
By having

thought out
your purpose,
you have a
much better
chance of

writing
something
that meets
your
professor's

expectations.
Some
Common

Purposes of
Writing
There are

almost as
many
purposes for
writing as
there are

writers and
subjects.
Some of the
common
purposes for

writing that
you'll
encounter in
college or on
the job

include:
Selfexpression

Observation
Investigation
and
evaluation

Explaining
(Exposition)
Arguing an
academic

position
Persuasion
Taking essay
tests

Writing inclass essays

Discussing
literature

Reporting on
science or
technical
issues

Writing
resumes
Writing job
application

cover and
thank-you
letters
In the

following
lessons, we'll
explore some
of these
common

purposes for
writing and
give you some
tips that will
help you to

fulfill each of
these
purposes.

Summary
It is
important to

know your
purpose for
writing in the
beginning of
the writing

process
because it
helps you to
shape and
mold your

subject.
Knowing
your purpose
also saves
time by

guiding your
approach to
the subject
and audience.
If you

understand
why you're
writing and
know your
goals, you're

halfway to a
strong piece
of writing.

Smarthinkin
g Writer's
Handbook
Chapter 1,

Lesson 1
Writing
about

Memories
Objective
In this
lesson, you'll

learn the
principles of
narration,
which are
necessary for

passing on
your own
and others'
experiences.

What Is a
Narrative?
Narrative is
a basic

writing style,
or genre.
Sometimes
authors use
memorable

experiences
to write
about their
lives. Often,
they tell their

own stories
to entertain
or to teach
the reader
values and

life lessons.
Such true
stories are
called "nonfiction." At

other times,
authors write
narratives to
tell a created,
or

"fictional,"
story.
In this
lesson, we'll

be focusing
on the first
kind of
narrative
because

many college
writing
assignments
will ask you
to remember

and write
about
something
from your
own past

(autobiograp
hy). Some
assignments
will require
that you be

able to tell a
short story
(anecdote)
about
yourself or

someone else
in order to
make a
point.
Sometimes,

writing
teachers will
ask you to
create a
journal or

diary to help
you record
details so you
can tell your

stories well.
Before You
Start to
Write

For many
writers, the
narrative
essay is the
easiest form

of writing.
After all,
writing a
narrative is
nothing more

than
remembering
and telling a
story to
someone--

something
we do in
everyday
conversation.

There are
several tips
that can help
you begin to
write an

effective
narrative:
When you
have a

memory
that you
want to
write about,
pretend that

you're
telling the
story to a
friend or a
relative and

write just as
though you
were
talking.

 In fact,
sometimes
the best way
to write a

narrative is
not to write
at all; you
can speak
into a tape

recorder
and tell the
story orally
at first.

 Be sure to
include lots
of details
and to

describe
situations
and people
fully, so
your

reader/s can
picture the
memory
that you are
writing

about.
As you
begin
writing,

don't worry
about
organization
, grammar,
spelling, or

punctuation
--just get the
basic story
on paper or
into the

computer.
Every
narrative
essay should

have a main
point (an
idea or
focus) that
you want to

convey to
your
readers. No
matter what
kind of

story you're
telling,
determine
what your
point is and

keep it in
mind while
you write.
Exercise

What stories
do you have
to tell? In the
text box
below, write

down some
of your
narrative
ideas. Below
each idea,

write the
main point/s
that you
want the
reader to

understand.
Why do you
believe that
story should
be told?

Where could
you publish
the narrative
(a private
journal? a

magazine?)
Example:
Narrative: M
y family trip

to New York
to see the
Yankees play
the Oakland
A's brought

us closer
together.
Main Point:
A family that

plays
together
shares
experiences
that helps

them to
relate to each
other.
Why: In our

busy world,
people
sometimes
forget that
sharing

experiences
as a family
builds
positive
memories

that can help

them get
through
difficult
times.

Published
As: A short
story in
Reader's

Digest.

Writing the

Narrative
Now that
you've
decided what

story you
want to tell,
it's time to
write. Try
answering

the following
questions
before you
write the
first draft

and again
before you
revise:
knowing the
answers will

help you to
create more
effective
narratives.

 Why am I
telling this
story?
All stories

should have
a point.
Before you
begin
writing,

make sure
that you
know the
purpose of
your story.

Readers
aren't
interested in
stories that
go nowhere

or are
meaningless
.
Does my

story fit into

the
requirement
s of the
assignment?

Writing
assignments
usually have
requirement
s (what

should be
included)
and
restrictions
(what

should not
be
included). If
you're
writing for a

college
course, you
may have
been asked
to write

about a
particular
subject or
told how
long your

narrative
should be. If
you're
writing for a
publication,

your editor
probably
will specify
what kind of
a story and

how long it
should be
before you
start.

 What
details are
most
important

to the story?
As you
know, every
narrative
needs

details to be
interesting
and to make
its point.
Details are

the way that

narrative
writers
draw
pictures;

they are the

tools of the
trade for a
writer, like
paints and

brushes are
for a
painter.
While there
may be

many vivid
details of an
event in
your
memory,

you must be
selective in
writing a
narrative
essay.

Choose only
those details
that are
important
to the point

of the story.
For
example,
you could
write fifty

pages about
dinner at a
fancy
restaurant,
right down

to the color
of the
cashier's
shoes;
however,

most of
those details
have
nothing to
do with the

point of the
story and
simply
would bore
the reader if

you include
them.
Am I going
to "tell" or

"show" the
reader?
There is
world of
difference

between
telling and
showing the
events that
make up a

memory.
Telling a
reader
something is

like
repeating a
story that
you've heard
or reporting

on something
you've
witnessed.
For example,
you could

write:When
my brother
John saw the
Yankees play,
he was

happy. This
sentence
conveys
something
about John's

experience,
but doesn't
draw a
picture or
pull the

reader into
the memory.
Showing
involves the

reader more
in the
narrative
because your
word choices

make
him/her see,
hear, smell,
taste, and
feel

everything
that you or
your
characters
experienced.

For example,
you could
rewrite the
sentence
from

above: John'
s eyes lit up
and the
broad curve
of his lips

told me that
he was going
to enjoy this
show. The
Yankee

pitcher could
walk every
player and
my brother
wouldn't

care-he was
finally here,
at a real
baseball
game where

heroes are
made one day
and fade
away the
next. What

more could a
kid with a
passion for
baseball ever
want? This

passage uses
active verbs,
nouns, and
adjectives to
show, rather

than tell,
John's
response to
the baseball

game.
How will I
organize the
story?

Since a
narrative is
a story, you
must decide
in what

order you
want to tell
it. Do you
want to
write it as it

happened?
If so, you
would write
in
chronologic

al order,
relating the
events in the
exact order
of their

occurrence.
On the
other hand,
you could
start the

story in the
present
time, and
then use a
series of

"flashbacks
" to tell the
story as it
happened in
the past.

Sometimes
using
flashbacks
can help you
to tell a

more
engaging
story, but
this
technique

must be
used
carefully.
Verb tenses
need special

attention
because
they must
be
consistent so

the reader
can
distinguish
(tell apart)
present and

past events.
What will
my point of
view be?

The first
person point
of
view means
that you are

an active
character in
the story.
You use "I"
or "we"

throughout
the
narrative
because it's
your own

observations
that you're
describing.
Sometimes
student

writers
think that
they can
never use
the first

person in
college
writing.
However,
the purpose

of the
writing, in
this case to
tell a
personal

memory,
dictates that
the writer
should use
first person

to tell about
him/herself.
The third
person point

of
view means
that you are
telling the
story from a

more
objective
stance. You
would use
pronouns

such as "he,"
"she," or
"they" to
describe
what the

characters
are doing or
feeling. You
might even
talk about

yourself in
the third
person and
distance
yourself

from the
memory
being told.
There are
many

interesting
ways to
accomplish
this goal. You
could write

using the
voice of a
person very
different
from

yourself,
such as that
of a child. If
you decide to
write in a

voice other
than your
own, try
describing
ideas, people,

and settings
from the
perspective
of that
different

person.
Experiment
and find out
what works.

 What kind
of language
and what
tone of voice

will I use in
the essay?
You need to
know what
kind of

language
you're going
to use when
writing your
narrative.

Are you
going to
speak
informally
as though

you're
talking to
the reader
as someone
you know,

like an
intimate
friend? This
technique,
called

a conversati
onal approa
ch, is
effective for
some

stories. Are
you going to
speak more
formally, as
if the

narrative is
written for a
professor or
other less
intimate

audience?
This is a
safe
technique
for writing

narratives
due in
college
classes. Just
remember

that
although
"safe" can
work well,
it's not

always as
interesting
as taking a
risk in

writing.
Exercise
Take one of
the narrative

ideas from
the previous
exercise and
place it into
the text box

below. Below
the idea,
answer each
of the
questions

we've
presented
above for the
idea you
selected.

When you've
finished,
you'll have
laid the
groundwork

for a
narrative
essay. Print
the
information

in the text
box, and save
it for future
use.

Summary
You've
learned the

basic
principles of
relating
memories
through the

narrative
essay. Use
the
guidelines,
information,

and exercises
in this lesson
to help you
write
narratives

for yourself,
instructors,
and general
audiences.
Smarthinkin

g Writer's
Handbook
Chapter 1,
Lesson 2

Writing
About
Observations

Objective
In this
lesson, you'll
learn the

principles of
observing
people,
places,
things, and

activities;
you will also
practice
writing
detailed

observations
about them.
Types of
Writing that

Require
Observations
The basic
principles of

good
observations
are
important to
many kinds

of writing.
Observing
something
that has
happened

and then
writing
about it is a
task that
you'll face

both in
college and
at work.
Writing
about

observations
is common in
courses
where you
will need to

narrate (tell
stories) and
careers that
require
certain kinds

of research,
such as field
research and
scientific
writing. [See

"Writing
about
Memories"a
nd "Writing
Scientific or

Technical
Reports." ]
Types of
Writing that

Require
Observations
Observation
is a building

block of
many types
of writing.
That's
because

much of
what we
write about
is based on
the activities

of everyday
life. Here are
some of the
times that
observation

is important
to writing.
Can you
think of

others?
Writing a
story, or
narrative,

whether it is
true
(nonfiction)
or created
(fiction).

Careful
observation
of people
and how
they talk to

each other is
critical for
either kind
of story.

 Using a
short
anecdote,
another

form of
narrative, as
an example
in an essay.
One

example is
writing an
essay about
the quality
of college

cafeteria
food, where
you use an
anecdote
about a

particular
meal that
was
especially

good or bad.
Doing field
research to
investigate

something.
For
example,
you might
go to a war

memorial in
a city park
and record
how people

react to it.
Telling
about an
event in an

official
report. For
instance,
you might
need to

describe a
crime or
accident
scene to the
police or the

insurance
company.
What are the
Basic

Principles of
Written
Observations
?

Strong
writers know
what to look
for when
they observe

something
happening.
They know
that they
must address

their subject
carefully and
thoroughly.
Writing
about

observations
requires that
the writer:
Use precise

language in
recording
what has
occurred.

 Use strong,
active verbs
and
descriptive

adjectives.
Record
details and
numbers

accurately
and in the
order in
which they
were

observed.
Know and
understand
the subject

under
observation,
leading to
the ability to
write with

authority.
One major
tool of strong
observations

is description
, the ability
to use details
that will
allow your

reader/s
to see, hear,
touch,
taste, and fee
l what you

are
describing.
Exercise
This exercise

will give you

an
opportunity
to "warm
up" your

observation
and writing
skills using
description.

Close your
eyes and
think about
the last
person that

you had a
conversation
with before
you sat down
at the

computer to
read this
lesson.
Pretend that
the police are

asking you
for a
description
of this
person and

that you
need to be
very exact in
details.

In the text
box below,
record
everything
that you

remember
about that
person. Who
was the
person?

What was
s/he
wearing?
Were the
clothes

appropriate
for today's
weather?
What did
his/her hair

look like?
Was it clean?
Was it styled
in a
particular

way? How
did this
person
smell? Did
s/he have

fresh breath
from a
powerful
mint or was
there a bit of

lunch left on
the teeth?

How did you

do? What
kinds of
details did
you
remember?

Did you
forget
anything that
could help
you to

describe this
person to the
police? Did
you write
with

authority
using
descriptive
details,
active verbs,

and
adjectives?
Hints for
Strong

Observations
You may
have noticed
how

challenging it
can be to
write about
something
you no

longer are
looking
either a great
memory or
good notes

are very
important to
writing
about

observations.
Take good
notes. The
better notes

that you
take, the
less you
have to rely
on your

memory for
details that
might be
important.

 Carry and
use a
journal for
jotting

down the
details of
whatever
you are
observing. If

you make a
habit of
taking
notes, you
will always

have the
details you
need at your
fingertips.

 Write your
observation
as soon as
possible

after the
event or
activity
about which
you will

write.
Keep your
goal, or
purpose, in

mind. Why
are you
writing
about a
particular

observation
? What do
you want to
have occur
as a result of

this piece
(e.g., a
grade? a
reimbursem
ent from

your
insurance
company? a
better
understandi

ng of how
certain
people react
to
memorials

of past
wars?)
Keep your
audience in

mind.
Writing
about
observations
is easier

when you
understand
what your
reader/s
want or

need from
the piece.
[See "How
the
Audience

Affects the
Purpose for
Writing" an
d "Analyzin
g the

Audience".]
Summary
In this
lesson, we

reviewed
some of the
reasons that
people write
about

observations
and what
kinds of
details are
useful in

strong
observation
writing. With
some
practice,

your written
descriptions
of people,
places,
things, and

activities will
allow your
reader/s to
really see,
hear, touch,

taste, and
feel your
subject.
Smarthinkin
g Writer's

Handbook
Chapter 1,
Lesson 3

Writing to
Investigate
and Evaluate
Objective

In this
lesson, you'll
learn the
principles of
investigating,

or inquiring
into, a
subject;
analyzing it;
and

communicati
ng your
evaluation to
an audience
who is

unfamiliar
with the
subject. The
writing that
comes from

such an
investigation
is sometimes
called an
evaluative

essay.
The
Evaluative
Essay

When you
write to
inquire,
you'll be
writing

an evaluative
essay. To
develop this
kind of essay,
you'll go

through at
least three
steps:
1. Inquire

into a
problem or
issue by
investigatin
g and

researching
it with as
little bias as
possible.

2. Analyze
and critique
the problem
or issue,
enabling

you to form
(or earn) an
educated
opinion

about it.
3. Present
your
findings to

your
audience.
The
evaluative

essay is
different
from an
expository
essay. In

expository
writing, it's
assumed that
you already
know

something-perhaps a
great deal-about the
subject

you're
writing on.
You may
have done a
lot of

research to
develop that
authority
about the
subject. Your

job in an
exposition is
to explain
something to
the audience

by using a
thesis
statement
and
supportive

details and
evidence
throughout
the essay.

Writing to
inquire and
evaluate is
different.
When you

inquire into
an issue,
you're acting
as an
investigator

who may
have little
prior
knowledge
about the

subject, just
as your
audience
may know
little about it.

The
evaluative
essay is
written after
the

investigation
is complete
and you take
the audience
along that

exploratory
path with
you. You
have two
jobs. Your

primary job
is to report
on two sides
of an issue
where people

disagree. You
need to
approach the
issue as
objectively as

possible,
showing the
positive (pro)
and the
negative

(con) sides
equally. Your
secondary
job is to
evaluate the

two positions
and write a
fair and
logical
critique that

shows you
have earned
your opinion.
The critique
itself is the

place to
express your
earned
opinion.

When you're
writing for a
college
course, your
teacher may

or may not
be a fellow
inquirer.
However,
your

teacher is gra
ding your
investigative
process on
the quality of

your
thinking and
your written
evaluation on
its

effectiveness
as a piece of
communicati
on. In other
instances

outside of the
college
setting,
fellow
inquirers

(such as your
boss or work
team) won't
grade you,
but they will

judge what
you say and
how you say
it. So it's
important

that you
investigate
carefully,
earn your
opinion by

learning
what you can
about the
subject, and
report fairly

and
critically.
Why write
evaluative

essays?
You need to
know how to
do many

kinds of
writing.
However, the
evaluative
essay

probably is
the writing
task that
you'll face
most

frequently in
the work
world.
Managers in
every

company and
all
government
officials have
workers on

their staffs
who spend
time
researching
and

evaluating
problems.
You might be
asked
by your man

ager to
investigate
an issue for
the benefit of
your

company.
Similarly,
you could be
chosen by a

community
group to
research an
issue on
behalf of the

entire group.
You may
even decide
to investigate
and evaluate

something on
your own,
and present
your findings
to an

audience of
your choice.
In each case,
your job is to
be an

informed
and
respected
critic of the
issue, a

person whose
judgment
people can
trust.

In this
lesson, we'll
make some
suggestions
that will help

you become
a better
inquirer.
We'll take
each of the

three parts of
the job in
turn:
inquiring,
analyzing,

and writing.
First,
however, let's
consider an
example of

the kind of
topic you
might look at
in an inquiry.

An Example
Suppose that
you've been
asked to

investigate
and evaluate
the
controversial
issue of using

the Internet
to digitally
record and
share music
that usually

is purchased
on compact
discs (CDs).
People on
one side of

the issue say

that this
practice is
stealing and
unfair to the

performing
artists who
lose money
when their
CDs are not

purchased.
People on the
other side of
the issue say
that sharing

music on the
Internet is a
way to
exercise the
American

principle of
freedom of
information
and that the
practice

actually
benefits
performers
by
generating

interest in
their
products.
These
are polarized

positions, or
opposing
views. Your
job is to:

1. Investigat
e what
people say
on both
sides of the

issue;
2. Explain
the positions
to your

reader/s
without
showing
your own
opinion, or

bias;
3. Critique
the positions
for their

reasonablen
ess and
logic; and
4. Form and

express your
own
"earned"
opinion
based on

your
inquiry.
Principles of
Good

Inquiry
Develop a
Desire to
Learn

About Your
Subject
A good
inquiry
always

starts with a
desire to
learn
something.
Some

researchers
call this "an
itch to
know."
Without this

itch, you
may find
yourself
feeling
bored or

unfairly
pressed into
research.
So, the first
principle is

to engage
the subject
by
developing
good

questions to
ask. These
questions
are tied to a
second

principle.
You need a
goal for
your
investigatio

n. What
information
do you need
and what
understandi

ng do you
want to
achieve?
Some
familiarity

with a
subject is
helpful if
you are
going to ask

good
questions
about it, but
you
certainly

can
investigate a
topic that is
new to you.

 Ask Good
Questions
Good
journalists

begin their
investigatio
ns of their
subjects by
asking six

basic
questions: w
ho,
what, when,
where, why,

and how.
These
questions
form the
basis of an

objective
report on
the basic
elements of
an issue.

You can
begin your
own
questioning
from these

same
questions.
Remember
that you are
looking at

both sides of
the issue,
however,
and need to
ask these

questions
for each
position.
Know

Yourself
What is
your
personal
reaction, or

bias, to the
subject or
problem? Is
there
anything in

your
background
that causes
you to react
to the

problem in
a
particularly
negative or
positive

way? In
other words,
is there
anything
that will

keep you
from
investigatin
g the subject
in an

objective, or
unbiased,
way? By
knowing the
answers to

these
questions,
you can put
aside some
of your

opinions to
conduct a
more fair
inquiry.

Exercise
In the
textbox
below, write

five good
questions
that will help
you to
investigate

the problem
of "sharing"
music on the
Internet.
Remember

to question
both sides of
this issue (10
questions
total). Do

you have any

personal bias
that you will
have to put
aside in

order to do
an objective
investigation
?

The
Principles of
Good

Analysis
Choose a
Strategy
You need a

logical
framework
for posing
questions
about the

subject and
evaluating
the answers
that you
uncover.

Here are
some
examples of
strategies
that you

could use to
ask
questions
about a
topic.

Remember,
these are
only
examples
and not all

strategies
will work
equally well
for all

subjects.
o Examine
the issue
from the

perspective
of a
hypothetica
l "average
person." W

ould such a
person
have a
different
point of

view than
"experts"?
What does
the average
college

student
think about
using the
Internet to
share

music?
What does
the average
musician

think?
o Examine
the
question

from a
quantitativ
e or
mathemati
cal

perspective
. To do this,
you'll need
to find a
relevant

numerical
standard
that relates
to the
subject,

and then
compare
your
subject to
the

standard.
How much
money does
the average
musician

make on a
CD? How
much
money does
the average

college
student
spend on
CDs each
month?

What
would the
net loss be
to
performers

whose
recordings
are
"shared"
using the

Internet?
o Examine
an issue
from a

social,
economic,
or political
perspective
. What

economic
principles
are
involved
with the

sale and
purchase of
CDs? How
is the
economy

affected by
the free
sharing of
property
on the

Internet?
o Examine
an issue in
historical

context. Ho
w are the
views of
musical
performers

related to
the historic
practice of
making
and selling

records,
tapes, and
CDs? How
are the
views of the

college
student as
consumers
influenced
by this

historic
practice?
The key to
good analysis

is to choose a
framework
for
questioning
that works

for the
subject, and
then to stick
to it. Asking
questions

from too
many
different
perspectives
will confuse

you and may

confuse your
reader when
you write the

essay.
Be
Objective W
hen you

analyze a
subject that
you have
investigated,
you are

representing
yourself to
your
audience as
a neutral

and
unbiased
observer.
It's critical
that you set

aside any
preconcepti
ons you
have about
the subject

and
approach it
with an
open mind.
It's also

important
that you tell
your
audience
about

personal or
financial
interests
that you
have in the

subject.
Exercise
Choose a
framework

for inquiring
into the issue
of "sharing"
music on the
Internet. In

the textbox
below,
answer the
following
questions.

