Mineral.

Deposita 31,210 224 (1996)

MINERALIUM
DEPOSITA
9 Springer-Verlag 1996

Zoning in the Carboniferous-Lower Permian Cracow

epithermal vein system, central Queensland, Australia
G.Y. Dong, T. Zhou
National Key Centre in Economic Geology, Geology Department, James Cook University of North Queensland, Q4811, Australia
Received: 16 June 1994/Accepted: 24 April 1995
Abstract. Four epithermal vein deposits (i.e. Dawn, Central Extended, Rose's Pride and Klondyke) in the Cracow
gold field, central Queensland were investigated in terms
of paragenesis, mineralogy, vein textures, fluid inclusions
and stable isotopes. The Cracow epithermal field is confined to an area approximately 6 by 5 kilometers. All the
deposits are hosted by the massive Camboon Andesite of
Upper Carboniferous to Lower Permian age, occur as
open-space vein fillings, and have similar paragenesis.
However, significant variations in mineralogy, textures of
quartz and adularia, and fluid geochemistry were found
for a main mineralisation stage (Stage II) of each individual deposits. At Rose's Pride and Klondyke, basemetal sulphides are virtually absent, but significant
amounts of calcite and quartz with minor adularia are
widely distributed. Replacement textures are distinct, and
mineralisation temperature is less than 220 ~ and salinity
less than 0.2 wt%. The c~180 values of quartz and calcite
range from -2.65 to -2.06%~ and from -6.66 to
-6.34%o respectively, and calculated 61SOH2o value is
about - 17Toowhich represents a nearly unshifted palaeometeoric water. Gold mineralisation is best developed at
Central Extended among the studied deposits, where
patches rich in electrum are often observed in polished
thin sections and where gold grades exceeding 10 g/t are
frequently indicated by assays. Base-metal sulphides are
only present locally and rarely exceed 5 volume percent of
the vein samples. Quartz is the dominant gangue mineral,
but significant amounts of rhombic adularia and chlorite
are widely distributed. Various primary and recrystallisation textures possibly inherited from silica gel are well
developed and widespread. At individual sites where crustiform bands developed from both walls of a fissure, temperatures could drop sharply from 275 ~ to less than
220 ~ The ore-forming fluid at Central Extended, compared with that at Rose's Pride and Klondyke, was isotopically shifted from meteoric water with ~sOH~o value
of -13.5%o calculated in equilibrium with quartz (c51sO
values of - 3.09 to - 1.44%o). The orebodies at Dawn are
rich in base-metal sulphides which are commonly coarsegrained and form up to 20 volume percent of the vein

materials. Quartz is the predominant gangue mineral, and

commonly shows a coarse comb texture. The ore-forming
fluid was 275 _+ 10 ~ and low salinity (0.4 to 0.7 wt%).
The 61s o values of quartz range from -3.97 to -3.22% o,
and calculated 61SOn2o value is about -12Too, indicating
large isotopic shifts from palaeo-meteoric water. A depth
zoning in typical boiling epithermal systems, corresponding to different fluid compositions, wall rock permeability
and boiling behaviors, was invoked to explain different
characteristics of these selected epithermal veins.

The Cracow gold field is approximately 350 km northwest

of Brisbane. Payable gold was discovered in 1931. Over
a period of 42 years of continuous underground mining,
from 1933 to 1976, the mine produced 18,528 kg of gold
and 20,902 kg of silver from 1,553,000 tones of ore giving
an average grade 11.9 g/T Au and 13.5 g/T Ag. Since 1987,
the Cracow mine has been undertaking an open cut operation. This led additional production of approximately
5860 kg of gold.
The majority of worked gold mines and prospects are
confined to an area approximately 6 by 5 kilometres
(Fig. 1). In general, orebodies occur as open-space vein
fillings, which dip vertically to sub-vertically and are exclusively structurally controlled. Unlike the main Golden
Plateau lode which was described as massive quartz breccias (Ransom and Knight 1975; Worsley 1992), the outside
lodes, represented by Dawn, Central Extended, Rose's
Pride and Klondyke lodes, show a well preserved crustification vein type, and have a comparable paragenesis but
with significant variations in textures of quartz and adularia, mineralogy and fluid geochemistry.
This paper attempts to demonstrate the characteristics
of these selected epithermal vein deposits (i.e. Dawn, Central Extended, Rose's Pride and Klondyke) in the Cracow
gold field, to report fluid inclusion and stable isotope data,
and to explore the possible genetic explanation for the
difference in mineralogy, textures and geochemistry of
these vein deposits.

