Task 1

Task 1AAtomic structure - This is just the structure of an atom, it generally consists of a
nucleus which contains protons and neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged
electrons revolving in orbits at varying distances from the nucleus.
Electronic structure (configuration) - This is the way electrons are arranged around
the nuclei of atoms in various orbitals. The electrons in an atom occupy energy
levels. These are also called shells, each electron in an atom is found in a particular
energy level.

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium

Beryllium

Boron

Carbon

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Fluorine

Neon

Aluminum

Calcium

The periodic table consists of elements that are in groups which increase in atomic
numbers the further you go across. A group is a vertical column of elements, they
were traditionally numbered I-VII plus zero for the noble gases; the elements in the
same group form a chemical family which have similar properties. When the
elements go down a group the atomic radius would increase, this is because there
are more shells being added so more shielding is occurring between the outer shell
and the nucleus.
Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called
isotopes. Different isotopes of the same element react chemically in the exactly the
same way. Atoms of different isotopes of the same element vary in mass number
because of the different number of neutrons in their nuclei.

This is an example of a Hydrogen isotope since there are more neutrons in the
nucleus.

This is an example of a Lithium isotope since there is an extra neutron in one of the
atoms.
Task 1B
Ionic bonding is where positive and negative ions attract one another and bind
together forming a new substance.
Sodium chloride consists of Na+ ions and Cl- ions bonded together.

Magnesium oxide consists of Mg2+ and O2+ ions bonded together.

Task 1C A covalent bond is formed between non-metal atoms, which combine together by
sharing electrons. Covalent compounds have no free electrons and ions so they
dont conduct electricity.
Examples of covalent compounds are methane and ammonia

Methane

Ammonia

Task 1D - State what is meant by a dative Covalent bond, give one example of a
compound that uses a dative covalent bond, include dot cross diagrams and shell
diagrams.
A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond (a shared pair of electrons) in which both
electrons come from the same atom.
In the reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride, if the colourless gases are allowed to mix, a
thick white smoke of solid ammonium chloride is formed.
Ammonium ions, NH4+, are formed by the transfer of a hydrogen ion from the
hydrogen chloride to the lone pair of electrons on the ammonia molecule.

When the ammonium ion, NH4+, is formed, the fourth hydrogen is attached by a
dative covalent bond, because only the hydrogen's nucleus is transferred from the
chlorine to the nitrogen. The hydrogen's electron is left behind on the chlorine to
form a negative chloride ion.
Once the ammonium ion has been formed it is impossible to tell any difference
between the dative covalent and the ordinary covalent bonds. Although the
electrons are shown differently in the diagram, there is no difference between them
in reality.

Task 1E - State how carbon is bonded in graphite, include a diagram showing how
the atoms are arranged.
Graphite is a allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms form layers. Its
properties are similar to diamond where it is lustrus, has a high melting point and is
insoluble in water. Graphite has a giant molecular structure due to its extremely
strong and abundance of covalent bonds. Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to
three other carbon atoms, compared to four in diamond. The layers of carbon slide
over each other easily as there are weak forces between them, making graphite
slippery, graphite contains free (delocalised) electrons, which can move through the
graphite, carrying charge from place to place and allowing graphite to conduct
electricity.

Task 1F - State how carbon is bonded in diamond, include a diagram showing how
the atoms are arranged.

Diamond is another allotrope of carbon; it is lustrous, colourless, hard, and insoluble

in water, does not conduct water and has a high melting point. Diamond's hardness
and high melting point make it useful for cutting tools, such as the diamond-tipped
discs used to cut bricks and concrete. Diamond has a giant molecular structure.
Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms. A lot of energy
is needed to separate the atoms in diamond. This is because covalent bonds are
strong, and diamond contains very many covalent bonds. This makes diamond's
melting point and boiling point very high.

Task 1G - State how bonding occurs in metals, include a diagram showing how the
atoms are arranged.

The particles in a metal are held together by metallic bonds. Metallic bonding is the
strong attraction between closely packed positive metal ions and a sea of
delocalised electrons. The attraction between the metal ions and the delocalised
electrons must be overcome to melt or to boil a metal. Some of the attractions must
be overcome to melt a metal and all of them must be overcome to boil it. These
attractive forces are strong, so metals have high melting and boiling points. The
delocalised electrons are able to move through the metal structure. When a
potential difference is applied, they will move together, allowing an electric current
to flow through the metal.

Task 1H - Describe Bohrs theory to describe electronic structure, including

diagrams. In order to do this successfully you will need to refer to:
The Bohr model shows that the electrons in atoms are in orbits of differing energy
around the nucleus. Bohr used the term energy levels (or shells) to describe these
orbits of differing energy. He said that the energy of an electron is quantized,

meaning electrons can have one energy level or another but nothing in between.
The energy level an electron normally occupies is called its ground state. But it can
move to a higher-energy, less-stable level, or shell, by absorbing energy. This
higher-energy, less-stable state is called the electrons excited state. After its done
being excited, the electron can return to its original ground state by releasing the
energy it has absorbed, as shown in the diagram below. Sometimes the energy
released by electrons occupies the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (the
range of wavelengths of energy) that humans detect as visible light. Slight
variations in the amount of the energy are seen as light of different colours.