Why did you

select this
framework?
Where will
you have to

go to get
answers to
your
questions?
How can you

maintain
objectivity?

Principles

for Writing
Organizati
on of the
Essay

1. Introdu
ction:
Identify
the issue

2. Body:
Present
both sides
equally

3. Body:
Analyze
the
reasoning
of both

sides, and
4. Conclus
ion:
Express

and
support
your
informed

opinion.
Beginning
the Essay
Begin your

essay with
an
introduction
that will
guide your

audience.
Tell the
reader/s:
1. What

your
issue is
2. What
the two

polarized
positions
are, and
3. What

your
conclusio
n, or
thesis, is
regarding

the issue.
As you
report
objectively

on both sides
of the issue,
remember
that you
must show

that you
have
researched
and really
understand

it. Your own

bias and
opinions do
not belong in
this part of

the essay. In
fact, you'll
earn your
audience's
trust and

respect by
being
objective
here.

 Analyze
the Issue
Having
completed

the
objective
report, your
next job is
to analyze

the issue.
Here you
may reveal
an
"educated

opinion" by
judging the
reasons that
both sides
have for

their
positions.
You can
make
comparisons

, show their
differences,
or reveal the
causes and
effects of the

positions.
This is your
opportunity
to question
one side's

position
against the
other's and
determine
which one

makes the
most sense
to you. Your
analysis
must

include why
you have
formed this
opinion.

 Support
Your
Conclusions
With

Evidence
You can
convince
your
readers that

your
conclusions
are fair and
valid by
providing

strong
reasons and
accurate
details when
you write

your
analysis.
Use
examples,
facts,

statistics,
quotations
from
authorities,
and other

credible
research to
support
your
conclusions.

Don't state
your
analysis as
an opinion;
instead, use

evidence to
root it in
facts.
Look For

the Positive
and the
Negative
Many new
writers

make the
mistake of
focusing
their writing
only on the

positive or
the negative
side of the
subject
they're

discussing.
As an
objective
"reporter,"
you should

let the
audience
know ALL
sides of the
issue. Only

in the end of
this type of
an essay
should you
reveal the

opinion that
you have
earned. You
do this by
presenting

the results
of your
analysis in a
fair manner.

Summary
Investigating
a subject and
communicati

ng your
analysis and
conclusions
to an
audience is

an important
responsibility
. Following
the
principles of

good inquiry,
your writing
will reveal
that you're a
person whose

judgment
can be
trusted.
Smarthinkin
g Writer's

Handbook
Chapter 1,
Lesson 4

Exposition:
Explaining
Why
Objective

In this
lesson, you'll
learn how to
write an
expository

essay that
explains why
something is
or is not.

What is
Expository
Writing?
Expository

writing
involves
explaining
concepts and
ideas to

others who
may not be
familiar with
them.
Writing to

explain,
or exposition
, is very
much like
teaching

someone. To
explain, or
expose, a
subject
requires that

you
know why an
d how somet
hing is or is

not.
There are
two basic
types of

exposition.
One
addresses the
questions
of why and w

hy not. The
other type
addresses the
question
of how to do

something,
often called
a process
paper. This
lesson will

address the
first type of
essay that
explains why.
To learn

more about
the second
type of
exposition
the how to,

or process
papersee E
xposition:
Explaining

How To.
Expository
essays are
among the

most
frequently
assigned
types of
writing for

college
courses.
Because
you'll write
expository

essays often,
it's helpful to
review some
of the most
important

principles for
this kind of
writing.
You'll also
find

exposition
useful in the
work world
outside of
school.

Memos in
the office,
"how-to"
manuals in
the shop,

procedure
papers at the
factory
someone who
knows the

subject has
to write them
all, and often
that person
will be you.

Promotions
and
increased
responsibiliti
es at work

can come
from
knowing how
to explain
information

to your coworkers.
Audience
and Purpose

When your
audience is a
teacher who
has assigned
the essay and

if the
assignment is
based on
your class
work, there

is a good
chance that
s/he knows a
great deal
about the

subject. In
that case,
the purpose
of your essay
is to test your

knowledge a
nd ability to
express the
ideas clearly.
However,

when your
audience is
your
classmates or
a group not

directly
involved in
your writing
situation,
you must

analyze the
audience to
consider how
much they
might know

about your
subject. If
they know
very little, or
if you are

presenting
the material
in a new way
for them,
then

your purpose
in writing
the essay
is to teach
the audience

something.
[See "How
the Audience
Affects the
Purpose for

Writing"
and
"Analyzing
the

Audience."]
Explaining
Why:
Offering

Reasons
Why do
some
farmers like

to keep their
cows
pregnant in
the winter?

 Why are
some college
students
better test-

takers than
others?
Why
doesn't the

American
college
student say
the "Pledge
of

Allegiance"
every
morning?
These are the

kinds of
questions
that require
explanations

of why.
Addressing
these
questions

requires
several steps
from you as
the writer:

 Find good
answers for
the
question.

There are
multiple
reasons that
some
students

take tests
better than
others. Your
job is to
research the

question
and find
these
reasons.
Good

strategies
include
asking
students
and college

testing
center
workers
(called field
research),

finding
articles in
professional
journals
and books,

reviewing
social
science
textbooks,
and

searching
the Internet
for
answers.

 Formulate
a thesis.
A thesis for
an

exposition
generally is
nonargumentati
ve in nature.

Although
there
certainly are
different
viewpoints

that people
can hold
about the
questions
that are

posed
above, a
thesis for a
paper that
explains wh

y is
expressed in
a somewhat
matter-offact manner.

For
example, a
thesis
sentence for
the first

question
might
be: Keeping
cows
pregnant in

the winter is
a natural
method of
conserving
energy. A

thesis for
the second
question
might
be: Some

college
students are
better test
takers than
others

because of
such factors
as their
early testing
experiences,

their
learning
styles, and
their ability
to focus

when under
pressure.
Exercise
Think of two

different
thesis
sentences for
the third
question

posed above
and type
them in the
text box
below. Then,

click on our
response to
compare.

 Determine
what kinds

of reasons
you'll need
to support
this thesis.
Every

expository
essay needs
to be
supported
by reasons.

The natural
answer to
the
question "w
hy" is "beca

use." So, to
list good
reasons for
your thesis
statement,

think of as
many becau
se statement
s as you can.
Notice how

the
following
thesis is
written with
the reasons

stated
within
it: "Some
college
students are

better test
takers than
others
because of
such factors

as their
early testing
experiences,
their
learning

styles, and
their ability
to focus
when under
pressure."

Of course,
the writer
does not
need to limit
him or

herself to
just these
three
reasons.
Other

reasons for
being a poor
test taker
include
learning

disabilities,
dislike of
the testing
process, and
poor study

habits. All
of these
reasons
could be
included in

one
expository
essay,
although the
thesis

sentence
itself would
need to
change to
something

less
definitive,
such
as "There
are a

number of
valid
reasons that
some college
students are

better test
takers than
others."
Let your

thesis guide
your essay's
developmen
t.
A thesis can

be a
wonderful
tool for
guiding
both you

and your
readers in
the
explanation
that you're

writing.
Using the
thesis, "Som
e college
students are

better test
takers than
others
because of
such factors

as their
early testing
experiences,
their
learning

styles, and
their ability
to focus
when under
pressure," y

ou can see
that there
are three
reasons
offered and

that these
three
reasons will
need to be
explained in

detail with
supportive
evidence.
You will
need a

minimum of
three
paragraphs
in the body
of the essay,

but you can

write more;
if your essay
is supposed
to be very

detailed and
has a page
requirement
of more
than three

pages, you
might find
that you
need three
to five body

paragraphs
for each
reason
offered!

On the other
hand, the
thesis, "Ther
e are a
number of

valid reasons
that some
college
students are
better test

takers than
others," sugg
ests only that
you will offer
reasons in

support of
the thesis.
You will
write as
many

reasons as
you think are
reasonable
and the
essay's

paragraphs
will develop
by one-tothree
paragraphs

per reasonlimited only

by your
understandin
g of the

subject, your
audience's
needs, and
the page
requirements

of the essay.
Let your
thesis guide
your essay's

organization
.
Just as your
thesis can
guide your

developmen
t of reasons
and sense of
paragraphin
g for the

essay, it can
guide your
organization
of your
reasons. You

can look at
the reasons
offered in
the
following

thesis
sentence
and see that
an
organization

al pattern
already is
suggested
for
you: "Some

college
students are
better test
takers than
others

because of
such factors
as their
early testing
experiences,

their
learning
styles, and
their ability
to focus

when under
pressure."
However,
you still
need to

think about
your
organization
. Are these
three

reasons in
the most
useful
order? Is
the first

reason one
that needs
to be
addressed
before the

second or
third one
can be?
Have you
deliberately

decided to
place the
reasons in
the order of
most to least

important
or vice
versa?
When your
thesis is well

written, it
can truly
guide your
writing
process and

your
reader's
understandi
ng of the
reasons that

you'll
provide.
Exercise
Return for a

moment to
the thesis
sentences
that you
wrote in the

exercise
above. Do
your thesis
sentences
indicate what

kinds of
reasons
you'll need to
give for the
essay? Do

they assist
you in
planning the
essay's
organization

? In the
textbox
below, copy
one of your
thesis

sentences
and list the
reasons in
the order
that you

think they
should be
presented.
How long do
you think

your essay
will need to
be to explain
this thesis?

 Other tips
for writing

strong
expository
essays:
Use concrete

language.
Use language
that will
convey your
ideas clearly.

Readers who
are learning
from your
essay want to
concentrate

on what
you're
teaching, not
on figuring
out the

meaning of
your words.
Be specific
and include
all necessary

details. A
word of
caution,
though
don't go to

the other
extreme of
including
unnecessary
details!

Unrelated or
irrelevant
information
can be as
confusing to

the reader as
too little
information.
Support your

statements
with
evidence.
Your essay
will only be

useful to
your readers
(and
acceptable to
your

professors) if
you use solid
and
sufficient
evidence to

support your
explanations.
Good sources
of evidence
are facts,

example,
anecdotal
stories,
statistics or
numbers,

and
testimony
from
authority

figures.
Write an
interesting
introduction

and a
summarizing
conclusion.
As with most
writing,

academic or
otherwise,
readers
require some
introduction

to a subject
why it is
important,
interesting,
or relatively

unknown.
Your
introduction
actually tells
readers why

they should
read further.
Likewise,
especially in
an

exposition,
your
conclusion
serves an
important

function of
summarizing
and restating
the reasons
provided in

your
explanation.
In essays
that "teach,"
the general

rule is to tell
the readers
what you are
going to talk
about

(introduction
), talk about
it (body
paragraphs),
and then tell

them what
you talked
about
(conclusion).

Review the
first draft for
a new thesis.
An
interesting

occurrence
in essay
writing is
that
sometimes

you will start

a draft with
what you
believe is
your thesis

and then,
during the
writing
process, you
will discover

a stronger or
more clear
thesis. Look
at your final
body

paragraphs
and the
conclusion to
see whether
you actually

want to say
something
new or
different. If
this has

happened,
congratulate
yourself! It
means that
by engaging

in the
writing
process, you
have let your
thinking

develop and
grow to a
new level. To
address the
new thesis,

cut and paste

it to your
introduction
paragraph
and revise

each
paragraph to
support the
reasons and
new main

points
suggested by
that thesis.
Summary

You'll use
expository
writing to
explain ideas

and concepts
many times
during your
college and
professional

careers. By
following
these
principles,
you can

prepare
yourself for
writing
successful
and helpful

explanations.
Smarthinking
Writer's

Handbook
Chapter 1,
Lesson 6

Writing to
Argue a
Position
Objective

In this lesson,
you'll learn
how to
develop an
argument

designed to
convince
readers that
your position
is logical and

reasonable.
Introduction
You'll write
many

arguments in
your college
career.
Understandin
g how to

create an
academic
argument is
one key to
success in

college
writing
assignments.
Most of those
arguments

will be
written as
research
papers in
your major

discipline;
they're
called researc
h
papers simply

because you
must
investigate
issues to form
educated

opinions.
Other names
for these
kinds of
arguments

are academic
or intellectual
arguments.
Writing these

arguments
requires you
to take a
position and
defend it. You

do not have to
convince your
audience that
you are
"correct"; it

is impossible
to convince
all of your
readers that
your position

is the only or
the right one.
Instead, your
primary
purpose is to

convince your
audience that
your position
is valid,
logical,

and/or worth
considering.
Elements of
the

Intellectual
Argument
Audience
and purpose

 Thesis
(assertion)
Good
reasons and

logical
evidence
Counterarguments

 Introductio
n and
conclusion
Documentat

ion
Audience and
Purpose
Before you

write an
intellectual
argument,
consider your
audience and

purpose. If
your audience
is your
professor,
there is a

good chance
that s/he
knows more
about the
subject than

you do. In
that case, the
purpose of
the argument
becomes a

test of your
ability to
form a
reasonable
thesis and to

support and
defend it
logically and
thoroughly.
However,

even if your
professor
knows
something
about your

issue, when
you conduct a
good
investigation,
you become

the subjectarea expert

and there's a
very good
chance that

your
argument will
present new
materials and
ways of

thinking
about your
subject.
If your

audience is
broader than
your
professor
alone

(possibly
including
your
classmates,
peers, or the

readers of a
newspaper
editorial or
Internet
website),

you'll be
arguing your
position to
people who
probably

know less
than you
about the
issue. Then,
you really

have the
opportunity
to influence
someone's
way of

thinking
about your
issuethe
stakes are
higher and

the writing
becomes more
exciting.
Thesis

(Assertion)
Many times,
your
professor

will assign
the paper
and maybe
even the
specific

subject.
However,
most likely
it'll be up to
you to

choose the
angle that
you want to
research on
the topic and

the position
that you
choose to
take. If the
choice of

topic is up to
you, find a
topic that
interests you.
Perhaps

your
professor
lectured
about
something

fascinating
or maybe
there was an
interesting
question in a

textbook. No
matter what
subject you
pick, be sure
that it's a

topic in
which you
are
genuinely
interested

and about
which you're
willing to
learn more.
People who

are engaged
in their
research
write more
interesting

and original
papers.
Choose a
topic that'll

allow you to
take a side.
Academic
arguments
seek to

address
questions
that people
are
concerned

about.
Research
papers that
argue a
position do

so with
subjects for
which there
are no
certain

answers. In
fact, these
arguments
are built on
controversial

topics where
more than
one view, or
position, is
possible.

Your
position is
a stance that
amounts to
an attitude

or judgment
about some
issue.
So, you need

to avoid
topics that
are simply a
matter of
opinion or

that just need

an
explanation.
Instead, focus
on topics

where
reasoned and
logical
argument can
support an

informed
view. For
example, it
would be
hard to build

an argument
around the
thesis "Roses
are the most
beautiful

flowers"; in
this sentence,
you're simply
stating an
opinion, or

preference
you can't
argue about
that. The
sentence "It

takes many
years to
cultivate a
beautiful
garden" also

won't work;
this thesis
calls for an
explanation
of "why." [see

"Exposition:
Explaining
Why"]
Write an

assertion
that reveals
your
position. An
academic

argument
that argues
for a position
requires a
special kind

of thesis,
often called
anassertion.
An assertion
is a

statement
that often
(but not
always)
includes a

modal verb
such as
"should" or
"ought" and
asks the

writer to
make a
judgment of
fact or of
value.

Examples of
assertions
that argue
for positions

are:
1. Capital
punishment
should be

abolished
because
human
juries can
make

mistakes in
their
decisions.
2. People

who
download
and "share"
music on
the Internet

are stealing
from
performing
artists.

3. When
children kill
other
children, as
in recent

slayings in
American
public
schools,
they should

be tried as
adults.
Notice that
each of the

above
assertions
takes a
clearly
defined

position on a
controversial
issue. The
writer's
intention

can't be
mistaken and
readers know
that a strong
argument

must follow.
Academic
arguments
can be

written about
your college
subjects, as
well:

1. Biology or
Botany: The
health
benefits of
radiation for

food far
outweigh the
risks.
2. Psychology

: Even
though it
seems
barbaric,
electroshock

therapy
should be
used in the
fight against
emotional

illness.
3. Political
Science:
America

should use
its power to
stop
genocide
anywhere in

the world.
Be certain
that your
position is

arguable. Yo
ur assertion
should be
consistent
with

available
evidence.
You can't
build an
intellectual

argument on
opinion
alone.
Therefore,
you must do

research to
find support
for the
argument, or
claim, that

you're
making.
Then, ask
yourself, "Is
this a claim

that I
realistically
can ask
people to
accept?"

Likewise, the
assertion
should
present a
claim that

reasonably
can be
argued
within the
space (page)

and time
(due date)
limitations of
your
assignment.

Sometimes,
student
writers go
out on a limb
with

statements
that can't be
supported in
a relatively
short essay

(6 - 12
pages).
Exercise
In the textbox

below, write
two possible
assertions
about an issue
that you are

researching.
Compare
them against
the assertions
presented

above.
Answer the
following
questions:
Does each

assertion
address
something
that is
controversial

? Does each
assertion
clearly state a
position with
which others

can disagree?
In other
words, is each
assertion
arguable or

does it
represent a
thesis that
simply needs
a "why" or

"how"
explanation
(exposition)?

Good reasons
and logical
evidence
Know what

kinds of
evidence will
be
convincing to
your

audience. Ac
ademic
arguments
appeal
primarily to

the intellect
to logic.
So, you need
reasons for
your position

and each
reason must
be supported
by evidence
that defines,

defends,
and/or
justifies it.
Be sure to
define

special terms
for your
audience.
Let's use the

following
assertion as
an
example: "W
hen children

kill other
children, as in
recent
slayings in
American

public
schools, they
should be
tried as
adults." What

reasons can
we provide
for this
assertion?
Notice that

the claim is
qualified
by "as in
recent
slayings in

American
public
schools,"whic
h means that
we're not

talking about
a child who
finds her
father's
handgun and

accidentally
shoots her
best friend.
This assertion
focuses on

purposeful
killings, or
murder.
Reasons:

1. When
children
make a
decision to
kill

classmates,
they are
using free
will, as

adults do.
2. Children
who kill
their

classmates
have
destroyed
the lives of
other

children
and have
lost the
right to
childhood

themselves.
3. Children
who have
killed their

classmates
should not
be in a
position to
kill again,

as they
might be if
tried as a
juvenile and
released

from
custody at
age
eighteen.

These reasons
can be
supported by
certain kinds
of logical,

nonemotional
evidence that
people are
likely to find

convincing.
These kinds
of evidence
are:

4. Facts
5. Examples
6. Statistics,
percentages,

or other
numbers
7. Expert
testimony

from
authorities
8. Narrative
stories

(anecdotes)
from people
with
experience

in the issue
Exercise
Look at the
following

reason for
asserting that
children
should be
tried as adults

when they
murder other
children: "W
hen children
make a

decision to
kill
classmates,
they are using
free will, as

adults do." In
the textbox
below, list
some
evidence that

might
support this
reason.
Where would
you find such

evidence?
When you're
done, click
the Compare
button to

view a sample
response.
Remember:

to convince
your audience
that your
position is
logical, you

need to
provide good
evidence for
each of your

reasons.
Counterarguments
Academic

arguments
that assert
and defend a
position need
to take into

account what
people who
disagree
would say
about the

argument.
The
disagreement
s are called
"counter-

arguments"
and your job
as a writer is
to find the
best counter-

arguments to
your position
and address
them. Ask
yourself: Wha

t bias or
opinions will
your audience
have against
your assertion

or claim?
Usually,
writers
address

counterarguments
after
presenting
their own

reasons. By
addressing
the opposing
point of view,
you'll earn

your
audience's
respect and
strengthen
your logical

position.
Two possible
counterarguments to

the above
assertion are:
1. Children
who kill,

even if the
killing
appears to
be
premeditate

d murder,
are not
mature
enough to
have made

an adult
decision.
2. There is no
way to

predict
whether such
children will
kill again, so
it is better to

give them a
second
chance.
Can you

think of any
other
counterarguments
that this

argument
should
address?
Introduction/

Conclusion
Good
arguments
will present

an interesting
introduction
that tells the
reader:

1. What the
issue is,
2. Why it is
controversial

(background
),
3. Why it is
important

(background
), and
4. What your
position

(assertion) is.
The
introduction
sets up your

argument and
reveals your
assertion.
However, you
might find it

easier to write
an interesting
introduction
AFTER
you've

written your
first or
second draft
of the paper.
By then,

you'll be
much more
certain of
exactly what
you want to

argue and
why.
Good
arguments

also present
the reader/s
with an
interesting
conclusion.