211

150o17'E
t

carbon. Routine analytical precision is

and carbon.

oxygen

General geology

==,
!Carboniferous)

~\ StrikeandD'p

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Cracow gold field. (Modified from Brooks 1974 and Worsley 1992)

Analytical techniques
Microprobe analysis
Electron m i c r o p r o b e analyses were performed on a Jeol840A instrument at James C o o k University. An accelerating voltage of 25 K V for sulphides, counting time of 60
seconds and a b e a m current of 15 nA was used. A Z F
corrections were carried out by T r a c o r N o r t h e r n M i c r o Q
software.

Fluid inclusion measurement

M i c r o t h e r m o m e t r i c analyses of fluid inclusions were carried out on a gas flow heating/freezing stage of U. S. G. S.
design, constructed by the University of Arizona. The
stage was calibrated using synthetic fluid inclusion standards from Fluid Inc. (USA). By this method, o p t i m u m
precision and accuracy were estimated to be _+ 0.1 ~ in
the range 0.0 to - 2 2 . 8 ~
and _+1 ~ in the range 0 to
390 ~

The Cracow mining field is located within the Upper Palaeozoic

Camboon Volcanic Arc on the south-eastern margin of the Bowen
Basin. The gold deposits are hosted in the Camboon Andesite. To
the east it borders the Torsdale Beds and to the west is the Back
Creek Group. Outliers of the fluviatile Precipice Sandstone mantle
the higher hills in the area (see Fig. 1).
The stratigraphic units in the area are compiled by Whitaker et al.
(1974) on the Mundubbera 1:250,000 sheet. The Torsdale Beds
consist mainly of felsic crystal-lithic welded tufts and a Carboniferous (probably Early Carboniferous) age is suggested. The Camboon
Andesite consists dominantly of andesitic to dacitic welded tuff, with
minor andesitic and basaltic flows, volcanic breccia and agglomerate. It unconformably overlies the Torsdale Beds and dips towards
the southwest at 15~ to 20~. The massive nature of the bulk of the
formation obscures the regional structure, but a total thickness of
about 3000 m is inferred (Whitaker et al. 1974). From faunal evidence in the Monto sheet area, the Camboon Andesite is regarded as
Lower Permian in age (Dear et al. 1971). However, part of the
Camboon Andesite may be older because it has yielded isotopic ages
(Ar-Ar) of 281 Ma and 294 Ma in the Cracow area (Runnegar 1979).
The Back Creek Group is exposed to the west of Cracow and forms
the southeastern part of the Bowen Basin. It consists mainly of
fossiliferous limestone, marine mudstone, lithic sandstone and argillite. The Back Creek Group disconformably overlies the Camboon
Andesite. It dips generally west at 15~to 30~ and is of Early Permian
to early Upper Permian age from faunal evidence. The fluviatile
Precipice Sandstone, of Early Jurassic age, caps the higher hills in the
district and unconformably overlies the Camboon Andesite and
Back Creek Group.
Numerous rhyolite dykes intrude the Camboon andesite in the
Cracow district. These dykes have a porphyritic texture with flow
banding at the contact. The spatial and temporal relationships
between the rhyolites and the mineralisation have been studied in
detail by Worsley (1992). This has indicated that rhyolites were
actively being emplaced during the time of epithermal activity and
gold mineralisation, and some of the dykes utilized the same structural weaknesses (faults) as the lodes.
The U-Pb zircon dating from the rhyolite dyke at Cracow gave an
age of 291.1 _+ 5.3 Ma (Perkins, unpubl, report., 1992). Stable isotope data (see below) indicate that there is apparently no interaction
between ore-forming fluid in Rose's Pride and Klondyke and the
adjacent Back Creek limestone, which is unlikely if mineralisation
occurred after the formation of Back Creek limestone. It is, therefore, suggested that the mineralisation at Cracow occurred during
the early Permian, associated with the emplacement of a large felsic
intrusion underneath Cracow which was responsible for the formation of numerous rhyolite dykes in the area.

Stable isotope analysis

Mineralogy and paragenesis

Mineral samples of quartz and calcite were selected for
stable isotope analysis by h a n d picking under a binocular
microscope. Where minerals were intergrown, separation
by heavy liquid (Na Polytungstate) was used. The purity
of these samples was checked by X-ray diffraction. The
isotope analyses were performed by the staff in the stable
isotope l a b o r a t o r y of the Division of Exploration Geoscience of C S I R O , Australia. Minerals were analysed by
using conventional preparation techniques (McCrae,
1950; C l a y t o n and Mayeda, 1963) on a Micromass 620D
mass spectrometer. I s o t o p e data are reported in the familiar 6 notation relative to S M O W for oxygen and P D B for

Mineralisation in the C r a c o w gold field is complex and

multistage. At most localities, repeated fracturing and
brecciation during mineralisation p r o d u c e d complex vein
textures. O n the basis of a c o m b i n a t i o n of crosscutting
relationships, composition of clasts and cementing materials, mineralogy and vein textures, the paragenesis of each
lode has been established. In general, individual lodes
have their own characteristics in terms of vein textural
assemblage and the p r o p o r t i o n of mineral components.
The history of mineralisation on a district-wide scale can,
however be generalised into five gross paragenetic stages,