Task 1I - Outline the key features of chemical bonding including ionic and covalent
bonding
During ionic bonding atoms transfer electrons to other atoms in other to gain a full
outer shell and to also form a compound. During covalent bonds electrons are being
shared between atoms to gain a full outer shell. Ionic compounds conduct electricity
when molten or in aqueous solution whilst Covalent compounds do not conduct
electricity at all. One example of an inorganic acid is hydrochloric acid and this
would have covalent bonding so it would be sharing electrons. Furthermore an
organic compound would be ethanoic acid and this would also have covalent
bonding in which the atoms share their electrons. An example of a salt having ionic
bonding would be sodium chloride in which the electrons would be transferred from
the atoms to gain a full outer shell for the compound.

Task 1J - Research the periodic table, write a paragraph to describe the structure of
the periodic table and how the elements are arranged you will need to include the
following key words:
The periodic table is table that consists of groups and periods which contains
various elements found on the planet. Each vertical column is called a group and
the horizontal rows are called periods. Elements are placed in the periodic table
depending on how many electrons they have on their outer shells but also how
much electron shells they actually have, if they are in group 1 then they would have
1 electron shell in their outer shell. Within the periodic table there are also numbers
above and below each of the chemical symbol for each element, their atomic
number is the number below their chemical symbol and it symbolises how much
protons the element has within its nucleus, it would also be the same number of
electrons they have in total. The relative atomic mass is the number above the
chemical symbol and it is the total number of how much electrons and protons the
atom has in total. Reactivity various between groups and periods, for example in
group 1 the reactivity between water gets more vigorous as we go down the group.
Metals and transition metals are normally found all over the periodic table from
group 1 to group 7 but not on all periods. Gases are usually found on group 0 as
they are called the noble gases which have a full outer shell. Bromine is an example
of a liquid and it is found in group 7.

Task 1K - Many of the elements (in compounds and their solutions) involved in
carrying out the preparation of standard solutions and titrations are in different
groups and periods of the periodic table. Using the elements sodium and potassium
(Group 1), calcium and magnesium (Group 2), silicon (Group 4), phosphorus (Group
5), sulphur (Group 6), chlorine and bromine (Group 7), iron and copper (Transition
metals).
Sodium and potassium are in group 1 since they have 1 electron in their outer
shells. They are in the s block due to their electron sub level being in s. They are on
the period depending on how much electron shells they have which is period 2 and
3. They are both solids and their atomic radius increases as we go down the group
due to more shielding. Sodium has the atomic number of 11 and the relative atomic
mass of 23. Potassium has the atomic number of 19 and the relative atomic mass of
39. Sodium would have 11 electrons on its electron shells and potassium would
have 19 electrons on its outer shells.
Calcium and Magnesium are in group 2 because they have two electrons on its
outer shells and they are also in the s block because their electron sub level is s.
They are both solids in room temperature. Calcium has the atomic number of 20
and the atomic mass of 40, Magnesium has the atomic number of 12 and the
atomic mass of 24.3. Calcium would have 20 electrons orbiting the nucleus (which
contains 20 protons and 20 neutrons). Magnesium will have the atomic number of
12 and the 12 protons within the nucleus.
Silicon is in group 4 because it has 4 electrons on its outer shells. The atomic
number of silicon is 14 and the relative atomic mass is 28. It is in period 3 due it
having 3 electron shells and it is on the d block because the electron sub level is d.
It is a non-metal but it is still a solid. Silicon would have 14 electrons orbiting the
nucleus and 14 protons within the nucleus along with 14 neutrons.
Phosphorus is in group 5 because it has 5 electrons on its outer shells and in group
3 because it has 3 electron shells. It is also a non-metal but it is still a solid.
Phosphorus has the atomic number of 15 and the relative atomic mass of 31. It
would have 15 electrons orbiting the nucleus along with 15 protons within the
nucleus with 16 neutrons.
Sulphur is in group 6 because it has 6 electrons on its outer shells and in group 3
because it has 3 electron shells. Sulphur is a solid but it is a non-metal. The atomic
number of sulphur is 16 and has the relative atomic mass of 32. This means that
there are 16 electrons orbiting the nucleus which contains 16 protons and 16
neutrons.

Chlorine and Bromine are in group 7 because they have 7 electrons in their outer
shells, they are also called halogens. They are on different periods because it
depends on how much electron shells they have in their atom. The atomic number
of chlorine is 17 and its relative atomic mass is 35.5, whilst bromine has the atomic
number of 35 and has the relative atomic mass of 80. Chlorine would have 17
electrons orbiting its nucleus and bromine would have 35 electrons orbiting its
nucleus.
Iron and copper are both transition metals so they mainly have metallic bonding.
Transition metals are put in the middle of the periodic table along with other
elements that have metallic bonding. They are mainly strong atoms that can
conduct electricity. Iron would have 28 electrons orbiting its outer shell and has the
relative atomic mass of 55.5, whilst copper would have 29 electrons orbiting its
outer shell and has the relative atomic mass of 63.5. They are all in the d block
because their electron sub levels are d.