The
conclusion
pulls together
the entire
argument,

summarizing
and stressing
the main
points. More
than that, in

an academic
argument, the
conclusion
offers you a
chance to

suggest
further
consideration
of the
problem or

research that
people should
do.
Sometimes,
the

conclusion is
a good place
to ask
questions for
which you

have no
answers--this
strategy
leaves the
reader

thinking. Ask
your
professor
whether it's
okay to ask

thoughtprovoking
questions at
the end of

your paper.
Documentatio
n
Finally, in an

argument
that is
intended for
your college
classes, you'll

probably be
asked to
document
your sources.
Ask your

professor
which method
s/he prefers
for
documentatio

n and then
follow the
format
precisely.

Summary
You'll write
academic or
intellectual

essays in most
of your
college
courses. A
good essay

that argues a
position will
(1) address a
specific
audience and

purpose, (2)
have an
arguable
assertion, (3)
support the

assertion with
good reasons
and logical
evidence, (4)
address

counterarguments,
and (5) will
provide
thought-

provoking
and
informative
introduction
and

conclusion.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 7
Writing to

Persuade
Objective
In this lesson,
you'll learn to

develop a
persuasive
argument
that
convinces

audiences to
share your
beliefs and
motivates
them to take

action.
What is
Persuasion?
Persuasion

attempts to
move people
to action, to
get them
to do somethi

ng. For more

than two
thousand
years,
rhetoricians

have studied
how to
persuade
people to act.
In courts of

law, lawyers
build cases
that they
hope will
either convict

or release
people on
trial. In
government
debates,

politicians use
language to
encourage
people to vote
(or not vote!)

for particular
people or
public
policies. In
religious

gatherings,
leaders speak
to their
congregations
to persuade

them to
behave in
particular
ways toward
their fellow

humans. And,
of course,
teachers use
persuasion on
a daily basis,

to move their
students to
become
interested in
their subjects

and to learn
new concepts
and skills.
You, too, have

used
persuasion
many times in
your life. You
may have

tried to
persuade a
parent to pay
for your
schooling, to

buy you a car,

or to let you
live away
from home.
You probably

have
persuaded
friends to go
to a party
with you or to

change a
behavior,
such as to
quit smoking.

Differences
and
Distinctions
Persuasive

writing is
different from
writing an
academic
argument

such as a
research
paper. In
academic
argument,

you're using
logic and
reasons to
convince your
audience that

your position,
written as an
assertion, is
logical and
reasonable. In

a persuasive
argument,
you also must
convince your
audience that

your position
is reasonable
or credible.
But
persuasion

goes one step

further: you
invite your
readers
to act or to do

something.
[See Writing
to Argue a
Position.]

Persuasive
arguments
are special
kinds of
arguments

that,
unfortunately
, many
students don't
learn to write.

Written
essays,
television and
radio
broadcasts,

and formal
speeches are
common
kinds of
persuasion.

However,
persuasion
isn't limited
to
broadcasters

or political
leaders; it's
important in
any job.
Executives,

salespeople,
advertising
and customer
service
representative

s, and skilled
trades people
like auto
mechanics all
need to

persuade
people to be
successful.
To move an

audience to
take action,
you must:
1. Convince

them that
your position
is reasonable
and
2. Engage

their human
natures to
move them
to action.
Elements of

the
Persuasive
Argument
1. Audience

and purpose
2. A do-able
proposal
3. Logical

reasons and
evidence
4. Ethical
character of
the writer or

speaker
5. Emotional
appeals
6. Counter-

proposals
7. Rhetorical
devices, or
style

8. Introductio
n and
conclusion
Consider

your Purpose
and Audience
Before you
write a

persuasive
argument,
consider your
purpose and
audience. The

goal of
persuasion is
to move
people to
action. So, if

you are able

to make the
decision
about whom
to persuade,

then choose a
group of
people who
actually could
do something:

e.g., a school
board, college
administratio
n or students,
city council,

church
congregation.
Having
selected your
audience, you

must
understand
them because
that's the only
way to move

people to
action. You
need to do
an audience
analysis [See

"Analyzing
the
Audience"
and "Writing
to

Persuade."]
Ask yourself:
Who is this
audience?

 Can you
realistically
expect them
to accept
your claim

and
proposed
action?
What are

their values,
beliefs,
biases, fears,
and needs?
Write a Do-

Able Proposal
To write a
persuasive
argument,

you must
propose an
action that
your audience
can

accomplish.
So, you need
to understand
the problem
for which

you're
proposing a
solution. For
example, take
the general

problem of
environmenta
lism. Most
people would
agree that we

should take
care of the
natural
environment
and not

pollute it
unnecessarily.
But what
makes this
problem

controversial
and arguable
is that most
people don't
agree on how

to solve
environmenta
l problems.
Let's say that
you take the

position
that "Our
college
shouldn't add
to the planet's

pollutions
problems." T
his is an
arguable
position that

needs good
reasons and
strong
evidence to be

convincing.
To write a
persuasive
paper,

however, you
must go one
step further
and propose a
solution. In

what ways
should the
college avoid
polluting the
environment?

Are there
specific
actions that
the
administrator

s and/or
students
should take to
change their
activities that

promote
pollution?
Your proposal
needs to
address the

problem and
be reasonable
enough to
move people
to action.

Let's say that

you propose
the following
solution: "To
help reduce

pollution, our
college should
stop using
Styrofoam
plates and

cups or
disposable
plastic
tableware."

This solution
offers a clear
and do-able
proposal: The
college and its

members
(administrato
rs, workers,
and students)
can avoid

polluting by
changing the
types of
eating
utensils they

use. This
change will
have certain
consequences
for the entire

college
community.
Notice that
the proposal
doesn't have

to solve all
the problems
of
environmenta
l pollutionit

merely has to
address one
small segment
of the

problem.
Give Logical
Reasons and
Evidence

The lesson
"Writing to
Argue a
Position"
covers the

best ways to
convince an
audience.
People cannot
be moved to

act on your
proposal if
they first
aren't
convinced

that your
position is
reasonable.
Therefore,
you need

facts,
examples,
statistics,
expert
testimony,

and anecdotes
to convince
your readers.
Ask yourself:

 What
reasons are
likely to
appeal to

them?
What
sources will
be

convincing?
You'll need to
learn certain
facts about

the college's
uses of
disposable
tableware. In
numbers, how

many tons of
disposable
tableware
does the
college use

annually?
How much
does this
amount cost
the college

(and,
therefore, the
students)?
How much
would it cost

to replace the
disposables
with
sufficient
permanent

plates, bowls,
cups, glasses,
and
silverware?

Ethical
Character of
the Writer or
Speaker

To move
people to
action, you
need to
present

yourself as a
reliable and
honest
person. Your
best character

and good will

for the
audience
must shine
through or

they will not

trust you or
your
proposal. Ask

yourself:
How do you
present
yourself as

an ethical
writer?
How can
you present

yourself as a
person that
they can
trust and
respect?

You'll need to
think about
what your
audience
values in a

writer about
this subject.
Environment
al concerns
easily can be

made to seem
trite and
unimportant.
What kinds of
research will

be important
to showing
that you've
really
considered

this problem?
How can you
show that you
genuinely
care about

the
environment
and the
college's
contribution

to it? How
can show that
this proposal
isn't just a
"pie in the

sky" kind of
idea?
Emotional
Appeals

To really
reach your
audience, you
must
understand

how they can

be moved
emotionally
to act on a
proposal. You

need to avoid
tugging at
heartstrings
and honestly
address this

audience's
fears, values,
morals, and
needs. Your
job isn't to

make people
feel bad, but
to recognize
their possible
feelings about

the issue and

give them
some
constructive
way to

address it.
Ask yourself:
What
emotional

appeals are
likely to
move this
audience?

 Will they be
hostile to any
elements of
your

proposal?
For this
argument,
you need to

consider how
the use of
disposable
tableware
really impacts

people's
everyday
lives. Does it
really matter
to the college

community
what kinds of
tableware
they use? Will
not being able

to take plates
out of the
cafeteria
cause an
emotional

response,
such as
during exam
week when
people are

more selfconcerned
and less open
to being
inconvenience

d? Will
college
administrator
s see
themselves as

part of an
important
environmenta
l solution or
just feel put

upon? How
can you help
them to care
about this

issue?
CounterProposals
Just like an

academic
argument
must consider
counterarguments, a

good
persuasive
argument
must consider
counter-

proposals.
Counterproposals are
alternate or
different

proposals
from your
own. Ask
yourself:

 What biases
or
preconceived
ideas might
the audience

have about
my topic?
How could
these biases

lead them to
alternate
solutions
that might
sound better

to them?
It can be
challenging to
think of

counterproposals
because we
tend to like
the solutions

that we've
come up with
on our own.
Is there some
way to solve

the college's
pollution
habits other
than
completely

banning the
use of
disposable
tableware? Is
there a

compromise
position
between
disposable
and non-

disposable
tableware?
Rhetorical
Devices, or

Style
Your level of
formality and
arrangement

of ideas are
all kinds of
rhetorical
devices that
can help to

persuade
your reader/s.
Ask yourself:
How formal

should you
be in writing
to this
audience?

 How should
you arrange
the reasons
to make the
best

impression
on your
readers?
How you state

your proposal
and your
reasons for it
is as
important

as whatyou
say in a
persuasive
argument.
Should you

talk
conversationa
lly as if
student-tostudent or

more
formally to
address the
college
administratio

n's more
formal
communicatio
n manner?
Should you

arrange your
reasons by
the strongest
to weakest or
weakest to

strongest?
Should you
address the
problem in a
cause

(disposable
tableware)
and effect
(college's
annual

pollution)
order that
can be
restructured
for the

proposal:
cause (nondisposable
tableware)
and effect

(less annual
pollution by
the college)?
Introduction

and
Conclusion
Finally, you
need to

consider your
opening and
closing
arguments.
The

introduction
offers the
necessary
background
information

and the
conclusion
sums up the
proposal's
benefits to the

community.
Ask yourself:
How should
you lead

your readers
into the
argument?
How should

you conclude
it?
Introducing
your proposal

means that
your need to
state the
problem,
your

proposed
solution, and
possible
implications
for that

solution. You
may not be
able to write
the best
introduction

until you've
completed a
really strong
draft of your
argument.

Concluding
the argument
means more
than just
summarizing

the proposal
and your
reasons
offered for it.
Consider

whether your
solution
leaves
questions that
still need to

be addressed.
Future
proposals can
work with

these.
Exercise
1. Because
I'm not a

politician, I
won't be
using
persuasive
arguments.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

2. Logical
appeals are
necessary in
persuasive

arguments.
Top of Form
True
False

Bottom of
Form
Top of Form
Bottom of

Form
3. People
argue about
controversial

subjects
where there
isn't one
certain
answer.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

4. Students
never have
the chance to
persuade
people

because
they're only
students.
Top of Form

True
False
Bottom of
Form

Top of Form
Bottom of
Form
5. I should

use emotional
appeals to
make people
feel bad about
the problem

and then
they'll want
to fix it.
Top of Form

True
False
Bottom of
Form

Top of Form
Bottom of
Form
6. Ethical

appeals are
appeals to the
audience's
character and
ethics.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

7. How I
organize my
reasons and
appeals can
make a

difference in
whether
people accept
my proposal.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

8. I should
always write
my
introduction
before writing

my first draft.
Top of Form
True
False

Bottom of
Form
Top of Form
Bottom of

Form
9. If I discuss
counterproposals, I

just show that

my proposal
is weak.
Top of Form

True
False
Bottom of
Form

Top of Form
Bottom of
Form
10. Persuasive

argumnet is
the same as
academic
argument.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

Summary
Persuasion is
a valuable
purpose for

writing in
many aspects
of life.
Practicing the
elements of a

persuasive
argument will
help you to
write
powerful

arguments
when you
need to move
people to
solve a

problem.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 8
Writing
Short-Answer

Tests
Objective
In this lesson,
you'll learn

how to
prepare for
short-answer
essay tests,
and how to

answer test
questions
thoughtfully.
Introduction

Short-answer
writing tests
are becoming
more
common in

college
courses. In
recent years,
employers
have

demanded
better writing
and
communicatio
ns skills from

their workers.
To meet this
need, colleges
and
universities

are
incorporating
writing into
more courses.
Today, you

may have
writing tests
in science and
engineering
courses, as

well as in
English or
sociology. In
order to
succeed in

your college
classes, you
must know
how to
prepare for

and write
short-answer
essay tests.
Preparation

Begins Long
Before the
Test
Preparation

for a shortanswer test

really begins
long before
the test itself.

Because
written tests
demand that
you think
broadly about

the subject of
the course,
you can't do
well if you
don't know

the material.
The key to
preparation is
having good
study habits

in the course
itself. Pay
attention to
your
instructor

and your
reading
assignments.
Mark your
textbooks by

highlighting
key concepts
and
vocabulary.
Review your

textbooks and
class notes
frequently.
Careful and
consistent

review is
more effective
than
cramming the
night before

the test.
Many shortanswer test
questions
require a

deeper
understandin
g of the
subject
matter than

you can gain

in one frantic
night.
The following

guidelines
will help you
with your
long-term

preparation:
Read the
Syllabus
Carefully

Since written
tests focus on
the big
picture, it's
critical that

you know
what the
professor
thinks are
the most

important
themes in the
course.
Write down
the goals of

the course,
and try to
discover any
common
themes in the

assignments
and lecture
topics.
Usually, you
can learn

what the
professor's
main
interests are
by looking at

the syllabus;
some
professors
will spell out
the major

themes for
the whole
semester in
the first
paragraph

or page.
Know Your
Audience
Your

professor is
your
audience.
How much
detail and

support does
s/he expect?
How much
weight does
he or she put

on good
grammar
and style?
Written tests
are timed

writing
assignments,
and you
want to
spend the

bulk of your
time on the
things your
professor
finds

important.
Knowing
what your
professor
finds

important
will help you
make better
use of the
limited time

you have
available to
write.
Review

Your Notes
At least one
week before
the test, you
should start

reviewing
your notes.
This review
will help you
understand

the material
well enough
to discuss it.
Pay close
attention to

topics or
themes that
relate to
each other
because

many
professors
will ask you
to compare
or contrast

related
topics in a
written test.
Taking the

Short-Answer
Essay Test
Your
objective

during the
test itself is to
write clear
and logical
answers.

Before you
begin writing,
you should:
Review the

entire test.
o Read the
entire test
first. How

many
questions
are you
responsible
for

answering?
o If you
have choices
among

different
test
questions,
make your
choice

quickly
based on
your best
knowledge
and stick

with that
choice
throughout
the testing
period.

o Determine
the point
value of
each
question.

Divide your
test period
by the
number of
questions

and their
point value.
If you have
to answer
three

questions
and one is
worth 50%,
whereas the
other two

are worth
25% each,
spend more
time on the
50%

question.
Answer the
easiest
questions

first.
By
answering
the ones that
you know

right away,
you can clear
your mind of
those
obvious

answers and
allow your
brain to
work on the
other, more

difficult
questions.
Briefly
outline each

short-answer
before
writing.
Outlines in
the form of

simple lists
help you to
organize
your ideas.
Jot down

facts, ideas,
or concepts
that will help
answer the
question.

Select the
ideas that
make the
best answer
and organize

them
quickly. This
process will
keep your
answers on-

track.
If you've
followed the
steps above,

you're ready
to begin to
write.
Consider the
following

while writing
your answers:
Each shortanswer

should start
with a thesis
sentence that
tells the
reader where

you're going
with your
answer.
Follow your

outline to
stay on
track.
Write

neatly, using
every other
line and one
side of the
page, if

possible.
Usually, it's
fine to cross
out words or
sentences,

but draw
only one line
over the
word or
sentence

don't fill the

page with
ink.
Provide

relevant
details to
support your
answer.

 Review
your answer
when you've
finished
writing. If

you've left
out
something
important,
or if you've

included
something
that doesn't
make sense,
make the

necessary
changes.
Proofread
and edit

Once you're
comfortable
with the
content of
your

answers, go
back
through the
answer one
more time

and check
for poor
grammar,
punctuation,
and spelling.

 Remember
that shortanswer essay
tests may
seem like a

lot of trouble
to you now,
but many
students
come to

prefer them
to objective
tests like
true/false
and multiple

choices.
Shortanswer tests
allow you to
show what

you really
know about
a subject and
provide you
with the

chance to
shine.
Exercise
In the text

box below,
practice
writing a
short answer
to the

following
question. The
question is for
an English
class and the

audience is
the professor,
who has just
taught
research

techniques
using the
Internet.
Write about
four

sentences,
with the first
sentence
revealing
your main

point. When
you're
finished,
compare your
response with

ours.
Question:
Many
students use

the Internet
to search for
information.
What are two
advantages

and two
disadvantages
to Internet
research?

Summary
To succeed on
a short-

answer essay
test, you need
to know your
audience,
prepare well

before the
test, organize
your thoughts
before
writing, and

write your
answers with
clarity and
detail.
Smarthinking

Writer's
Handbook
Chapter 1,
Lesson 9

Writing InClass Essays

Objective

In this lesson,
you'll learn
how to
prepare for,
develop, and

write
successful inclass and
standardized

test essays.
Introduction
In addition to
short-answer

tests, you'll
also write inclass essay
tests during
your college

career. An inclass essay

test usually
involves
writing on a

single
question for
the entire
exam period.
Your answer

to the
question may
be nearly as
long as a
paper you

would write
at home.
Spontaneousl
y written

essays often
perform what
is called a
"gatekeeper"
function.

Some schools
require
students to
write a
passing in-

class essay
before being
released from
a first-year
English

requirement.
You also may
encounter
essay
questions in

graduate and
professional
school exams.
Both the
LSAT and

MCAT, tests
that
determine
whether you
will be

accepted to
law or
medical
school,
currently

include an
essay
component.
Preparing for

the In-Class
Essay
Preparation is
your key to

success. Here
are some tips
on preparing
for essay

tests:
Know what
the grader
expects out

of your
essay
Some
professors
stress

content over
grammar,
while others
stress good
grammar as

well as
informative
writing.
Developing
strong

content lets
your
professor
know that
you can

think
logically and
provide the
details
necessary for

supporting
your essay's
thesis.
Focusing on
readable

prose and
correct
grammar
tells your
professor

that you can

write clearly
under
pressure.
Both goals

involve skills
that college
administrato
rs believe are
important

for their
graduates to
possess.
While both

are
important,
however, your
professor may
value one goal

over the
other. Since
essay tests
usually count
for a large

percentage of
your grade or
may serve to
promote you
to the next

level of
instruction,
you'll need to
learn what
your

professor
expects from
you. If you
"clutch" or
"grip" when

asked to write
spontaneously
, practice
writing essays
under time

constraints in
your dorm or
home. If
you're weak
in grammar,

spend time
learning to
edit and
proofread
under time

constraints.
Know the
ground
rules

Don't be
caught off
guard when
you walk
into your

class or
exam room.
Take time
before the
test to ask

your
instructor
what type of
question/s
you'll be

asked. Also
ask about
the ground
rules: How
long should

the finished
essay be?
Should I use
a pen or a
pencil? Will

I be writing
in a blue
book or on
individual
sheets of

paper? Can I
use my
writing
handbook or
notes? Can I

use a laptop
computer?
Knowing the
answers to
these

questions
will help you
to be
prepared
and tackle

the exam
with
confidence.
Practice

makes
perfect
Before the
important
test, practice

writing
sample
essays under
the same
time

constraints
that you'll
have for the
in-class
essay. This

practice will
help you
learn how
much you
can write in

the time
allowed, and
it'll teach
you to use
your time

wisely. If the
exam tests
your
semester's
class content,

prepare by
rereading
your class
notes. Start
at least the

week before
the exam
and read all
of your notes
each night.

Two nights
before the
test, begin
asking
yourself

practice
questions
that seem
pertinent to
the

professor's
focus. Write
a few
practice
essays. This

kind of
studying
allows you to
really know,
to own, the

material and
will help you
to write a
stronger
essay under

pressure.
Warm up
your
muscles

Athletes
have to
warm up
before
practice and

games, and
so do
writers. Free
writing is
one method

of warm up
that really
can be
helpful. It is
the process

of writing as
much as you
know about
a subject
without

focusing on
grammar or
structure.
Ten to
twenty

minutes
before your
essay, sit
down and
free write,

just letting
your words
flow--the
more the
better.

Writing the
In-Class
Essay
Reflect

Before the
professor
hands you
the
assignment,

take a few
minutes to
reflect on
what is
expected of

you and your

essay. What
skills is the
grader
hoping to

find in your
writing? Is
this essay
testing both
your ideas

and your
ability to
express them
well?

 Materials
Make sure
that all
materials are
ready and

available. If
you're using
a test
booklet, do
you have to

buy it, or is it
provided for
you? Are you
supposed to
use a pen or

a pencil? If
you are
allowed to
use a
dictionary, a

thesaurus, or
a writing
handbook,
do you have
them? Take

advantage of
whatever
resources
your
professor or

grader will
allow so that
you can do
your best.

 Read the
question/s
carefully
Before you
begin

writing, take
time to read
the
question/s or
assignment

thoroughly.
Underline
any key
phrases or
concepts that

come to your
attention.
Circle any
words that
you don't

understand
and ask your
professor to
explain them
if necessary.

If you're
confused, go
to the next
step of
outlining. In

the process
of listing
basic ideas,
your mind
probably will

unravel the
confusion.
Determine
your thesis

All essays
need a thesis,
or a main
point. Read
your

question and
determine
what your
main point
will be. In an

essay exam,
often you
can turn the
test question
into a

statement of
your point.
For the
following
sample

question,
think about
possible
thesis
statements

and what
they mean
for your
essay: How
did the

Crusades
affect the
economy in
Europe?

o You could
write: The
Crusades
affected the
European

economy in
four
essential
ways. In
this case,

your essay
would
require a
brief
introduction

, four body
paragraphs,
and a brief
conclusion.

o Or, you
could
write: Euro
pe's
economy

was
influenced
significantly
by the
Crusades.