212
Table 1. Characteristics of the deposits at Cracow
Stage
Mineralogy
Ore
Pyrite
Sphalerite
Galena
Chalcopyrite
Hessite(Ag2Te)
Altaite (PbTe)
AuAgTellurides
Electrum (AuAg)
Gangue
Quartz
Adularia
Calcite
Sericite
Chlorite
Zeolite
Vein texture

I
D C R (K)

r r

M MM
r r

I1
D C R K

m
C
C
C
m
r
t
t

m m m
m
m
m
m 9 9
r
t
r t t

MMMM
m C m m
C C
r m
r m

IlI
(D) C R (K)

r r

IV

D C (R) (K)

D C (R)(K)

r r

t t
r r
M C
m C
C
m

MM
MM

r
Stockwork

Crustiform

Massive

Veinlet

Veinlet

D, Dawn; C, Central Extended; R, Rose's Pride; K, Klondyke; (), Stage is absent or is not observed; M, Major; C, common; m, minor; r, rare;
t, trace
based on the comparison of paragenesis of each deposit,
and also based on cross-checking with the paragenesis at
Golden Plateau which has been well documented by Worsley (1992). The main characteristic features of each stage
at individual deposits are summarised in Table 1, and
some examples of crosscutting relationships are illustrated
in Fig. 2.

Stage I represents early periods of silicification and

quartz veining. This phase is composed predominantly of
quartz with minor adularia, pyrite and chlorite, but with
the absence of other minerals. The veinlets rarely exceed
a few centimetres in width and form a stockwork with no
obvious preferred orientation. This stage is widespread in
the district, but is not associated with gold mineralisation.

Stage 11 represents a major period of brecciation and

fracturing. The most diagnostic feature of this stage is well
developed crustiform (cockade) banding, accompanied by
numerous varieties of quartz and adularia textures. Mineralogically, the ore bodies other than main Golden Plateau can be divided into two groups, The first one, including Dawn and Central Extended, consists of various proportions of quartz, adularia, sericite, chlorite, pyrite, basemetal sulphides, tellurides (chiefly hessite) and electrum.
The second group, including Klondyke and Rose's Pride,
consists of significant amounts of calcite and quartz, as
well as minor adularia and traces of electrum. Pyrite is the
only sulphide mineral detected and base-metal sulphides
are virtually absent in the second group.
Textural relations, showing mutual boundaries between
pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena, indicate that
these sulphide minerals were deposited essentially contemporaneously. Tellurides, including hessite (Ag2Te),
and to a much lesser extent, altaite (PbTe), krennerite and
sylvanite (AuAg tellurides), are often intergrown with the
sulphides. Electrum commonly occurs either as inclusions

in hessite, or as free particles isolated in quartz, adularia

and calcite. Microprobe analyses indicate that gold fineness ranges from 696 to 849 with higher values when
electrum occurs within hessite.
Stage II is best developed at Central Extended, Dawn
and Klondyke, and less extensively at Rose's Pride where
Stage II usually occurs as fragments within Stage Iii.
Significant gold values are contributed from Stage II.

Stage III represents a second major period of brecciation

and fracturing. It is best developed at Rose's Pride and
Central Extended, and less extensively at Dawn and Klondyke. A massive texture is predominant and the mineralogy is relatively simple in this stage. Rose's Pride lode
is composed of quartz, calcite, adularia and minor zeolite
(laumontite). Central Extended lode consists chiefly of
quartz with minor adularia, illite and mixed-layer illitesmectite. Base-metal sulphides are virtually absent and
only traces of pyrite are present locally in this stage.
Nearly all electrum occurs as free particles in quartz,
calcite and adularia, with similar values of Au fineness to
Stage II (731 to 747). Significant gold mineralisation is
associated with this stage.
Stage IV consists of comb quartz, generally in the absence of other minerals. Crustiform banding may or may
not be present. This stage is essentially barren.
Stage V consists only of massive calcite. It occurs either
as veinlets crosscutting the veins of the earlier stages or as
infill occupying the cavities in early vein material. This
stage is exclusively barren and volumetrically minor.
All deposits in the Cracow field are hosted by the
C a m b o o n Andesite and have very similar paragenesis. It
is likely that main mineralisation stages cross the Cracow
field were formed by similar processes and may even have