Here, the
thesis does
not indicate
how many
paragraphs

your essay
will require,
but it does
guide your
reasoning

by directing
you to look
at the
significant,
or most

outstanding,
economic
changes
that Europe
encountered

.
Outline
Outlining
your answer

before you
begin writing
is perhaps
the single
most

important
step for
writing good
in-class
essays. Your

outline does
not need to
be any more
formal than
a simple list

of the major
points you
want to
make and
the

supporting
details that
you'll
include. This
kind of

outline jogs
your
memory
before and
during your

writing
process.
Not only does
the outline

give you
confidence as
you move
through the
essay, but it

helps you
focus on the
necessary
details.
Following

your outline
is like driving
with a map:
You can
concentrate

on where
you're going
instead of
stopping
frequently to

puzzle over
the next
direction.
Writing the

essay
o Begin
your essay
with a brief

introduction
paragraph
and the
thesis that
you distilled

from the
question.
For an inclass essay,

a
traditional,
simple
structure is
fine. Use

one
paragraph
for each
main point,
so if you

have three
main
points,
your essay
will have

five
paragraphs
, including
the
introductio

n and
conclusion.
Since time
is limited,
don't waste

it trying to
be creative
with your
paragraph
structure.

For a fiveparagraph
essay, the first
paragraph is
your

introduction.
It contains
your thesis
statement,
usually as the

final sentence
of the
paragraph.
The second,

third, and
fourth
paragraphs a
re the body of
your essay.

Each
paragraph
should begin
with a topic
sentence that

supports your
thesis. The
remaining
sentences
should

provide
details that
define,
defend,
and/or justify

the topic
sentence.
Your final
paragraph

should be the
conclusion,
which
summarizes
your main

points and
thesis.
Readers
appreciate a
conclusion in

an essay test
because it
shows that
you know
how to close

an essay
properly.
Keep it
simple

When
you're
writing the
essay, don't
try to be

poetic or
dramatic.
Instead,
write
clearly and

keep it
simple.
Write as
though
you're

talking to
your
professor
about the
question

you're
answering.
Write
neatly

If you're
handwriting
the essay
instead of
using a

computer,
be sure to
write
legibly.
Write using

every other
line on one
side of the
page,
enabling

you to add
details when
you review
the first
draft. For

essay tests,
most
professors
accept neat
cross-outs

and arrows
that direct
the reader
to the back
of the page

if you need
to add or
change
information
. If you are

able to use
the
computer,
make sure
that it's

okay to use
your
spelling and
grammar
checker for

aid. In
either case,
don't plan
to rewrite!
You won't

have time
and your
professor
doesn't
expect you

to do this.
Re-read
the essay
when you're

done
It can be
tempting to
hand in the
essay

immediately
after you
finish
writing the
last

paragraph,
but don't do
it! Use all of
the time
that you're

given. If you
finish early,
take time to
re-read and
proof the

essay. Ask
yourself the
following
questions:
Looking at

Content
Is my
thesis in the
first

paragraph?
Does my
essay
support and

prove my
thesis
statement?
Do I have

three or
more main
body
paragraphs
?

 Does each
paragraph
have a topic
sentence
that

supports the
thesis?
Does each
paragraph

support the
topic
sentence?
Does the

conclusion
tie
everything
together
and

appropriate
ly end the
essay?
Are my

facts
accurate?
Proofreading
Is my

handwriting
legible?
Are there
any spelling

errors?
Have I
misused any
words?

 Are there
any
sentence
fragments,
run-ons, or

serious
punctuation
errors?
Exercise

Test your
knowledge.
Without
looking back

on the
material in
this section,
answer the
following

True or False
questions.
After you are
done, click
enter and see

how you did.

1. Every
professor
expects the

same things
in an in-class
essay.
Top of Form

True
False
Bottom of
Form

Top of Form
Bottom of
Form
2. I should

practice
writing timed
essays before
the in-class
essay.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

3. I should
take a nap
about 10 to 20
minutes
before I start

writing the
essay.
Top of Form
True

False
Bottom of
Form
Top of Form

Bottom of
Form
4. It is wise to
freewrite

before taking
the essay to
warm my
brain up.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

5. I should
not use any
books or
notes even if
my professor

lets me.
Top of Form
True
False

Bottom of
Form
Top of Form
Bottom of

Form
6. I should
make an
outline before

I start to
write.
Top of Form
True

False
Bottom of
Form
Top of Form

Bottom of
Form
7. The thesis
statement is

the first thing

I should
write.
Top of Form

True
False
Bottom of
Form

Top of Form
Bottom of
Form
8. I should

write simple,
clear
sentences for
an in-class
essay.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

9. When I am
finished, I
should
immediately
turn in the

essay.
Top of Form
True
False

Bottom of
Form
Top of Form
Bottom of

Form
10. If I do not
like what I
have written,

I should rewrite the

essay.
Top of Form

True
False
Bottom of
Form

Top of Form
Bottom of
Form
Summary

Writing inclass essays

can be
challenging.
However, if

you take time

to prepare
and practice
writing them,
as well as to

organize your
time wisely,
you can write
successful
spontaneous

essays.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 10
Writing
About

Literature
Objective
In this lesson,
you'll learn

how to read
literary piece
closely, to
identify some
literary

elements, and
to write an
academic
essay about a

literary work.
Thinking
about
Literature

Being able to
write about a
work of
literature
such as a

novel, short
story, or
poem is the
key to success
in many

college
English
courses.
Before you
can write

about a work
of literature,
you must
learn to read
it well and to

analyze it.
1. Close
reading:
It is best to

read a piece
of literature
at least
twice. The
first time

you read it,

focus on the
story or idea
being
presented.

 The second
time you
read it, think
about the
characters'

development
and the
author's
writing
techniques.

2. Highlight
important
passages in
the text and
take good

notes to help
you
remember
what you

read.
3. You might
be asked to
write about

the piece of
literature in
several ways:
Explication:

Most often
used with
poetry but
sometimes
with prose or

drama,
explication is
a detailed,
line-by-line,
explanation

of a passage.
This type of
essay
requires
close

attention to
language:
e.g., special
meanings of
words,

figurative
language,
irony,
symbolism,
rhythm,

sound, and
irony.
Analysis:
Whereas an

explication
will examine
certain
passages in
great depth,

an analysis
usually looks
only at one
element of a
piece of

literature,
such as plot
or character
development,
and then

relates that
element to
the entire
work.

 Comparison
and
Contrast:
Sometimes
you will be

asked to
write about
more than
one work. In
this case,

usually you
will write
about the
similarities
or

differences
within and
between
works. So,
you might be

comparing
two poems
about the
same theme
by different

authors or
contrasting
the plots of
two different
stories by

one author.
Some
Elements for
Understandin

g Literature
Author:
Who is the
author?

What kind of
person is
s/he?
Reading a
brief

biographical
sketch of the
author will
give you
valuable

insight. Was
the author
male or
female? Rich
or poor? A

member of a
minority
group in
society?
Understandi

ng the
author can
help you to
understand
his/her

writing
better.
Historical
Context:

What was
life like when
the author
wrote the
piece? For

example,
consider
Mark
Twain's
book Tom

Sawyer.
American
society in
Twain's day
was divided

over the
issue of
slavery and
racial
relations. On

the surface,
Tom Sawyer
is about two
boys who
take a boat

ride on the
Mississippi
River.
However,
understandi

ng the racial
concerns of
Twain's day
suggests that
a major

theme of the
book is his
opposition to
racism in
America.

 Structure:
While
reading
through the
work, look at

the plot or
main point.
Does it have
a definite
beginning,

middle, and
end? What is
the major
conflict?
Which

characters
are most
important?
Are there
any subplots

(that is,
secondary
stories about
minor
characters)?

 Literary
Techniques:
Different
writers use
different

literary
techniques.
Usually, the
writer
chooses a

specific
technique in
order to
bring
important

themes to the
reader's
attention.
Look for the
following

literary
techniques as
you read a
work:

o Irony Irony is an
implied
discrepancy
between

what is said
and what is
meant.
There are
three kinds

of irony
commonly
found in
literary
works:

1. Verbal
irony is
when an
author says
one thing

and means
something
else.
Saying,
"That's

great"
when
someone
has made a
mistake is

verbal
irony.
2. Dramatic
irony is
when an

audience
perceives
something
that a
character

in the
literature
does not
know. If
the reader

already
knows that
a character
in a story
has a fatal

illness, but
the
character
does not
know this

and says,
"I feel fine:
never felt
better," the
statement

shows
dramatic
irony.
3. Irony of
situation is

a
discrepanc
y between
the
expected

result and
actual
results. In
the famous
"Road

Runner"
cartoons,
the coyote
always
comes up

with new
schemes to
catch the
Road
Runner,

but none of
them ever
work. Even
though the
viewer

knows he
will fail,
the coyote
is always
surprised

and
disappointe
d: this is an
example of
irony of

situation.
o Foreshado
wing Authors

foreshadow
with hints
or
suggestions
of things to

come. For
example, if
a character
drops a vase
and it

shatters on
the floor,
and a few
scenes later
the

character's
husband
says he is
divorcing
her, then the

breaking of
the vase
foreshadows
the
breaking of

the
marriage.
Often it's
easier to see
foreshadowi

ng after a
second
reading of
the work.

o Metaphor
- A type of
figurative
language,
metaphor is

using a
quality or
an attribute
of a thing or
person to

describe the
thing or
person
itself. For
example,

saying that
the tennis
star Andre
Agassi is
"on fire"

doesn't
really mean
that he's
really on
fire. Rather,

the
metaphor
emphasizes
how well
Agassi is

playing at
that
moment.
o Symbolis

m - Authors
use images
to stand for
moods or
ideas. One

of the most
common
examples of
symbolism
is the use of

color to
suggest the
qualities or
personality
of a

character.
For
example, a
character
dressed all

in black is
likely to be
a villain,
since the
color black

symbolizes
evil or bad
intentions.
Think of
Darth

Vader in the
movie Star
Wars and
you'll get
the idea!

o Imagery Imagery is
language
that calls to
mind one or

more of the
five senses:
sight, taste,
smell,
hearing, or

touch. The
phrase
"Her lips
tasted like
wine," for

example,
uses the
sensation of
taste to
describe a

quality of a
person.
o Rhythm
and sound

- In poetry,
words are
either
stressed or
unstressed,

making the
poem sound
choppy,
smooth,
fast, or slow.

Many
examples of
rhythm and
sound can
be found in

a nursery
rhyme:
Little Boy
Blue / come
blow your

horn / the
cow's in the
meadow /
the sheep's
in the corn.

Read these
lines aloud
and hear
the stressed
syllables,

which form
the rhythm,
or beat, of
the rhyme.

 Author's
Style - Every
author has a
personal
writing style.

Style can
include the
author's
repeated use
of certain

literary
techniques,
the use of
regional
dialects or

patterns of
speech, the
use of special
words, the
conscious

choice of
subject
matter, or
even
deliberate

errors in
grammar.
Style is a set
of traits that
make an

author's
writing
recognizable
as uniquely
his or hers

a kind of
literary
fingerprint.
If you read
many works

by one
author, you
may begin to
recognize his
or her

unique style.
Setting Setting is the
place and

time in
which a
story or
poem takes
place. While

reading, take
note of how
the setting
factors in the
work's

outcome. As
you read,
think about
how the
story might

be different
if the setting
were
altered.

 Mood and
Tone - Mood
is an
emotional
effect

created by
the author.
For example,
in a horror
novel, the

author will
use bleak
images and
cramped or
claustrophob

ic settings to
create a
mood of
fear. Tone is
the author's

attitude
toward the
subject. A
writer may
present ideas

in a serious,
sad, loving,
nostalgic,
critical, or
comical tone.

 Character
Development
- Knowing
the
characters in

a story is
very
important.
Since all
action takes

place
through the
characters,
it's necessary
to

understand
each
character's
role in the
development

of the plot
and the
character's
reason for
existence.

 Theme Theme is the

general idea
or insight the
author is

trying to
express. To
return to
Mark
Twain's Tom

Sawyer,
many
readers
believe that
the novel's

theme is that
racism is
evil.
There are

many other
kinds of
literary
elements that
you can

address in a
paper about
literature.
Your
professor will

have a list
and your
textbook may
have them in
a glossary.

Other issues
that you can
think about
regarding
literary

works are:
What is the
author
trying to

say? Is it
important?
What are
the author's

values or
beliefs?
What does
s/he think
about life,

humans,
nature, God,
or culture?
What is

your
response to
the work as
art?

 What is
your
reaction to
the ideas in
the work?

Are they
truthful or
relevant?
Guidelines for

Writing
About
Literature
Now that

you've
analyzed the
work
carefully,
you're ready

to write.
Writing about
literary
works is a
special kind

of academic
essay. [see
"Writing to
Argue a
Position."]

The following
guidelines are
helpful when
writing about
a novel, story,

or poem:
Finding
Meaning:
For most

literature
classes, your
professor
will ask you
to explicate,

analyze, or
compare/con
trast the
work.
Closely read

the piece of
literature.
Review your
notes on the
work and

identify the
elements that
you found
most
interesting

or
significant.
Develop a
Thesis: The

thesis is a
one- or twosentence
statement
that

introduces
the key point
or idea of
your paper.
In a

literature
paper, try to
develop a
thesis based
upon the

most striking
element of a
work. Make
sure that
you're able

to support
your thesis
with
examples
and evidence

from the
literary
work.
Organizatio

n: Your
thesis will
provide you
with general
guidance on

organization.
If you are
going to
compare two
poems, then

you can look

at each poem
separately,
requiring a
"block" type

of
organization,
or you can
look at all of
the similar

elements in
the poem,
requiring a
"switch"
type of

organization.
There are
other
strategies for
organizing a

literature
paper. One
strategy is a
"chronologic
al"

approach,
where you
examine the
literary
elements in

the order in
which they
appear in the
story.
Another

strategy is a
"topical"
method,
where you
explicate or

analyze
according to
such
elements as
the author's

use of
metaphor,
symbolism,
or theme.

 Provide
Details:
When you're
writing
about

literature,
include
detailed
examples to
illustrate

your points.
Make your
points clear
by showing
dialogue,

explaining
imagery, and
using
significant
quotations or

paraphrases
of passages.
When you
write about
literature,

you are
arguing for a
particular
way of
looking at it;

no argument
succeeds
without
adequate
support.

 Write Using
the Present
Tense: When
you write
about any

literary
work, use the
present
tense,
sometimes

called
the historic
present. Eve
n though an
author might

write a story
or poem in
the past
tense, when
you read the

work, the
action
happens for
you in the
present, the

''right now''
of your
reading. You
must write in
that same

"right now"
sense.
Give
Yourself

Time
Between the
First and
Next
Drafts: As

with all
academic
writing, your
objectivity
and thinking

about a draft
become
clearer when
you let it sit
for a day or

two before
coming back
to it. Then,
once you've
been away

from it,
reread your
paper and
double-check
important

sections from
the literary
work for
accuracy and
validity of

your points.
Revise: All
academic
papers need

more than
one draft.
None of us is
able to say
everything

well in one
shot; most
literature
professors
rewrite their

essays up to
30 times!
Edit and
Proofread: E

dit your
paper for
clarity,
concision of
ideas, and

correctness
of such
things as
passages and
quotations.

Proof
carefully for
grammar,
punctuation,
and spelling

errors.
Exercise
(Under
Construction)

Read the
attached
short essay
that contrasts
two

poems: "A
Quest for
Dignity
Unfulfilled."
After reading

this essay,
answer the
following
questions.
When you are

finished, click
on our
answers to
compare

them:
1. What is the
author's
thesis, or

major point,
for the essay?
What

metaphors
and symbols
does the
writer use?

How does the

historical
context of

each poem
influence the
essay?
[McKay's
poem is

written before
the Civil War
and Dunbar's
after, which
allows the

writer to
contrast the
quest for
freedom both
before and

after
American
slaves were
freed.]

Summary
You've
learned some

of the basic
elements of
reading
literature
closely,

identifying
literary
elements, and
writing about
literature in

academic
essays.
Smarthinking

Writer's
Handbook
Chapter 1,
Lesson 11

Film and
Television
Analysis

Objective:
Certain
scenes from
films and

television
shows stay in
our memories
vividly. Have
you ever

wondered
why? This
chapter will
help you
understand

the strategies
producers
and directors
use as they
connect

viewers with
the
production.
Genres:

To best
analyze a film
or television
show, first
identify and

understand
its genre.
There are
several genres

including:
Action: A
production
that

emphasizes
high-energy
sequences
Adventure:

Similar to
action films,
a hightension story
that often

chronicles
new
experiences
Comedy: A

light-hearted
film that is
meant to
cause
laughter

 Documenta
ry: A factbased story
about a life

or an event
Drama: A
serious story
that

describes a
realistic
circumstance
Horror: A

frightening
story
designed to
scare, often
coupled with

science
fiction
Musical: A
film that

uses music
and
choreograph
y to tell its
story

 Romance: A
production
centered on
two people
falling in

love
Science
Fiction: A
story

highlighting
futuristic
experiences
and
characters

Basing an
analysis on a
work's genre
is helpful
because each

genre
emphasizes
different
techniques. In
an action or

horror film,
for example,
strong special
effects are a
strength; the

same effects
are likely to
be a
distraction
and a

weakness in a
drama.
Also, it is
important to

understand
that some
genres may
be combined.
For instance,

a film or
television
show that has
romantic and
comedic

elements is
aromantic
comedy. If a
film has
elements of a

documentary
and a drama,
the genre is
a docudrama.
Use the

qualities of
the
component
genres to help
you analyze

this kind of
film and
television
show.

Film Analysis
Because there
is much to
think about

when
analyzing
visual media,
watch the
piece several

times,
focusing on a
different
aspect every
time. A few

things to
consider in
the first
viewing are:

 Directing: D
irectors are
responsible
for the entire
project, but

their roles
are most
prominent in
production
(filming) and

postproduction
(editing,
adding
special

effects, etc.)
Because
directors are
so intimately
involved, the

resulting
film or show
reflects a lot
of the
director's

style or
"touch."
Learn more
about the
director to

help you
analyze his
or her work.
What is the
director's

style? How
does this
director
relate to the
actors? Does

the director
serve any
other roles in
the film (i.e.,
producer,

choreograph
er, etc.)?
Learning
about the
director can

make it
easier to
understand
the film's
style.

 Storyline or
plot: Many
writers
analyze a
film's

storyline
(plot)
because this
is what most
viewers

remember
about the
film.
Analyzing a
plot is

similar to
analyzing the
plot in a
work of
literature,

since most
works follow
the same
progression
of a novel

(see below.)

Plot consists

of:
Exposition:
This section
provides the

background
information
about the
story and/or
introduces

the
characters.
During the
opening
credits,

sometimes a
narrator
provides
background
information

for the story,

while other
times a
flashback
scene can fill

in the
viewers.
What does
this
background

information
tell viewers
about the
characters or
storyline?

Why is it
essential to
have this
background
information?

 Rising
Action: This
part of the
plot is where
the real story

begins; here,
complication
s arise in the
lives of the
characters,

and these
complication
s build to the
climax. Why
do the

complication
s make
viewers want
to continue
watching?

 Climax: Th
e climax is
the highest
part of the
plot; it is

likely the
part where
viewers are
on the edge
of their seats,

wondering
what is going
to happen to
the
characters.

How do the
filmmakers
create the
high tension
of the

climax?
What
camera
angles,
music, sound

effects,
special
effects,
character
dialogue, or

other
strategies are
used to
heighten the
tension?

 Falling
Action: Whe
n the action
begins to fall,
the storyline

is coming to
an end.
Filmmakers
want to keep
the viewers

interested;
what
strategies or
techniques
do they use

to make
individuals
continue
watching?

 Resolution:
While the
word
"resolution"
hints that all

is well or
"resolved,"
the
resolution of
a plot is not

always a
happy
ending. For
instance, a
character

that viewers
get to bond
with might
suffer a
setback in

life. Also, the

resolution
may leave
the viewers
not knowing

what
happened to
a particular
character or
something

that this
character
knew and
loved. A
resolution is

simply the
end of the
crisis or
conflict that
led to the

story's
climax.
Screenwriter
s and
filmmakers

use many
different
strategies to
end a story,
so when

analyzing a
film, think
about why
the
screenwriter

or filmmaker
ended the
film in this
way.
There are

many other
components
of films to
analyze,

including:
Camera
Angles: Whe
n watching a

film,
examine the
camera
angles. Are
you, the

viewer,
looking up,
looking
down, or
looking

straight at a
scene? How
does this
affect the
viewing of

the scene?
For example,
if a camera
appears to
be sitting on

the ground,
pointed up at
a tall man,
this man
becomes

even taller
and more
powerful.
Had the
camera been

mounted on
a tripod and
at eye-level
of the man,
he would not

look as
intimidating.
Why would a
director
want to

make a
character
seem bigger?
A camera's

movements
may also be
significant.
For example,
when a

camera
begins with a
wide shot
and then
zooms in to

the
characters,
the director
shows the
scene's

setting but
then draws
attention to
the
characters.

If a woman
is peering
into a man's
house and
that element

is important
to the
understandi
ng of the
story, the

camera shot
may begin
outside and
move inside
to where the

man sits. The

way a
camera
moves plays
a role in the

story, too,
whether the
motion is
sharp,
choppy,

smooth, and
so on. In
essence, the
camera can
begin to

become its
own
"character."
Lighting: Li

ghting can
help to tell
the story.
Filmmakers
play on

human
emotions,
including a
natural fear
of the dark.

If a stalker is
hunting in
broad
daylight, it is
not nearly as

frightening
as if the hunt
occurred at
night. The
lighting of

such a scene
might focus
solely on the
individual
being stalked

and leave the

stalker in
shadows,
letting us see
only the

whites of his
eyes, for
example.
Lighting

might also be
symbolic, as
well. If
someone is
rememberin

g a time in
his life when
he felt
happy, the
lighting

might be
brighter, and
if he is
depressed,
the lighting

may be
dimmed to
present an
atmosphere
of

uncertainty
or sadness.
Changes
from fullcolor to

black-andwhite filming
can indicate
a flashback.

 Acting: Wh
ether the
actors are
worldfamous or

hardly
known is
irrelevant,
but their
performance

is important.
In what ways
do the actors
make their
characters

come alive?
What, in
particular,
allows them
to make

their
characters
come alive?
How do they
use their

voices and
gestures to
create the
scene? How
does the

character
(not the
actor) fit into
his or her
role in the

storyline?
How does
the actor's
portrayal of
the character

affect the
way viewers
understand
the story?
Consider the

character of
Charlie
Brown: what
would
change if he

were played
as a
depressed
quitter and
cynic instead

of a
determined
kid who just
can't win?

 Symbols: Li
ke literature,
films also
include
symbols.

(See Writing
About
Literature fo
r more
information

about
symbols.) In
film, symbols
take a wide
variety of

sounds and
shapes. A
song might
be symbolic
of the

character's
life at the
moment. An
item, such as
the Ring

in The Lord
of the Rings,
may also
have
symbolic

meaning. By
looking
closely at the
sights and
sounds in the

film, you will

likely notice
at least a few
symbols.

 Sound
Effects: Som
e may think
that sound
effects are

not very
important
outside of
cartoons, but
sound effects

play a
significant
role in
almost every
visual

production.
Many sounds
heard in a
film (a door
slam, a

football sack,
a cheering
crowd, etc.)
are added in
post-

production,
after the film
is shot. How
do these
sound effects

help viewers
better
understand
what is
happening in

the story?
Special
Effects: Spec
ial effects

push viewers
to accept the
extraordinar
y, but these
effects must

follow the
laws of
science to be
realistic.
There are

many types
of special
effectsfreezing a
scene and

rotating the
camera
around a
character, or
placing us in

a computer
generated
universe,
just to name
a few. When

looking at
the special
effects, see
how they
adhere to the

laws of
science. Also,
are they
effective or
ineffective in

the film?
What
reason(s) are
there to
support that

claim?
Music: Usu
ally, the
music in a

film or
television
show works
into the
storyline so

well that the

audience
does not pay
attention to
it. However,

the music
helps to
promote a
particular
aura. If the

music is
slow, it
makes the
viewers feel
calm, but if

it offers
tension like
the music
inJaws, the
viewers

know to
expect
something
terrible.
When

watching the
film, pay
careful
attention to
the music. Is

it
instrumental
, or does it
have a
chorus and

verses? How
does the
music help to
set the stage
in the movie

or television
show?
In musicals,
music plays

a more
prominent
role, as the
actors will
break into

song at
various
points
during the
show.

Usually,
these songs
provide
important
information:

how the
character
feels about a
situation,
background

information
about what
is happening
in the
character's

life or
elsewhere,
and so on.
Determining
the reason

why a
particular
piece of
music is
inserted into

that section
of the film is
especially
important
for a

musical.
Comparison
to a Literary
Work: Some

filmmakers
have chosen
to develop
famous
novels or

other stories
into films or
television
shows.
Comparing

the film to
the print
version is
good analysis
topic. In

addition to
focusing on
the
similarities
and

differences
between the
novel and
the film,
think about

why the
filmmakers
had to make
these
changes.

Which
version, the
film or the
printed one,
is better and

why?
Summary
Being aware
of the

strategies that
filmmakers
use offers
insights as to
why certain

productions
receive rave
reviews while
others barely
receive a nod.

The
information
presented in
this chapter
will help you

identify the
techniques
used to
produce films
and shows,

understand
why they
were used
and how they
affect the

final piece,
and analyze
an audience's
reaction to a

given work.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 12
Writing
Scientific or

Technical
Reports
Objective
In this lesson,

you will learn

how to write
one kind of
scientific
report--a lab

report. The
skills that you
learn can be
used in
writing many

kinds of
science, social
science, or
technical

reports.
Using
Observations
to Write a

Science
Report
The purpose
of a scientific

lab report is
to accurately
convey the
details and
results of an

experiment to
your reader/s,
who may
need to repeat
the

experiment in
order to
verify your
results. [See
"Writing

About
Observations
" for more
basic
information

about
observation
writing.]
Consider the

following
sample
chemistry
experiment.
Your job is to

titrate (that
is, add in
carefully
measured
amounts) one

solution into
another. At
each step of
the process,
you observe

and record
the results in
your lab
notebook.
After the

experiment is
finished,
you'll need to
write a report
that describes

your
measurement
s and what
you observed.
Finally, you'll

report any
conclusions to
be drawn
from the

experiment.
Note that this
process
requires

several steps.
You must:
Be prepared
for the

experiment
by doing any
required
reading and
gathering of

materials
Understand
your goal for
the

experiment
Take very
good notes
during the

experiment,
and
Write about
your

observations
in an
acceptable
format.

Preparation
Knowing
what you're
going to do in

the
experiment is
where
everything
begins. After

all, how can

you know
what to do
and how to
write about it

if you don't
have the
slightest clue
what's going
on? To get

ready, follow
these
guidelines:
Read your

lab
assignment
in advance
and know
what you'll

be doing.
If you're not
sure what
you'll be

doing or you
don't
understand
the material,
the

equipment,
or the
experiment,
find the
answers to

your
questions
before you
go to the
lab.

 Record in
your
notebook all
the theories,
equations,

and
principles
that you
should know
in order to

understand
the
experiment.
You can use
these later to

explain what
happened.
Record
what you

think will
happen in
the
experiment
before you

go to the lab,
and write
why you are
making these
predictions.

Such
predictions
are
called hypot
heses.

Observations
Made Easy
If you're
prepared for

the
experiment,
you've done
half the work
already. A lot

of students go
to lab not
knowing what
they are going
to do, not

understandin
g any of the
principles
behind the
experiment,

and not
having a clue
as to what
they think
will happen.

These
students end
up cramming
lots of details
in their

notebooksdetails that
they won't
understand
when they

look at their
notes several
days later.
By contrast,

your
notebook will
already be
prepared.
Now, all you

have to do is
perform the
experiment
and record
what actually

happens.
Writing
About Your
Observations

Most
scientific and
lab reports
use a
standard

format to
present
information;
however,
there are

some
variations.
Make sure
that you
check with

your
professor
before you
record
information

and use the

format s/he
prefers.
The

Introduction
(Statement
of the
Problem)
Your report

should have
an
introduction
that states
the problem

and the
purpose of
the
experiment.
The

introduction
should
highlight:
o Any

relevant
background
information
,

o Experime
nts or
research
that set the
context for

the
experiment,
and
o The

"question,"
or
hypothesis,
for the
experiment.

Don't skimp
on this
section: the
more
pertinent

information
that you
write, the
more you
demonstrate

that you
know what
the
experiment is
about. The

Introduction
certainly may
be more than
one
paragraph in

length.
Methods
and
Materials

(Procedure)
In this
section, you
must
describe the

experimental
procedure
itself. The
reader/s
need to

know:
o The
research
design,

o Methods
and
materials,
such as the
subjects and

how they
were
selected,
o The

equipment,
o Whether
you did
laboratory

or field
research,
and
o The steps

taken in the
experiment.
In a
chemistry lab,

for example,
you would
include the
chemicals, or
reagents, used

in the
experiment
and the
equipment, or
tools, that you

used. Be
precise as you
discuss what
you used and
what you did

to perform
the
procedure.
For example,
don't tell the

reader that
you mixed 10
grams of
sodium
chloride into

the mixture if
you actually
mixed 10.5
grams of
sodium

chloride.
Stick to the
precision that
your
equipment is

capable of
recording-no
more, no less.
Usually, the

methods and
materials
section is
written in the
past tense

because
you've
already
performed
the

experiment.
Its purpose is
to relate the
experimental
process step-

by-step so
that the
reader can
duplicate
your

experiment
using the
same methods
and

equipment.
The Results
(Data
Presentation

)
This section
reports on
the findings
of the

experiment,
or the data.
Don't
include
explanations

in this
section.
Visual aids
such as
graphs,

charts,
tables, and
diagrams
make the
data

presentation
stronger. Or,
depending
on your
professor's

instructions,
you can
write a
simple
narrative

account of
what
happened.
This section
also may

include a
sample
calculation
(if any data
reduction is

involved) for
one
representativ
e set from
the data.

 The
Discussion
(Conclusions
)
In this final

section,
you'll
summarize
the findings
of your

experiment
and offer
some
tentative
conclusions.

You've
already
told whathap
pened; now
you'll

tell why it
happened.
You'll
discuss
whether

your original
hypothesis
was or was
not
confirmed by

the
experiment
and
speculate
(make an

educated
guess) as to
why. In
addition,
you'll share

with the
reader the
meaning, or
implications,
of the

experiment
and describe
any followon
experiments

that might
confirm or
extend the
results.
The

Discussion
section is a
very
important
section of the

report
because it
shows that
you
understand

the
experiment
beyond
simply being
able to

complete it.
This is where
the
preparations
before the

experiment
really pay off.
Professors
and
professional

colleagues
reward
people who
can use
writing to

explain,
analyze, and
interpret
results.

Exercise
Test your
knowledge.
Answer the

following
True/False
questions and
then click
"Enter" to

see if your
answers are
correct.
1. Writing lab

reports is a
type of
observation
writing.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

2. Description
and precise
language are
the primary
tools of

science
writers.
Top of Form
True

False
Bottom of
Form
Top of Form

Bottom of
Form
3. There is
only one

format for
writing
scientific
observations.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

4. You
shouldn't
read anything
about the
experiment

until the last

minute.
Top of Form
True

False
Bottom of
Form
Top of Form

Bottom of
Form
5. Preparing
for the

experiment
saves time in
the writing
stage.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

6. A short
introduction
is best when
writing about
observations.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

7. Never
include
graphs or
charts in a
lab report.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

8. It's
important to
share your
conclusions
about why

something
happened
during the
experiment.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of

Form
Top of Form
Bottom of
Form

Summary
Knowing how
to use details
to write

observations
will help
when you
write
scientific

observations.
This skill is
crucial to
success in
most science,

social science,
and technical
courses, and
in many
professional

careers as
well. The
steps you take
to write about
observations

in a science
course or lab
can be
applied to
other

disciplines.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 13
Resume

Writing
Objective
In this lesson,
you'll learn

how to
develop a
one-to-two
page resume
that will

attract an
employer's
attention to
help you get a

job interview
What is a
resume?
A resume is a

one-to-two
page
document
that
summarizes

your skills,
qualifications,
job
experience,
and

education.
Just as sales
people use
brochures to
advertise a

product,
you'll use
your resume
to advertise
yourself to

potential
employers.
New
technologies

and
characteristic
s of the job
market have
changed the

way in which
potential
employers
read and use
resumes.

Studies show
that hiring
managers
spend an
average of 6

seconds
scanning the
hundreds even
thousands - of

resumes they
receive.
Moreover,
many
companies

use Applicant
Tracking
Systems
(ATS) into
which they

scan
applicant
resumes and
search for
candidates

using
keywords.
Employers no
longer look
for the

traditional
statement of
"Objectives".
Instead, they
look for

elements of
your
background
that make
you a good fit

for the
company and
the job.
Construct
your resume

with these
new
conditions in
mind.

Employers
expect to see
the following
things in

resumes:
Contact
Information
Skills,

Abilities, and
Accomplish
ments
Education

 Work
Experience
Interests
and

Activities
(Optional)
Steps Before
Writing

Take time to
assess your
skills,
qualifications,
and

experiences
before you
start to write
your resume.
Getting the

right job
means
applying for
the right job.
How do you

know what
kind of job is
the right one
for you?

There are a
variety of
tools
available to
help you

understand
yourself and
your working
preferences
better. For

example, you
can buy a
book such as
the wellknown What

Color Is Your
Parachute? w
ritten by Dick
Bolles and
published by

Ten Speed
Press. Books
like this one
offer you a
series of

questions,
charts, and
prompts to
get you
thinking

about your
ideal job
situation.
Another tool
is the Myer's

Briggs Type
Indicator test
available on
the Internet
and in

bookstores.
When you
know what
kind of work

is best for you

and how your
experiences
and skills
factor into

your decision,
you can
develop an
eye-catching
and powerful

resume.
Making lists
is also
helpful. List

all of the
schools
you've
attended, the
jobs you've

held, and
your
volunteer
experiences.
For each,

record the
dates you
were there,
any degrees
or certificates

that you
earned, the
skills that
you've
gained, and,

most
importantly,
your most
salient
accomplishme

nts. Your prewriting will

save you
effort and
energy later

in the writing
process. The
following
items will
help you to

flesh out your

list:
Unique
Selling

Proposition:
What makes
you stand
out from
other

applicants?
How do your
particular
skills,
qualities,

and
accomplishm
ents make
you an
employee

who adds
value to a
company?
Skills and

Abilities:
o Computer
skills and
programs in

which you
are literate
o Technical
or

mechanical
skills
o Courses
you have

attended
beyond
general
college
course

o Writing or
other
communicat
ion abilities

o Language
s that you
speak or
can read

o Superviso
ry skills
o Personal
attributes

that make
you a
unique or
particularly
good

worker
Accomplish
ments:
drawing

from your
list of skills
and abilities,
list
accomplishm

ents that
demonstrate
your
application
of those

skills and
abilities
Schools
attended,

courses
taken, and
grades
Work

experiences,
paid or
unpaid
Exercise

1. In the text
box, list at
least ten skills
that you've
developed

that are
applicable to
the type of
job you want.

2. Note which
of these skills
you may use

in that job.
Can you
think of
anything else
to add to the

list now? If
so, add them
to the list, and
then rank all
the skills

according to
importance
on a scale of 1
to 5 (1 = most
important; 5

= least
important).
3. Take a look
at your skills

list. What
particular
accomplishme
nts can you
name in order

to
demonstrate
your use of
the skills
you've listed?

Try to add 1-2

accomplishme
nts for each
skill.

4. At the
bottom of
your list,
write the five
most

important
personal
attributes
that you
possess. What

will each
attribute
contribute to
the job?

Writing and
Targeting
Your Resume
Good resumes

are targeted
to one
employer and
one type of
job. General

resumes may
reveal that
you have had
lots of
experiences,

but they don't

give a sense of
focus to a
particular
employer's

need for
filling a
particular
job.
Therefore, it

is helpful to
write a
lengthy base
resume that
records your

work
experiences,
skills, and
abilities.
From that

base, you can

pull the most
important
information
to target a

particular
job. Add your
new skills and
abilities to the
base resume

monthly, if
necessary,
and then
you'll have all
the

information
necessary
when you
need to target
a new resume

to a new
potential
employer.
Whether

you're writing
a general
resume or one
for a
particular

job, your
resume
should have a
central
purpose or

focus. For a
general
resume, the
purpose is to
showcase the

unique set of
abilities,
skills,
qualifications,
characteristic

s, and
accomplishme
nts and
demonstrate
how they can

contribute to
a business's
bottom line.
For a resume
you are

developing in
order to
apply for a
particular
job, the

purpose is to
show the
particular
abilities,
skills,

qualifications,
characteristic
s, and
accomplishme
nts that fit the

requirements
for the job
and
demonstrate
how they will

contribute to
the particular
company's
bottom line.

Everything
you write in
your resume
will
contribute to

that purpose
or focus. The
purpose of
your resume
will guide you

as you select
what
elements of
your
experience

and skill set

to include, as
well as the
words you use
in order to

describe
them.
Build your
resume:

 Contact
Information
Give your
full name,
mailing

address,
telephone
number, and
e-mail
address at

the top of the

resume. Use
your cover
letter to
indicate how

and where
you can be
reached and
when is the
best time.

[see
"Writing a
Cover and
Thank-You
Letter"]

o Avoid
using
nicknames
o In

addition to
your college
address,
include a
permanent

address (a
post office
box or your
parent's
address will

be fine)
o Include
the area
code of your

phone
number
o Make sure
your e-mail

address is
written
correctly
o Note:

avoid cutesy
e-mail
addresses
like
flowergirl35

or hotdude.
The best email
address will
include

your first
and last
name,
perhaps
with a dot

in between
them.
Summary

o Objectives
are no
longer
standard in
resumes.

Instead,
employers
look for
some sort of
summary

that
combines
your
relevant
skills and

connects
them to
what the
employer is
looking for.

This can be
labeled in
one of
several
ways:

 Profile
Qualificati
ons
Summary

 Core
Competenc
ies
Key Skills

 Key
Proficienci
es
Areas of

Expertise
o However
you label it,
your

summary of
relevant
skills should
appear
directly

below your
contact
information
. It's the
most

important
part of the
resume,
because it is
what the

hiring
manager
will see first
- and
remember,

the typical
resume gets
perused in
about six
seconds!

o If you're
applying for
several
different
types of

jobs, you
should
target
resumes
and write

an
appropriate
summary to
match each
job. Your

summary:
Should be
consistent
with the

job skills
and
qualificatio
ns that you
include on

your
resume
and
If a

response to
an
advertised
position,
should be

consistent
with the
job title
and
general

qualificatio
ns listed in
that ad.
Your

summary
should
include the
keywords
employers

will be
using to
search for
the best
applicants.

Read more
about
keywords
below.

Exercise
Think about a
job that you'd
like to have.

Write a
summary
statement
that
corresponds

to that job in
the text box
below.
Rewrite as
necessary. If

you don't
have a job in
mind yet, you
could practice
this step using

the job
advertisement
s from an
online job

board.
Education
This

category
should follow
the summary
statement.
Use reverse

chronology,
listing most
recent
schools first.
Put

information
about each
institution in
an order that
will be

coincide with
what
employers
want to
know first.

The best
order is
name of
degree and
major,

school, city
& state, and
any other
information,
like GPA,

minor, and
relevant
coursework.
You can
leave off

dates for
education.
Example:
BA, U.S.

History,
Morefield
State
University,
Columbus,

Ohio
GPA: 4.0
Minor:
English

 President
's List, 4
years
Related

Course
Work: Wr
iting for
the
Profession

al
Audience,
Technical
Writing I
and

II, Busines
s
Communi
cation

 Skills and
Abilities
Use brief
bulleted

statements to
highlight
special skills
that make
you a strong

candidate for
the position.
If the
advertisement
calls for

someone with
teaching
experience
and you have
been teaching

swimming
and sailing at
a summer
camp for the
past two

summers, you
have some
teaching skills
that should be
mentioned

specifically. If
the job
requires
computer
skills, briefly

list all of the

programs
that you are
able to use.
Note that if

your work
experience is
more
pertinent to
the job than

your special
skills and
abilities, you
should
reverse the

position of
these two
categories.
Once again,
including

relevant
keywords is
critical.
Work

Experience
List your
work
experience in
reverse

chronologica
l order. If
you do not
have a lot of
paid work

experience,
it's fine to
include
volunteer
and

internship
experiences
under this
category.
The

important
thing is to
identify
those
positions

that helped
you develop
and use skills
that a
potential

employer
might find
useful.
o The best

order for
employers
and ATS
systems is
company

name, job
title, then
dates.
o Provide a

summary of
your
accomplish
ments in
that

position
using active
language.
Begin your
statements

with active
verbs
(present
tense for
current

positions
and past
tense for
previous
positions)

and avoid
using "I" in
these
statements.
For

example,
say
something
like: Wrote
computer

code for a
biology
software
program.

o Note the
difference
between
writing
about duties

and writing
about
accomplish
ments. It
will interest

your
employer
less that you
had
responsibilit

y for
developing
budgets
than that
you

developed a
particular
budget for a
particular
program.

Focus on
accomplish
ments
rather than
responsibilit

ies.
Interests
and
Activities

(Optional)
This section
now tends to
be
discouraged

by many
resume
experts, but
if you have
just

graduated
and you
don't have a
lot of job
experience,

this section
helps
employers
know more
about you.

You might
include (1)
social or
civic
activities, (2)

interests or
hobbies that
relate to the
position that
you're

applying for,
and (3)
activities
that provide
information

about your
dedication to
a task,
ability to
work hard,

or other
positive
personal
characteristi
cs. Provide

brief
explanations
of each
activity if
you have

room.
Examples:
1996 1999

Football
Team:
First team
member
of the

college's
Division I
football
team.
Practiced

an
average of
20 hours
per week
and

participat
ed in all
games
throughou
t the

season.
1992 present
Junior

President
of Rotary
Club:
Organized
and

developed
activities
for the
Rotary
Club in

Creekwat
er, NM.
References
It is no

longer
standard to
write
"References
Available

Upon
Request" at
the bottom
of your
resume. In

fact, doing so
may make
you look
inexperience
d.

Nevertheless,
you should
have ready a
list of
references

for your
potential
employer for
when they
ask for it.

This list
should
include the
full name of
each

reference,
his/her title,
telephone
number/s,
and a brief

statement
describing
how you
know the
person.

References
can be
current and
past
professors,

employers,
or
colleagues.
They cannot
be family

members.
Note: Don't
offer someone

as a reference
until you have
checked with
him/her to
make sure it

is okay to do
so.
What to
leave out of

your resume:
o Your age,
sex, marital
status, pets,

and hobbies
o Your
photograph
- this is not

necessary
and will
interfere
with
processing

by ATS
software.
o "Salary
negotiable"

- employers
already
know salary
is
negotiable.

Leave
discussion
of salary
expectations
for the

interview.
o Cliched
phrases:
salary

negotiable,
problem
solving
skills, hard
working,

proactive,
detailoriented,
self-starter,
team player

- what you
want to do
is
demonstrat
e that you

have these
qualities by
describing
specific
accomplish

ments in
your outline
of skills and
job
experience.

o Fancy
fonts and
excessive
formatting these make

the resume
more
difficult to
read and
may

interfere
with
processing
by an ATS.

o Overused
templates avoid
Microsoft
templates.

If you find a
template
online that
you like,
tweak it so

that it is
unique to
you.
o Irrelevant

jobs and
activities include jobs
from the
last ten

years, plus
any earlier
jobs that
are relevant
to the

position for
which you
are
applying.
Leave

others out.
Do not list
activities
that do not
relate to the

position.
o Spelling
and
punctuation

errors don't rely

on your
word
processor's

spell
checker.
Have a
friend look
over your

resume, and
then check
it again
yourself.

 Keywords
o Most
employers
now scan

resumes
into ATS
software,
creating a
searchable

database
they can use
to identify
candidates
using

keyword
searches.
That means
including
the right

keywords in
your resume
is essential.
Here are
some tips

for getting
keywords
right.
Use

keywords
from the
job
description
in your

summary,
skills, and
accomplish
ments.

 Research
the
company
and the
industry to

uncover
other
relevant
keywords
the

prospective
employer
may use to
search for
qualified

candidates.
Research
keywords
on websites

for
companies
in the same
industry,
job boards,

and other
sources of
job
description
s.

 Use the
LinkedIn
skills box
to identify
commonly-

used skill
titles.
When you
type in the
box, skills

with the
words you
type will
appear in a
dropdown

box.
Use
variants of
keywords.

In one part
of your
resume,
you might
use

"Customer
Relationshi
p
Manageme
nt", for

example,
while in
another,
you might
use

"CRM".
This
maximizes
the
opportuniti

es for your
resume to
turn up in
a database
search.

 Software
names and
course
titles are
also

common
keywords.
Find
places in

your
resume to
use
keywords
in contexts

that link
them to
your
specific
accomplish

ments.
Formatting
- you'll want
to be

thoughtful
about
formatting.
Resumes
should be

formatted
for both
reading ease
and ATS
compatibility

. Moreover,
most
resumes are
now
submitted

electronically
, either
through email or
online

application
forms.
o Develop
both a text

and a
printable
(document)
form of
your

resume.
Many
employers
will specify

the format
in which
they want
your
resume,

but in the
event that
an
employer
does not

specify, you
can send
both a text
version in
the bottom

of your email
(following
a cover
letter) and

attach a
document
form of
your
resume to

the e-mail
You can
save the
text

version of
your
document
as a .txt
file. In

Word,
choose
"Save
as...", click
the

dropdown
box, and
scroll down
to .txt.

 To see
how your
resume will
look as
plain text

and adjust
accordingl
y, view
your
document

in
NotePad.
You can
replace
bullet

points with
asterisks.
When
asked to

submit
your
resume
through an
online

form,
cutting and
pasting
from a
spell-

checked
.txt file is
safer and
more
reliable

than typing
your
informatio
n into the
online

form.
You'll
avoid
spelling
and

grammar
errors and
make sure
you include
those

valuable
keywords.
When you
save your

resume in
document
form,
use .doc
("Save

as..." and
scroll down
to Word
97-2003
Document)

. Some
employers
may still be
using the
earlier

version of
Word, and
all
processors
can open

a .doc file.
Saving
your
document

as a .pdf
file is
another
option. The
advantage

of .pdf files
is that they
retain
formatting
across

platforms.
For the
document
form of your

resume,
chose
formatting
that will
make your

resume easy
to read. Use
bullets
freely. Use
your

computer's
ability to
change fonts
and size, and
to bold,

italicize,
or underline
in limited
and
consistent

ways that
will make
your resume
both
attractive

and easy to
read.
Name your
resume using

your first
and last
name and
the word
"resume".

Example:
Jeffrey_Roge
rs_Resume.d
oc. This
protocol

simplifies
organization
for your
potential
employer.

 When
sending a
resume,
include a
cover letter

in the body
of the e-mail.
For more on
cover letters,
see "Writing

a Cover and
Thank-You
Letter".
In the e-

mail subject
line, include
the job
reference
number, the

job title, and

your name.
Even in the
document

version of
your resume,
avoid
formatting
that is ATS-

unfriendly:
lines, tables,
graphics,
fancy bullets,
text boxes,

and logos.
Put your
contact
information

in the
header, so
that it
appears on
every page of

your resume.
Keep your
resume to 2
pages if your

work
experience is
10 years or
longer; keep
it to a single

page if you
have less
than 10
years of
work

experience.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 14
Writing a

Cover and
Thank-You
Letter
Objective

In this lesson,
you'll learn
how to write
strong cover
letters to

enclose with
your resume
and thank
you letters to
send after

interviews.
Introduction
Along with
your resume,

the cover
letter and
thank you
letter
represent

your best
chance to
communicate
with
prospective

employers.
These letters
set you apart
from other

candidates.
The Cover
Letter
A cover letter

is a one-page
letter sent
with a
resume. You
should

include a
cover letter
every time
you submit a

resume.
A cover letter
gives you an
extra

opportunity
to show the
employer who
you are and
how your

talents match
the job that
needs to be
filled.
Although

your resume
also answers
that question,
it does so in a
very rigid

format. The
cover letter
allows you to
tell the
potential

employer
things about
your
experiences
and abilities

in a targeted
way. Your
cover letter
should
explain

precisely why
you fit the
qualifications
of a specific

position.
Even if you
send your
resume via e-

mail, write
and attach a
cover letter.
Not sending
one is a sign

of laziness or
inexperience
in the job
search
process,

neither of
which is
helpful in
getting an
interview.

Note: in some
cases, it may
be acceptable
to write your
cover letter in

the body of
the email with
which you
send your
resume. Look

for cues in the

job
description.
Writing a

Good Cover
Letter
The following
tips will help

you write an
effective
cover letter:
Identify

your purpose
for writing
the letter
and maintain
a focus on

that purpose
throughout
the letter.
Your
purpose will

be shaped by
your desired
outcome for
the letter
(getting an

interview,
learning
about job
opportunitie
s at the

company,
getting on a
recruiter's
radar) as
well as by

the qualities
and
experiences
that would
make you a

unique and
valuable
asset.
Research

the company
It is easier to
write both a
targeted
cover letter

and resume
if you know
something
about the
company or

institution
that is
hiring.
Researching
the company

can be as
simple as
going to a
web site,
where you

will find out

more about
the
company's
products or

services, the
founders or
primary
executives,
its financial

stability, and
the hiring
official(s).
Often, it is
acceptable to

telephone the
company
and ask for
the human
resources

division
where
someone can
give you
information

about the job

and the
hiring
process. That
knowledge

can help you

to shape
both your
cover letter
and your

resume.
Write your
letter to the
hiring

official in
charge of the
job
A cover
letter is

always most
effective
when it's
addressed
directly to

the person
who will
make the
final hiring
decision. To

make a good
first
impression
on this
person is

valuable. By
writing
directly to
the hiring
official, your

application
might jump
to the top of
a very big
pile. Do not

address your
letter to "Sir
or Madam"
or "To whom
it may

concern". If
you aren't
sure who will
be making
the hiring

decision, try
to find out
using Google
or the
company

website. In
the event
that you
cannot
determine

who is
making the
hiring
decision,
leave out the

greeting.
Write your
letter in a
formal letter

style
It's
important to
speak in a
clear and

formal style
when writing
a cover
letter.
Because you

will be
targeting the
letter to the
company's
needs, you

can avoid
writing a
letter that
sounds as if
it were

copied from
a business
textbook or
as if it's
being used

for every job

to which
you're
applying.
Personalize

your letter to
fit the
specific
position for
which you

are applying,
and reveal
by your
words that
you are

motivated,
enthusiastic,
and focusedin other
words, the

perfect
match for
the position.
Use the

terms and
phrases the
employer
uses in the
job

advertiseme
nt
If the job
advertiseme
nt says that

the employer
is looking for
someone
with "at
least one-

year
experience in
computer
programmin
g", you

should
restate this
requirement
in your cover
letter: "I

have two and

a half years
of experience
in computer
programmin

g." Follow
up this
statement by
explaining
how you

have met
and/or
exceeded
that
experience.

Of course,
honesty and
integrity are
crucial.
You'll want

to speak only
to your
genuine
skills and
experiences

and show
how they
match the
employer's
needs.

 Avoid
overuse of
"I"
You want to
convey the

impression
that the
letter is
about what
the company

wants. Refer
to what that
is, and
explain how
you fulfill

those needs.
The idea is to
convey very
quickly how
you can

contribute to
the
company's
bottom line.

 Be brief
Most
employers
will receive
hundreds of

resumes and
cover letters.
Since they
will not have
time to read

long cover
letters, make
your letter as
brief as
possible,

while still
making the
points you
want to
make. The

entire letter,
with your
letterhead,
the
company's

address,
salutation
(greeting),
and
signature

block, should
be no more
than 3-4
brief
paragraphs,

covering 1/2
to 3/4 of a
page.
Don't

repeat your
resume
Instead,
select a one
or two

relevant high
points from
your resume
and use them
to help

demonstrate
that you are
a good fit for
the position.

 Be active
Express your
interest in
the job and
don't be shy

about
highlighting
your skills
and
experiences

that make
you a good
match. Close
by telling the
employer

that you look

forward to
hearing from
him/her.
However,

you should
not stop
there. Tell
the employer
that you'll

call or e-mail
in one week
or ten days
to see where
the company

is in the
hiring
process.
Then, make
the call. This

proactive
stance sets
you apart
from other
applicants

who simply
wait to hear
from the
employer-it
demonstrate

s your
dependabilit
y and
independenc
e.

 Be polite
and avoid
sounding
desperate.
Do not

demand a
positive
response.
Instead,
express your

interest in
the
opportunity.
You may also
add, "I look

forward to
your
response" to
help prompt
a reply from

the
employer.
Proofread
carefully.

Spelling,
grammar,
and
typographica
l errors in

cover letters
and resumes
are an easy
excuse for
employers to

dismiss you
immediately
as a potential
employee.
Have

another
person read
your
documents
before you

send them
and read
them aloud
yourself,
listening and

looking for
readability
and clarity.
A sample

outline for an
effective
cover letter
Paragraph

1: Express
your interest
in the
position,
using the

position name
in the job
advertisement
. Mention
where you

saw the ad.

Paragraph
2: Mention 12

accomplishme
nts that
demonstrate
your
suitability for

the job and

distinguish
you from
other

applicants.
Paragraph
3: Address
your desired

outcome from
the letter (an
interview, a
discussion
with the

employer
about their
hiring plans
or job
opportunities,

etc.). Say
what you will
do to follow
up and
express your

willingness to
supply any
additional
information
the employer

may need.
Thank the
employer for
considering
your letter or

application.
Sample Cover
Letter
Sam Smith

10 Water
Way
Waterville,
Washington
11111

May 10,
2000
Don

Blackman,
Graphics
Director
The
Graphics

Place
1323 Main
Street
Burkes,
Montana

33333
Dear Mr.
Blackman,
I am writing

in reference
to your
advertiseme
nt for a
graphic

artist/design
er in
yesterday's
Montana
Morning

Post. My
enclosed
resume will
show that I
have the

qualification
s and skills
that are
necessary
for success

in this
position.
My former
position, in

which I was
promoted
twice,
required
that I

develop and
use
experience
in
Photoshop,

Drumbeat,
Illustrator
and
Freehand.
In this

position, my
specialty
was
exploring
the potential

of visual
communicat
ion in all its
contempora
ry forms

and I have
won three
awards for
my work in
this area. If

you are
looking for
someone
dedicated to
fresh

approaches
in the
communicat
ive arts,
please look

at my
resume
attached to
this e-mail.

I am
available for
an interview
at any time.
I may be

reached at
home at
555-5555555 or via
e-mail at

bloa@aolb.c
om.However
, I will be
happy to
call you next

Thursday to
see whether
you have
received and
reviewed my

application.
At that time,
I would be
delighted to
set up an

interview
appointment
or to answer
any
questions

that you
might have.
I look
forward to

meeting
with you to
discuss the
position

further.
Thank you,
Sam Smith
Attachment:

Resume
Exercise
Using the
sample cover

letter above,
use the text
box below to
write a cover
letter for a

job in which
you are
interested. If
you are not
currently

seeking
employment
but you want
to practice
writing a

cover letter
anyway, use a
job
advertisement
from your

local
newspaper.
When you're
finished,
compare your

letter with the

example.
The Thank

You Letter
You should
write a
follow-up

letter to a
prospective
employer
within
twenty-four

(24) hours of
your
interview for
the position.
This letter is a

very
important
part of the
interviewing
process.

Many people
fail to send a
thank you
letter, making
those who do

stand out in
contrast!
By sending a
thank you to

the employer,
you are
letting
him/her know
that you are

still interested
in the job. In
addition, it is
a chance for
you to remind

the
interviewer of
your
interview and
skills. Finally,

the letter
gives you an
opportunity
to tell him/her
things that

you may have

forgotten to
say in the
interview or
things that

you wish you

had said
better.
Writing a

Good Thank
You Letter
Send the
letter as soon

as possible.
Do not delay
get it in
the mail or
email. You

never know
how quickly
the employer
will be
looking to

hire.
Type the
letter in
standard

business
format.
The letter
should use
the same

formal tone
and format
as your cover
letter. Send it
directly to

the person
who
interviewed
you for the
position.

 Develop a
thank you
letter with
the standard

components.
o In your
first
paragraph,

express
your
appreciatio
n for the
interview.

Include any
elements of
the
interview
that come to

mind (e.g.,
touring the
facilities or
meeting
potential co-

workers).
Include the
names of
the people
who

interviewed
you and the
position title
for which
you

interviewed.
o Include
specifics
details

about the
interview to
refresh the
interviewer'
s mind

about who
you are.
Include any
comments
or a part of

the
conversatio
n that
would make
you stand

out from
others.
o Drive
home any

main points
that you
think would
be helpful.
Re-

emphasize
your most
important
skills and
show the

interviewer
why you are
the right fit
for the
organizatio

n.
o Briefly
add any
relevant

information
that you
forgot to
include in
your resume

or
interview.
o Let the
employer

know that
you want to
continue
your
discussion

about the
position. Be
proactive
and tell
him/her

when you
will call to
follow-up
the
interview.

Then call as
promised,
as you did
prior to
receiving

the
interview.
Sample
Thank You

Letter
Joe Smith
56 Clear
Lane

Hamilton,
Texas 11111
August 10,

2000
Jamie
Wilson
Director of

Publications
Tom's
Publishing
Company

10 Trial
Way
Hamilton,
Texas 11111

Dear Mr.
Wilson,
I enjoyed
speaking

with you
this
afternoon
about the
Publication

Assistant
position. I
believe my
passion for
editing and

talent in the
marketing
and graphic
arts field
mesh well

with Tom's
Publishing
business
goals and

objectives.
During our
meeting, you
said that

you want
someone to
step in and
take over
the editorial

aspects of
the
company in
an
organized

manner. I
am a very
organized
and
methodical

individual
who can
easily learn
the latest
development

al software
programs
for the
medical/nur
sing

industry. I
am also very
interested in
learning
more

graphic
design.
These kinds
of
responsibilit

ies certainly
will put my
creative
efforts to the

test!
As you
suggested in
my

interview, I
logged on to
your web
site and
downloaded

the
"Writing
Better Test
Questions"
demo. I

found it
both
interesting
and easy to
follow. The

step-by-step
examples,
guidelines,
and
Educator

Tips give
great
insights into
what is
expected on

an exam.
Once again,
thank you
for meeting

with me. I
look
forward to
continuing
our

discussion
and will call
you on
Friday to
see where

you are in
the
interviewing
process. In
the

meantime,
please feel
free to
contact me
at any time.

I can be
reached at
home at
555-5555555 or via

e-mail at
aolb@bloa.c
om.
Sincerely,

Joe Smith
Exercise
Using the
example

thank you
letter as a
guide, write a
follow-up
letter in the

text box
below. You
may use the
experience of
a past

interview to
guide your
writing.
Compare
your letter

with the
sample when
you are
finished.

Summary
You've
learned why

cover and
thank you
letters are
important to
the job search

process and
how to write
effective ones.
Smarthinking
Writer's

Handbook
Chapter 1,
Lesson 15

Writing Short
Stories 1:
Short Story
as Genre

Objective
In this lesson,
youll learn
what a short

story is, the

difference
between a
simple
narrative and

a short story,
and the subgenres of
short stories.
Youll also

learn the
elements of a
short story,
and youll
practice using

those
elements.
What is a
short story?

Scholars,
critics,
academics
and writers
are still

debating this
question
today.
However,
there is one

aspect of the
short story
that they all
agree on: the
short story is

more than
just a short
novel. It is a
genre in and
of itself, and

should be
read and
written with
different
expectations

than the
novel. With
that in mind,
there are
essentially

two types of
short
narratives:
the short
story and the

simple
narrative. In
a simple
narrative, the
focus is on the

plot, the
what
happens
next.
However, in

a short story,
though there
is a
narrative,
there is also

meaning that
lies below the
surface story,
or a symbolic
substructure.

This symbolic
substructure
is where the
real meaning
of the short

story is, and

everything in
the story
points to it.

Conflict,
Crisis and
Resolution
For a story to

be successful,
there must be
a conflict.
What makes
short stories

interesting is
trouble.
Trouble, or
conflict, is
what keeps

readers
reading your
story.
Conflict
comes in

many forms,
but the main
thing to
remember is
that the

central
character
must yearn
for
something,

must want
something
intensely.
According to
Janet

Burroway,
What the
central
character
wants doesnt

have to be
violent or
spectacular;
its the
intensity of

the wanting
that counts.
Think about
it this way
the most

dangerous
things in life
are not
necessarily
the most

spectacular.
The same is
true of short
stories.

There are
many
different
conflicts, but
in a nutshell,

conflict can
be broken
down in the
following

way:
Human
against
human

 Human
against
nature
Human

against
society
Human
against

machine
Human
against God
Human

against self
Once conflict
has been
established,

and this is
usually at the
very
beginning of
the story, it is

then
developed
through the
story. Then
the conflict

must come to
a crisis, either
internal or
external.
After the

crisis, there
either is
aresolution, o
r, as many
modern and

contemporary
stories end,
the reader is
left to decide
the

resolution. In
the short
story (as
opposed to
the simple

narrative)
this crisis is
often called
the epiphany,
where the

main
character
comes to an
understandin
g, changes

his/her view,
or has a
chance for
change but
either doesnt

recognize the
chance or
chooses not to
take it. In
such a case,

the epiphany
is the
readers,
because the
reader comes

to understand
or see
something
that the
character is

unable to.
The key is
that there is
change, or a
chance for

change, or
reversal. A
reversal of
some sorts is
necessary to

all story
structure.
The conflict
cant go on in
a short story;

there must be
an end in
sight, either
for the
characters or

for the
reader.
So, a short
story begins

in the
middle, with
the conflict
and tension
established

first. The
sooner you
get your
characters
into some sort

of conflict,
the better.
Because a
short story is
by its nature

short, you
dont have
the luxury of
a novelist in
providing

background
information
or describing
scenery.

Exercise
This exercise
will give you
an

opportunity
to practice
conflict, crisis
and
resolution in

a very short
space.
In the text
box below, try

writing a
story in
exactly 100
words.
Because this

is so brief,
you will want
to create your
conflict right
away. Also,

remember
that your
resolution can
be implied.

How did you

do? Did you
establish your

conflict in the
first sentence
or two? Were
you able to
write a

complete
story in 100
words? Can
your conflict
fall into one

of the 6
categories of
conflict
above? Was
your crisis

internal or
external?
Was there a
resolution, or
did you leave

it up to the
reader to
decide?
Symbolism

A symbol is
an object or
event that
represents
something

other than its

self. Most
symbols in
short stories
become

symbolic in
the story
itself, and
they dont
have this

meaning
outside of the
story. But do
writers
intentionally

place symbols
into their
stories? The
answer is no.
So, while

symbols and
symbolic
substructures
are important
if you are

writing short
stories (as
opposed to
simple
narratives),

the confusing
part is that
you dont
want to
intentionally

put them in.

So how do
they get into
your story?
The masters

of the short
story form
say that they
write stories
from the

place they
dream, and
that the
symbols and
symbolic

substructures
exist only
because of the
nature of the
human mind,

where
meaning is
below the
surface.

Following are
quotes from
masters of the
short story on

symbolism:
Ernest
Hemingway:
I know what

I am writing
about but I
never throw
in symbols
consciously.

Sometimes I
find out what
Im supposed
to mean when
I read the

books on my
work. I guess
somewhere
some of the
same ideas

must be in
me. I
certainly do
have crazy

ideas.
Katherine
Ann Porter:
Symbolism

happens of its
own self and
it comes out
of something
so deep in

your
consciousness
and your own
experience
that I dont

think most
writers are at
all conscious
of their use of
symbols. I

never am
until I see
them.
Flannery

OConnor: I
really didnt
know what a
symbol was
until I started

reading about
them. It
seemed I was
going to have
to know

about them if
I was going to
be a
respectable
literary

person.
So, your goal
is to strive to
do is to let the

story tell
itself, as
opposed to
trying to tell
the story.

When you do
this,
symbolism
occurs
naturally,

because of the
nature of
structure and
the nature of
the conscious

and
subconscious
mind.
According to
Julie

Cameron,
writing is
about:
getting

something
down, not
about
thinking
something

up Another
way to think
of it is that
writing is the
art of taking

dictation, not
giving it.
When I listen
to what I hear
and simply

jot that down,

the flow of
ideas is not
mine to
generate but

to transcribe.
When, on the
other hand, I
struggle to
write, it is

because I am
trying to
speak on the
page rather
than listen

there.
Thus, the
writing
process is

inherently
and by
definition
symbolic. In
the

structuring of
events, the
creation of
character and
atmosphere,

the choice of
object, detail,
and language,
you are
selecting and

arranging
toward the
goal that
these
elements

should signify
more than
their mute
material

existence.
How, then, do
you know if
symbolism is

present in
your story,
and if that
symbolic
substructure

is working?
One of the
best ways to
discover if
your writing

has symbols
and symbolic
substructures
is to have
others read

your stories.
It is always
interesting
and
enlightening

for a reader
to find
symbolic
meaning in
your story, to

learn that the

depth of your
consciousness
and
experience

points to
meaning
beyond the
narrative.
Very often

writers dont
even know
that they are
there until
someone

points them
out to them!
For more on
symbolism
and how

symbols
naturally
evolve, read
the section on
symbols

in Chapter 1,
Lesson
17, Writing
Poetry.

Another way
to know if
symbolism is
present and
working in

your story is
through revisioning
your story
(see Chapter

1, Lesson
16, Writing
Short Stories
2:
Techniques:

Editing and
Revising),
LINK to the
lesson seeing
your story

new, and
seeing what
was always
there but not
obvious (even

to you) at
first. This is
why it is so
helpful to set
your work

aside for a
period of time
and then go
back to it.
You will be

amazed
sometimes at
what winks
back at you
from the

page.
Also, reading
classic and
contemporary

short stories
rich with
symbolism
will help you
to understand

what
symbolism is,
how writers
use it, and
how it

enriches the
story beyond
the simple
narrative.
There is

certainly
nothing
wrong with
simple
narrative, but

the works
that
withstand the
test of time,
the works

that speak to
us and stay
with us long
after we put
the story

down, have
symbolic
substructures
that the
reader

identifies with
(sometimes
subconsciousl
y). A good
place to start

is by reading
some of the
short story
writers that
are

considered
masters of the
form such as
Eudora
Welty,

Flannery
OConnor,
Franz Kafka,
Grace Paley,
Anton

Chekhov,
Katherine
Mansfield,
Williams
Carlos

Williams,
Kate Chopin,
Edgar Allen
Poe, Guy de
Maupassant,

Donald
Barthelme,
William
Faulkner,
William Gass,

Vladimir
Nabokov,
Jorge Luis
Borges, Joyce
Carol Oates,

Robert
Coover,
Ernest
Hemingway,
Ralph Ellison,

Amy Tan, and

Imamu Amiri
Baraka (Leroi
Jones).

Structure and
Form
Structure and
form are the

overall design
or
arrangement
of material.
Like poetry,

the form of a
short story
contributes
significantly
to a storys

effect and to
your readers
response.
For example,
a story that is

1500 words
may have a
more
concentrated,
and poetic,

impact than a
story that is
15,000
words. The
sheer

shortness
of the story
lends a strong
emotional
and

intellectual
effect that
lingers with
the reader
long after she

has put the

story down.
But length is
not the only

aspect of
form that you
can use to
comment on
the content of

your story.
There are
many devices
that you can
use in order

to enhance
meaning and
emphasize
symbolism
and theme.

Following are
some of these
devices:
Framing.

Framing in
the short
story is
similar to a
frame

around a
picture. It
holds the
picture
together, but

is separate
from the
internal
image.
Frames take

many
different
forms, but
some of the
most

common are
different
time periods,
different
characters,

or sometimes
seemingly
unrelated
events. The
idea of the

frame is to
surround
the story
with the
frame in

order to add
meaning.
With a story
that is
framed, you

want to have
the
complete
story inside
of the frame,

with the
frame
adding
complexity
and reader

revelation.
Diary
entries or
notes.

Telling a
story by a
series of
diary entries
or notes. As

is common in
stories of this
mode, the
reader must
question

what, if
anything
took place,
which can be
a comment

on reality or
perception of
reality.
Collage. A

collage is an
assortment
of disparate
fragments
pasted

together and
transposed
into an
artistic
composition.

Collages
suggest
rather than
tell, and can
have the

effect of
fragmentatio
n,
disconnectio
n and

isolation.
This is an
experimental
form of
fiction, but

can be very
successful if
there are the
symbolic and
thematic

threads that
tie the
fragments
together.

 Non-linear
plot. Events
not in
sequence, or
not having a

beginning,
middle and
end
arranged
according to

chronologica
l or clock
time. This
technique
can comment

on the idea
of time itself
and the
effects it has
on man.

 Anti-story.
Plots are
truncated,
distorted, or
abandoned.

This
technique
can comment
on the idea
that the

universe is
not rational
or coherent,
but rather a
meaningless

puzzle.
Lyricism.
Breaking
parts of the

prose into
poetic form.
This can
comment on
the poetic

nature of
life, the short
story form,
the
character,

etc.
There are
many more
aspects of

structure that
you can use in
your stories
and
contemporary

writers
certainly are
inventing new
ones. One
thing to keep

in mind: If
you decide to
use the
disconnected
or

incongruous
techniques,
remember
that they are
only

apparently
disconnected
or
incongruous.
In actuality,

the
disconnection
creates
coherence.

Like the form

of the whole,
the structure
of sentences
themselves

can also
comment on
content.
Short, choppy
sentences can

convey the
emotion or
action of the
character, but
can also

convey the
choppiness
of the
contemporary
world.

Conversely,
long,
lingering
sentences and
paragraphs

can convey
not only
drawn-out
action or
emotion, but

also the
nature of the
lost or
wandering
modern man.

Like
symbolism,
these
techniques
cannot be

forced upon
the story.
However, you
can
consciously

use these
techniques in
revision to
emphasize
your point

and comment
on theme.
Exercise
Take your

100-word
story that you
wrote above.
Now, see if
you can

rewrite the
story in the
form of a
diary entry.
Try to keep

the new story

at 100 words.
Short Story

Sub-Genres
To
understand
the

development
of the short
story means
to get a grasp
on what has

come before.
Just as other
art forms
such as
painting,

sculpture,
and music
study the
masters to
understand

their own
work, so it is
extremely
beneficial for
a writer to

study the
short story in
its various
stages.
Understandin

g the short
story as a
genre also
opens the
doors for you

as a writer.
By reading
the short
story in all of
its forms, you

come to
understand
that there is
no formula
that is

right, no
cut-and-dried
way to tell
your story.

Following are
some of
the short
story subgenres and

some of the
writers who
write in these
nontraditional

forms.
Magical
realism is a
sub-genre

characterize
d by
fantastic
detail,
mythology,

parable and
poetry. They
are often
elusive, and
operate in a

world that is
at the same
time both
real and
unreal. Gab

riel Garcia
Marquez is
considered to
be one of the
leaders in

this subgenre, and

his stories
include Eva
is Inside Her

Cat, A
Very Old
Man With
Enormous
Wings, and

Eyes of a
Blue Dog.
The lyric
short

story concent
rates on
internal
changes,
moods, and

feelings,
using a
variety of
structural
patterns

depending
on the shape
of the
emotion
itself, relies

for the most

part on the
open ending,
and is
expressed in

the
condensed,
evocative,
often
figurative

language of
the poem.
The essential
of
storytelling

are present,
but it is not
plot
development
that arouses

interest.
Many
of Jean
Toomers sto
ries can be

considered
lyric short
stories.
Toomers
book Cane is

a collection
of lyric short
stories and
poetry.

 Shortshorts or flas
h fictions are
classified as
having less

than 2000
words. The
brevity of
this form
allows for a

concentrated
emotional
and
intellectual
impact. Fra

nz
Kafkas Bef
ore the Law
is an
example of

such a story.
Metafiction
is fiction
about fiction,

where art is
an artifice in
which the
real and
fictional

worlds are
inseparable.
John
Barth is
considered

one of the
forerunners
in this subgenre. His
most famous

book Lost in
the
Funhouse is
a cycle of
short stories

focusing on
metafiction.
Summary
In this lesson,

youve
learned the
difference
between short
stories and

simple
narratives
and the
elements that
make up

short stories.
By reading
the masters of
the genre and
practicing,

you will learn

to develop
your own
style and
unique way of

telling your
story.
Works
Referenced

Creative and
Critical
Approaches
to the Short
Story. Noel

Harold
Kaylor, Jr.,
Ed., 1997.
The New

Short
Theories, Cha
rles E. May,
Ed., 1994.

Short Story
Theories. Ch
arles E. May,
Ed., 1976.

Story to AntiStory. Dr.

Mary
Rohrberger,

1979.
Writing
Fiction: A
Guide to a

Narrative
Craft. Janet
Burroway,
1992.

Dramatic
Technique in
Fiction. Robe
rt Bahr, 1998.

The Right to
Write: An
Invitation
and Initiation
into the

Writing
Life. Julie
Cameron,
1998.

The Norton
Introduction
to
Fiction. Jero
me Beaty,

1996.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 16
Writing Short
Stories 2:

Techniques
Objective
In this lesson,
youll learn

the
techniques
that short
story writers
use and learn

how to
develop your
own craft. To
understand
what a short

story is and
the different
types of short
stories, you
can refer

to Chapter 1,
Lesson
15, Writing
Short Stories
1: Short Story

as Genre.
Rhythm and
Voice
Because the

short story is
brief, every
word is
extremely
important.

Along the
same lines,
the rhythm of
the prose is
also

extremely
important.
This is also
sometimes
called your

voice, how
you say what
you say.
There are
many

techniques to
developing
rhythm, but
one way to
work on it is

through
sentence
length. Let
your sentence
structure

imitate your
action. For
instance, if
your
character is

taking a long,
leisurely
walk, try
writing in
long, leisurely

sentences.
Ultimately,
however, you
dont want
the structure

of your
sentences to
distract from
the action.
Find a

balance
where the
rhythm of
your words
works in

tandem with
the action and
feelings of
your
characters.

Because
poetry
focuses on
rhythm also,
for more

information
on rhythm
readChapter
1, Lesson
17, Writing

Poetry.
There are
basically two
methods of

treating time
in fiction:
summary and
scene. Summ
ary covers a

longer period
of time in a
short space,
and
a scenedeals

with a short
period of time
at length.
Summary
helps give

background
information
or leap
moments or
years, but

a scene is
where
significant
things happen
in moments

and cannot be
summarized.
Think of
scenes as
similar to a

camera
zooming in on
something.
Every detail,
every gesture,

every word is
looked at
close-up and
with extreme
care. Because

short stories
are full of
conflict and
confrontation
and turning

points and
crises
(Writing
Short Stories
1: Short Story

as Genre. ),
they require
scenes. You
must look
very closely at

actions and
words and
subtle facial
expressions in
short stories,

and this cant

be done in
summary.
Short stories
are about

moments, and
the scenes
that show
those
moments are

powerful for
writers and
readers.
Exercise

To practice
summary and
scene, think
about
something

that
happened to
you today.
First write a
summary of

the incident
in two or
three
sentences.
Then write

the same
incident as if
you are
zooming in on
it. Write

every detail,
every gesture,
every word,
and every
action that

happened in a
two or three
minute span.

Tense
As far as
tense
goes, present

tense and past

tense are the
two basic
tenses used in
short fiction.

It is generally
more effective
to stay in one
tense all the
way through

a story,
though if
there is a
thematic
reason for

jumping from
tense to tense,
doing so can
be
successful. Fl

ashbacks are
one way to
show past
events in the
narrative

time of the
story, which
is when the
ongoing story
flashes back

in time and
the reader
sees a scene
or scenes that
help him to

understand
the ongoing
story.
Remember,
when you do

use
flashbacks,
give the
reader a
smooth

transition
into the past
and then back
into the
present story

time. Though
flashbacks
are very
useful,
dialogue,

narration, or
a detail may
tell the reader
all he/she
needs to

know, so see if
your
flashback can
be told
through the

present story.
Too many
flashbacks
often bog the

story down.
Viewpoint
Someone
must tell your

story. This
someone is
called
the narrator.
There are

three basic
viewpoints
through
which stories
are told: third

person,
second
person, and
first
person. Perso

n refers to the
basic mode of
a piece of
fiction. In
the third

person, all the

characters
will be
referred to
as he, she, or t

hey. There
are different
ways to use
omniscience
with the third

person, but
one of the
most effective
is limited
omniscience,

which is when
the reader
knows the
thoughts of
only one

character. In
the first
person, the
character
telling the

story will
refer to
himself or
herself
as I and to the

other
characters
as he, she,
or they.
The second

person (consi
dered a very
experimental
form) is the
basic mode of

the story only

when a
character is
referred to
as you. When

anomniscient
narrator (or
all-knowing,
when all of
the

characters
thoughts are
known)
addresses the
reader as you,

this does not

alter the basic
viewpoint of
the piece
from third to

second
person. Only
when you
become an
actor in the

drama is the
story written
in second
person.

In choosing a
point of view,
the you
implies an
identity not

only for the

teller of the
tale, but also
for the reader
of your story.

Most fiction is
addressed to
a literary
convention,
the reader.

But the story

may also be
told to
another
character, or

characters, in
which case
the reader
overhears
it; the teller of

the tale does

not
acknowledge
the reader.
One more

way a story
can be told is
to the self,
which is very
intimate. An

example of
this is a story
written as a
diary or
taking place

completely in
the mind.
It is
important to

stay in one
viewpoint
consistently
throughout
the story

unless you are

changing
viewpoints for
specific
reasons. In

other words,
if part of your
theme in your
story is to
show how

different
people think
differently
about the
same event,

you might
write part of
the story in
the first
person I

and part of
the story in
the third
person he,
she, or they.

Keep in mind,
however, that
changing
viewpoints in
a story jolts a

reader. What
happens is
that the
reader often
has to stop

and even go
back to see
what, if
anything, s/he
missed. And

your readers
cant be
expected to
do this. You
want them to

be so caught
up in your
story that
they
experience

the emotions
you want
them to.
Ultimately,
changing

viewpoints
should be
done
sparingly and
with specific

reasons when
you are
writing short
stories.

Characterizat
ion: Dialogue,
Action,
Thought

Characterizat
ion is how
you develop
your
characters

through
dialogue,
action, and
thought.
What your

characters
say, do and
think are the
crux of how
your story

will be told.
Depending on
the story you
are writing,
you can use

all three, or
two, or just
one. Just like
real people,
your

characters
will come to
life through
their words,
actions and

thoughts.
The purpose
of dialogue in
fiction is

never merely
to convey
information.
Dialogue may
do that, but it

must also
simultaneousl
y
characterize,
provide

exposition, set
the scene,
advance the
action, and
foreshadow

and/or
remind.
Dialogue that
is only there
for the sake of

talking is
sometimes
called pass
the peas,
where the

character is
only talking
but nothing
else is being
revealed.

Look through
your dialogue
to make sure
that first it is
absolutely

necessary,
and second
that it is
revealing
something

either about
the character,
the scene, the
action, or
something to

come (also
called foresha
dowing).
With

dialogue, you
will convey
information
more
naturally if

the emphasis
is on the
characters
feelings. But
this is easier

said than
done. The
trick to
writing good
dialogue is

hearing the
characters
voice. Ask
yourself,
What would

he or she
say?
Exercise
A good way to

practice
writing
dialogue is to
listen to
people in real

life.
Eavesdrop on
people
anywhere,
from

restaurants to
bus stops to
airports to
classrooms.
Keep a

journal with
you and try to
write down
exactly what
you hear. If

you hear an
interesting
conversation,
try writing a
passage of

that
conversation.
Try not to
look for
words that

seem right;
just listen the
voice and let
it flow. You
will develop

your inner
ear and
consequently
your own
range of

voices as you
listen to real
people and
practice
writing

conversations
. Also, try
reading your
dialogue out

loud.
In your short
stories,
examine your

dialogue to
see if it does
more than
one thing at a
time. Do the

choice of
words and
their syntax
reveal that
the character

is stiff,
outgoing,
ignorant of
the facts,
perceptive,

afraid, about
to boil over?
Is the conflict
advanced by
no-

dialogue, in
which the
characters
say no to each
other? Is the

drama
heightened by
the
characters
inability or

unwillingness
to tell the
whole
truth?

Just like
dialogue,
every action s
hould have
more than

one purpose
in the short
story. This
can be to
characterize,

set the scene,

move the plot
forward, or
foreshadow.
Though what

the
characters do
may often be
important to
the plot, often

the internal
or mental
moment of
change (or
epiphany) is

where the
action lies.
For example,
the moment
of change

may be the
moment at
which the
character
decides to do

something,
discovers that
an accident
has
happened, or

realizes that
they were
wrong about
something.
This internal

change goes
hand-in-hand
with either
action or
dialogue.

What your
characters do
can often be
in conflict
with what

they think or
say, also.
This adds
depth and
complexity to

your
characters.
And
remember,
the action

that your
character
does can often
be the
wrong one;

the reader
can know
what the
right action
should be,

while the
character
does the
opposite.

Your story
can either
have
the thoughts o
f one or more

characters or
no thoughts
at all. If the
reader cannot
get into the

mind of the
character(s),
the conflicts
must be
expressed in

contradiction
s outside of
the
characters
(such as

speech and
action).
However, if
your reader
hears what

your
character is
thinking, the
conflicts in
the difference

between what
the character
thinks and
how he acts
or what he

says becomes
apparent.
Ultimately,
you will want
to listen to

your
characters, let
them tell you
what should

be revealed.
Setting and
Description
Like

everything
else in the
short
story, setting
and

description su
ggest more
meaning than
just being
where the

story takes
place or
arbitrary
details. Why
does your

story take
place where it
does? Is
there a
conflict

between the
characters
and the
setting and/or
description?

Or are they
parallel to the
action/charac
ters/conflict
etc.? Writers

often use
symbolic
settings such
as war, a
farm, a city,

an inner-city
project, etc.
to give their
stories depth
and meaning.

Description
can also be
used this
way. In this
way, setting

and
description
comment on
the action,
thought,

appearance,
and other
elements of
the story.
Also, setting

and
description
can arouse
the readers
expectations

and
foreshadow
events to
come.

Editing and
Rewriting
Revision is an
ongoing

process, and
many writers
never
consider their
stories ever

finished.
But the
advantage of
revision is the
chance to see

your story
fresh and
creating it
again.
This re-

vision, or
seeing your
story in a new
way, involves
internal and

external
insight.
Youll need
your
conscious

critic, your
unconscious,
and readers
you can
trust. And,

over time, you

may discover
what your
story is really

about.
One of the
best things
you can do

for your story

is to set it
aside and not
look at it for a
matter of

days or weeks
until you
feel fresh on
the project.
This gives you

some distance
on your story
and allows
you to see it

new again.
When you
think that you
have acquired

enough
distance from
the story to
see it in a
fresh way, go

back to
work. Make
notes in your
journal,
freewrite,

write new
passages or
dialogue. Try
to write in
one sentence

what your
story is
about. Look
for irrelevant
scenes,

conflict,
tension, and
crisis or
epiphany.
Make sure

that it is clear
and that your
reader can
follow the
story, and

look for
places where
you have told
too much.
Listen to your

characters
and what they
are telling
you. Keep a
copy of the

story as it is
so that you
can always go
back to the
original, and

then be
merciless with
revising
another copy
of the draft.

Remember, in
the short
story, what is
between the
lines often is

most
profound.
Summary
Youve

learned some
of the
techniques
that short
story writers

use to tell
their stories
and the
different ways
you can tell

your own.
Youve also
learned the
importance of
revision and

how
important it
is to see your
story anew so
that you can

rewrite to
make your
story better
and better.
With

practice, your
characters
will come
alive. And
remember

that reading
short stories
is one of the
best ways to
learn how

great writers
do what they
do.
Works

Referenced
Creative and
Critical
Approaches

to the Short
Story. Noel
Harold
Kaylor, Jr.,

Ed., 1997.
The New
Short
Theories,Cha

rles E. May,
Ed., 1994.
Short Story
Theories. Cha

rles E. May,
Ed., 1976.
Story to AntiStory.Dr.

Mary
Rohrberger,
1979.
Writing

Fiction: A
Guide to a
Narrative
Craft.Janet
Burroway,

1992.
Dramatic
Technique in
Fiction.Rober

t Bahr, 1998.
The Right to
Write: An
Invitation

and Initiation
into the
Writing
Life. Julie
Cameron,

1998.
The Norton
Introduction
to

Fiction.Jerom
e Beaty, 1996.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 17
Writing

Poems 1:
What is a
Poem and
How Do I

Start One?
Objective
In this lesson
you will learn

what a poem
is, some types
of poems, and
some
strategies for

starting to
write a poem.
What is a
poem?

Audre Lorde
describes
poetry as
"distilled
emotion."

Alice Fulton
describes it as
a "model of
the way the
world

works." We
all use
language to
communicate:
we speak and

we write.
Poets also use
language to
communicate,
but not in the

same ways as
in regular
speech and
writing. The
primary

purpose of
language as
we see, hear,
and write it in
textbooks, on

the news, and

in essays is to
convey
information.
Those words

serve a
primarily
utilitarian
function, but
a poet uses

language the
way a painter
uses paint or
a musician
uses notes.

The task of
the poem is to
use the
sounds,
textures,

rhythms, and
images of
language to
evoke
emotional,

aesthetic, and
intellectual
responses in
readers and
listeners.

Poems have
ideas and
places and
aunts and
bathtubs in

them, all of
which are
important,
but the
pictures

painted are
secondary to
the way the
language

paints them.
What are
some types of
poem?

Poems are as
varied as
beetles and
there are at
least 450,000

species of
those! The
best way to
learn what
the

possibilities
are for poems
is to read
poems lots
of poems.

There are,
nonetheless,
some general
categories
that you can

keep in mind
as you read
and write.
First, let's
look at

categories
that reflect
the way a
poem is built

 its form.
Fixed
Forms: A
fixed form

poem is one
that fits a
traditional set
of rules about
repetition,

meter, rhyme,
and other
patterns.
Some
examples of

formal poems
are sestinas,
sonnets,
villanelles,
and ghazals.

Open Forms
(a.k.a. Free
Verse): An
open form

poem is one
that does not
fit a
traditional set
of rules. It

still works
with
repetition,
meter, rhyme,
and other

patterns, but
it creates its
own set of
rules for how
to use those

tools.
Within the
broad
categories of

open and
fixed forms
are some
other
divisions that

reflect what a
poem's
relationship is
to its subject

matter.
Narrative: A
narrative
poem has the

elements of a
story
(see Chapter
1, Lesson
16, Writing

Short Stories
2:
Techniques:
Editing and
Revising),

characters,
plot, setting,
and action. It
tends to
include events

"out there" in
the world,
though its
subject can be
(and

frequently is)
concerned
with emotions
and other
inner

experiences.
Lyric: A lyric
poem
meditates on

one subject. It
tends to focus
on internal
experiences
without a

strong
storytelling
component.
Hybrid: A

hybrid poem
isn't exactly a
type. Rather,
it is a
reminder that

these
categories
narrative and
lyric are
not rigid.

Poems can
have
moments of
each or may
exist in both

modes at
once; poems
may exist in
another space
that is neither

narrative nor
lyric.
These poem
categories can

help you as
you think
about the
poem you are
creating. You

might decide
that you like
the challenge
of writing
within a

form, so you
might set out
to write a
villanelle.
Perhaps, part

way through
your
villanelle, you
will discover
that the poem

no longer fits
that shape. It
wants to take
a detour and
become a

more
narrative,
open formed
poem. As you
begin to have

a feel for
what the
possibilities
are in poetry,
you will have

more options
in your own
writing. How
do I begin a

poem?
As you set out
to write a
poem, you

will move
through two
crucial
stages:
Getting

Started and
Revising. In
this lesson, we
will focus on
Getting

Started.
When you are
ready to
revise, you
can

visit Writing
Poems 2:
Techniques
and
Revision Gett

ing Started:
The Creator
Beginning
can seem like

the hardest
part of a
poem, but
once we let
ourselves

write, the
beginning is
the easiest
part. As
poets, we

have two
minds: the
creator and
the reviser.
The creator

generates
material; the
reviser shapes
it, making the
tough choices

about what
stays and
what goes. If
you let your
reviser start

working
before your
creator has a
chance to
finish, you

will have a
hard time
getting
started.
Below are

some tips to
help you start
your poem,
but the most
important

thing to
remember is
to turn off
your reviser,
telling this

inner self to
come back
later when
your creator
is done doing

his work.
The best
and possibly
the only

way to start a
poem is to
start writing.
Here are a
few

techniques
you can use to
get your
creative
energy

flowing.
If you are
stuck, do
something

you don't
usually do.
Write in the
bathtub or in
longhand,

write
outside,
write for 20
minutes
without

stopping.
Don't worry
about
grammar or
eloquence or

spelling. Just
get your
ideas and
images on
paper.

 Find a
"writing
outfit"
something
that makes

you feel
outrageous
enough that
you can get
away with

writing
anything a
feather boa,
a floppy hat,
liederhosen,

a chiffon ball
gown from
Good Will.
Make
yourself into

a character
who can say
anything and
get away
with it. (You

might want
to keep this
persona
away from
friends,

teachers,
parentsthe
people who
will remind
you that you

can't say just

anything!
The point is
to keep your
creator

protected
from the
censors
internal and
external.)

 Get a
special
notebook
that you use
for writing,

perhaps even
a special pen.
Write in a
new place: a

coffee shop,
the bus
station, the
library, a
park.

 Keep a list
of words,
images,
phrases, and
ideas that

appeal to
you. You
may not use
all of them,
but when

you are
stuck for a
place to
begin, you
can use an

item from
your "seed
book" as the
starting
point for a

new writing
session.
Pick a
beginning

line from a
poem you
admire.
Then, write a
poem of your

own that
uses that line
as its first
line. (When
you revise,

you'll want
to cut the
borrowed
line and keep
only your

own.)
Describe the
people
around you,

the smell of
the grass, the
music
booming
through the

floor from
the
apartment
below. Let
yourself keep

writing.
Write
nonsense
because you

like the
sound of the
words next
to each
other. Write

until you
surprise
yourself.
And then
keep writing

about the
surprise.
Frequently,
we start

writing with
an image or
place that
inspires us,
but as the

poem keeps
going, it
moves away
from that
initial image,

what Richard
Hugo refers
to as the
"triggering
town." Don't

be afraid to
let your
poems
wander from
what they

originally
seemed to be
about. Trust
the writing to
find it's own

meaning,
separate from
the triggering
subject.

Exercise
In the space
below, write
without

stopping or
worrying
about
grammar or
correctness.

Write for ten

minutes
about a place
you associate
with a person

who raised
you
mother,
grandfather,
foster parent,

sibling. Keep
the person
who raised
you in mind,
but don't

write about
him or her
directly.
Instead,
describe that

place that you

associate with
him or her
your mother's
office, your

father's
garden in
as much
detail as you
can, and let

those details
show us how
you feel about
that person.

After you
have
generated

some material
to work with,
you are ready
to think about
how to revise

it. How does

the mass of
words in
front of you
become a

poem? You
job now is
that of a
sculptor: you
have hacked

marble out of
your mind's
hillside, now
you must
shape it into a

work of art.
Your reviser
can come out
of hiding
now. Summar

y
In this lesson,
you learned
what makes a

poem and
some types of
poems. You
also learned
some

strategies for
getting
started on
your own
poem. The

best way to
keep learning
about poetry
is to keep
reading it and

to experiment
with imitating
or responding
to what you
read. You can

also keep
your creative
mind sharp
by trying
various

writing
exercises and
experiments.
There are
many good

books of
writing
exercises. You
might start
with The

Practice of
Poetry by
Robin Behn
and Chase

Twichell.
Smarthinking
Writer's
Handbook

Chapter 1,
Lesson 18
Writing
Poems 2:
Techniques

and Revision
Objective
In this lesson
you will learn

about
techniques
that poets use
and will learn
some ways to

use that
knowledge to
revise your
own poem. To
understand

what a poem
is and the
different
types of
poems, you

can refer
to Writing
Poems 1:
What is a
Poem and

How Do I
Start One
The Reviser
No one writes

a perfect
poem the first
time:
Elizabeth
Bishop kept

unfinished
poems tacked
to her walls
for years,
waiting for

the right
word to come
to her. To
revise your
poem, you

must be able
to hear it with
fresh ears.
No, that
doesn't mean

that you need

an ear
transplant. It
means that
you need to

figure out
how to let go
of your
attachment to
the poem.

Some of us
hate
everything
weve written,
and some of

us love it all.
We can be so
in love with a
poem so that
we can't see

what would
make it
better;
sometimes we
hate it so

much that we
can't see what
is already
good.
Whichever

way you lean,

the key to
writing a
good poem is
to give

yourself a
chance to
look at the
poem as if
someone else

had written
it. Time is the
best method
even a few
days or a

week can
allow you to
have a fresh
perspective
on a poem.

But, along
with time,
you can use
some other
strategies to

get new ears:

Read it out
loud.
Read it

backwards,
line by line.
Have
someone else

read it to
you.
Sing it.
Play a drum

to the
rhythm of it.
Print it out,
then cut each

line or
stanza out of
the paper
and
rearrange

the pieces,
try at least
three
different
orderings

and read
each one out
loud, looking
for
surprising

and pleasing
connections.
Tack it to
the wall by

the place
where you
do
homework so
that you will

see it
periodically
as you are
thinking
about other

things
As you revise
your poem,
you need to

have a sense
of what to
look for. Trust
your gut as to
whether

something
sounds good,
but also think
about the
questions

below. You
can ask
yourself these
questions as
you revise

your poem,
you can use
them as you
read your
peers' work,

and you can

ask your
peers and
writing tutor
to think about

these issues as
they consider
your poem.
Questions for

Revision
Is my
language
concrete? Do

I show
instead of just
telling?
Concrete

nouns are
things that we
can touch,
see, smell,
and taste:

garlic,
bamboo, a
white t-shirt,
a Bowie knife.
Abstract

nouns are
intangible
and tend to
describe
feelings or

ideas: love,
peace, anger,
democracy,
war. Sure,
poems can be

about
abstract
things, but
the best
poems talk

about
abstract
things by
using
concrete

nouns. When
readers can
see and feel
the objects,
they are more

moved by the
poem than
they are by an
abstract
discussion of

the idea.
Concrete
nouns make
your poems

more alive,
more
interesting to
your reader,
and they

allow you to
show your
readers the
emotions that
you want to

convey. You
want your
reader to get
as close to
feeling as you

can get, but

saying "I
missed her"
won't do it.
Think instead

of an image
that will let
your reader
sense sadness
without

having to be
told about it:
"The daisies
she gave me
had wilted in

the vase.
Limp leaves
clung to the
glass,
abandoned by

water. Each
morning,
more petals
littered the
countertop."

Think of an
image that
conveys
sadness or
peace or grief

or war or love
or desire and
use it to show
your readers
what matters

in the poem.
Exercise
Make a list of
concrete

nouns
twenty-five
things that
you can see,
feel, and

taste. Pick
words that
you like for
their sound
and image:

coriander,
coconut,
velvet.

As you read
over your list,
think about
each item on
it if you

close your
eyes, can you
see it? If not,
then it is
probably not

concrete. Pick
the fifth,
twelfth,
thirteenth,
eighteenth

and twentyfirst concrete

nouns on
your list.
Write a

twenty-five
line poem
using those
words and
three from

the following
list: bottlecap,
macaw,
recliner,
pencil,

horseshoe,
moose. Pick
either joy or
loneliness as
the emotion

of your poem,
but don't use
any words
that are
typically

associated
with that
subject. (That
means
no hearts or t

ears or smiles
or sadness or
happy or abse
nce.)

How is my
poem using
the music of
language?

Poetry is
about using
language to
make music.
It takes

advantage of
all the sound
patterns in
language: con
sonance (simil

ar
consonants), a
ssonance(simi
lar
vowels), allite

ration (same
initial
sounds) Asso
nance,
Consonance,

and
Alliteration),
and rhyme (si
milar word
endings,

like trance an
d glance,dark
ness
in and discipli
ne, daze and a

lways). And it
makes use of
rhythmic
patterns: met
er (the

patterns of
stress in
words) and re
petition (the
recurrence of

phrases or
sentence
structures).
The best way
to get a feel

for the
musical
patterns in
your poem is
to read it out

loud. Pay
attention to
how it feels in
your mouth.
Does it sound

and taste
good? Could
you tap your
foot to it?
Does the

rhyme sound
too obvious,
the
alliteration
too much like

an
advertising
jingle?
One flaw to

watch for in
your poem's
music is an
over-reliance
on ing verbs.

A lot of
beginner
poets think
that the ing
sounds more

poetic, but in
fact, the ing
turns the verb
into a noun.
The verbs are

all stopped;
the only real
action in the
sentence is
usually

"was," which
isn't much as
action goes.
Exercise

Revise the
following
sentence so
that all of the
verbs are

active (not
ing).
Dancing and
singing, I was

running
toward the
gate.

[Our
Example]:
"As I ran
toward the
gate, I danced

and sang."
Yours may
look very
much like
ours. The

action is
clearer and
more active.
In addition,
once we

remove the
masking ing
endings, we
see that the
verbs we are

using are not

as interesting
as we would
like them to
be. We have

uncovered a
need for
revision.
That's good
news! As a

poet, be
excited when
you realize
that
something

needs
changing and
that you
know how to
go about it!

Music in
poems also
exists at the
level of the
sentence. Poet

ry allows
writers to
bend the rules
of grammar
in service of

music and
meaning, but
that doesn't
mean that the
rule book can

be pitched out
the window!
As you reread
your poem,
look

for passive
voice, run ons
and comma
splices,
and sentence

fragments jus
t as you
would in an
essay. Then
ask yourself,

once you find

these sentence
structures,
whether they
serve a

purpose. Does
the fragment
create a
rhythm and
lack of action

that you want

in your poem
at that point
and could not
get with a

complete
sentence? If it
does, then
keep it. For
example, you

might want to
keep the
fragment in
the line, "I
stopped and

stared. A dead
bird." The
dead bird
lacks action,
as does the

speaker, so
the sentence
fragment fits
with the
movement of

the poem. But

and this is
important
don't just
pitch the

rulebook on a
whim.
Sentence
structure
matters. You

have more
choices than
you do in an
essay, but
make sure

that you
make your
choices for
reasons.

Am I getting
the most
mileage out of
my verbs and
nouns?

stronger they
are, the
healthier your
poem will be.
One way to

make sure
that you get
the most out
of your nouns
and verbs is

to check your
adjectives
and adverbs.
These
descriptive

words are our

way of trying
to make our
nouns and
verbs more

specific, but
frequently
they are a
signal that we
need to

rethink our
nouns and
verbs. If you
write
"walked

slowly," you
are using the
adverb slowly
to specify the
pace at which

the speaker
walked.
However, if
you think of
other, more

specific verbs
that mean "to
walk slowly,"
then you may
find words

that can help

you to tell us
something
specific about
the emotions

of the person
who is
walking
slowly. Strolle
d, crept, prow

led, stalked, s
huffled, ambl
ed,
andsauntered
are all verbs

that suggest
slow walking,
but they
imply very
different

attitudes. Is
your walker
arrogant?
Then perhaps
she

sauntered.
Annoyed?
Then perhaps
she stalked.
Depressed?

Shuffled.
Carefree?
Strolled or
ambled.

The same
principle
applies to
adjectives
and nouns.

Whenever
you use an
adjective,
look at the
word it

modifies and
try to think of
specific words
that could
give you more

bang for your

noun. If you
are describing
a "big tree,"
could you

use oak or red

wood to give
your reader a
more specific
picture? If a

"beautiful
bird" flew
overhead,
could you tell
us that it was

a hummingbi
rd orGoss ha
wk? (Note:
you may be
thinking "I

wouldn't
know a Goss
hawk from a
hummingbird
if it hit the

window
above my
desk." It
doesn't
matter. Poems

are about
emotional
and aesthetic
experience,
not about a

completely
accurate
record of
events. If you
need a Goss

hawk in your
poem, put one
there.) When
your nouns
and verbs are

specific, your
poems have
more life and
will have a
greater

impact on
your readers.
Exercise
How many

different ways
can you think
of to make
the words
entered and

left more
specific?
When you're
done click
below to

compare your
list with ours.
[Our

Example]:
Entered:
burst in,
slunk in,
burrowed in.

Left: stormed
out,
evaporated,
fled.

You may have

some words
on your list
that aren't on
ours; we may

have some
that aren't on
yours. That's
fine.
Everyone has

her or his
own way of
phrasing
things. That's
part of what

makes
reading
different
writers
interesting!

What moods
are suggested
by your
revisions
of entered an

d left? Are
any of your
verbs
sorrowful?
Ecstatic?

Reluctant?
Defiant?
Hesitant?
Determined?
Oblivious?

As you revise,
look over the
nouns and
verbs in your
poem. What

mood do you
want your
poem to
have? Are
your nouns

and verbs
creating that
mood?
Exercise

Let's look
again at the
sentence we
revised in the
last section:

"As I ran
toward the
gate, I danced
and sang."
Now that

we've revised
the sentence
to remove the
ings, we
know that the

sentence still
needs more
work. We
need more
specific verbs

and nouns to
make our
sentence more
dynamic. Can
you think of

other verbs to
use in the
sentence that
will be more
specific

actions?
[Our
Example] Sin

ce we know
that our verbs
and nouns
need some
work, we

might write,
"I hummed
'Hi Ho Hi Ho'
as I skipped
out the gate

to meet
Grace."
Notice that
we've gotten
rid of the

echo of the
ing and
replaced it
with the
consonance of

"out,"
"gate," and
"meet" and
the
alliteration of

"hummed"
and
"Hi Ho Hi Ho
" and "gate"
and "Grace."

We've
improved the
line in two
ways: those
patterns of

repetition are
subtler and
therefore
more pleasing
than the

repeated -ings
in the
original, and
we've made
the action

more
interesting!
Are my
images

working as
hard as I
want them
to?

With all this

talk of
concrete
language and
verbs and

nouns, it
should come
as no surprise
that images,
the pictures

painted in
language, are
crucial to
your poem.
As poets, we

like to
compare
things to each
other through
simile and

metaphor,
using the
second thing
to tell us
something

new about the

first. Go for
it!
A simile co

mpares two
things to
each other
using "like"
or "as":

"The sun
sprang over
the horizon
like an
Olympic

hurdler."
A metaphor
emphasizes
the

similarities
between two
things
without
resorting to

"like" or
"as": "The
sun launched
itself over
the horizon

and
detonated in
my
flowerbed,
shattering

the night
with
zinnias." In
the Exercise
you did in

the previous
lesson you
used a place
as a
metaphor for

a person who
raised you.
The
comparisons

that we draw
between
things give
our poems
their tone and

let our
readers know
what our
concerns are.
Frequently,

we can't even
express
certain ideas
without a
metaphor or

simile! We
can't, for
example, just
say
thatsadness is

like sadness;
we need to
compare sadn
ess to
something

else in order
to understand
it.
Two aspects

of image are
particularly
important to
successful

poems.
Avoiding
clichs.
Making

sure that
your images
work
together.
A clich is an

idea or image
that has been
overused and
has become
dull and

predictable.
Some
examples of
clichs
include

comparing
beauty to a
flower or
something
smooth to

glass,
describing
rage as
"seeing red"
or youth as

innocence.
Clichs make
your writing
less
interesting

and less
expressive. As
you reread
your poem,
keep an eye

out for clichs

and eliminate
them.
Exercise

We all know a
slew of clichs
about color.
We've heard
"emerald

green" and
"white as
snow" so
many times
that we

barely even
think about
the image.
But you want
your readers

to think and
to be
surprised.
Compare
"emerald

green" to
"construction
cone orange"!
The second is
a new image,

one that
surprises us.
In the box
below, pick a
color and

write as many
ways as you
can think of
to describe it.
Don't worry

at first about
whether your
images are
clichs, but
after you

have finished
the list, go
back through
it and pick
out the most

surprising
and original
descriptions
from your

list.
[Our
Example]: Ho

w did you do?

Did you come
up with one
or two new
ways of

describing
your color?
Our list
included:
arresting red,

sleep-starved
pink, green as
a gated
neighborhood
, a deep shade

of yolk.
Notice that all
of these
descriptions
of color are,

in fact,
metaphors.
They
compare the
color to

something
else.
Summary
Writing a

poem involves
a process of
creation and
revision. As
you create,

try to let your

mind be as
wild as you
can. Let
yourself

explore, be
weird,
surprise
yourself.
Later, as you

revise, think
about how
your poem
could be even
better. How

could it be
more
original?
How could it
more fully

express the
emotional
and aesthetic
experience
that you are

trying to
capture? In
this lesson,
you learned
some of the

techniques
writers use to
help them
revise poems
and you

looked at
some of the
issues you will
want to bear
in mind as

you revise
your own
poems. Use
those tools as
you revise;

and make
your own
poetry tools.
As you play
with your

poems, you
will keep
coming up
with new
ideas for ways

to put words
together to
make
meaning.
Whatever you

do, keep
playing!