213

Fig. 2a-f. Characteristic features and crosscutting relationships of

various vein stages, a Staye I (silicification and stockwork quartz
veining) encloses Staqe II mineralization which is characterized by
crustiform bands of coarse comb quartz and coarse-grained sulphides, Dawn, waste dump. b High grade ore (Stage II) at Central
Extended, showing delicate crustiform bands with significant
amounts of adularia and chlorite. An electrum- and hessite-rich
band, indicated by an arrow on the photo, is located at top-right side
of the handspecimen. Also shown in the photo, Stage 1 (stockwork
quartz veining) is truncated by Stage II. WHD28/58.05 metres,
Central Extended. Gold assays - 30.4 g/T over 2 meters, c Delicate

crustiform bands (Stage II) are truncated by massive quartz with

clasts of previous phases (Sta#e III). Narrow quartz veinlet (Stage
IV) crosscuts Stage III assemblage, which in turn, is crosscutted by
calcite veinlet (Staye V). WHD30/64.5 metres, Central Extended.
d Stage II at Rose's Pride, showing crustiform bands of quartz,
calcite and adularia. Small amounts of pyrite and its oxidised products are disseminated in the vein phases, e Fragments of wall rock
and previous stage phases are cemented by massive calcite, quartz
and adularia aggregates (Stage III), Rose's Pride. f Common features of samples from Klondyke, showing crustiform bands of
quartz, calcite and pyrite (Staqe II). The metric scales = 1 cm

214
been synchronous. Comparing with the main Golden Plateau lode, the outside lodes contain much better developed Stage II gold mineralisation, characterised by
crustiform and cockade banding. This may be attributed
to more extensive brecciations during Stage III at Golden
Plateau, which destroyed continuous bands of Stage II
and gave a more massive character to the Golden Plateau
lode overall.

Mineralogical and textural zoning in Stage II

The distribution of mineralogical and textural assemblages in Stage II is worthy of further attention because
this stage is well developed at all studied outside deposits
and is a major gold mineralisation stage. Detailed studies
of vertical zonation at Dawn and Klondyke are difficult
because of the sparsity of drill holes and the shallow
depths (less than 50 met~res below the present surface)
to which they were drilled or mined. Therefore, lateral
zoning of Stage II on a district wide scale is the main
subject of this investigation. In addition, vertical zonation
of Stage II was also investigated at Central Extended
where open cut operations and an extensive drilling
program have provided good control over a vertical
distance of 100 metres, and at Rose's Pride where there
are at least four available drill holes down to 120 metres
below the surface.
The mineralogy of Stage II is referred to Table 1. The
textures of quartz and adularia in Stage II are summarised
in Table 2, and some of the examples are illustrated in
Figs. 3 and 4 (also see Fig. 2). There are some consistent
changes in terms of mineralogy and texture from east to

west across the Cracow field (i.e. from Dawn, Central

Extended to Rose's Pride and Klondyke):

Gangue mineralogy
In general, Stage II of each lode has its own predominant
gangue mineral assemblage (see Table 1). The most distinct difference is that the ore bodies in the west part of the
Cracow district (Klondyke and Rose's Pride) contain significant amounts of calcite, whereas calcite is absent in
Stage II of other ore bodies. Vein sericite, adularia and
chlorite are present nearly everywhere but adularia and
chlorite are the most abundant at Central Extended.

The amount and grain size of base-metal sulphides

At Dawn, base-metal sulphides are commonly coarsegrained and form up to 20 volume percent of the assemblage. At Central Extended, base-metal sulphides are usually fine-grained and rarely exceed 5% by volume. Basemetal sulphides are virtually absent at Klondyke and
Rose's Pride.

Mole percent FeS in sphalerite

Optical examination of about 15 thin sections showed no
obvious internal zoning within the sphalerite crystals. As
illustrated in Table 3, the average mole percent FeS in
sphalerite decreases from 1.62 at Dawn to 0.26 at Central
Extended. Sphalerite locally contains very high percentage of cadmium (up to 8.5 wt%) at Central Extended.

Table 2. Textures of Stage II of the studied deposits at Cracow

GoM mineralisation

Locations

Gold mineralisation is best developed at Central Extended among the studied deposits, where patches rich in
electrum, usually associated with rhombic adularia and
fine-grained quartz with recrystallisation textures, are often observed in polished thin sections, and where high
gold grades exceeding 10 g/t are frequently indicated by
assays from drill cores and rock chips. At other deposits,
electrum, which is commonly sparsely distributed, is very
difficult to be detected in polished thin sections, and the
gold tenors are usually less than 10 g/t.

Quartz textures
Crystalline
Microcrystalline
Chalcedonic
Massive
Crustiform
Colloform
Moss
Comb
Zonal
Mosaic
Feathery
Flamboyant
Ghost-sphere
Saccharoidal
Pseudo-acicular
Pseudo-bladed
Varieties of adularia
Sub-rhombic
Rhombic
Tabular
Pseudo-aicular

DA

CE

****
**

*
****
*

****

****
***
***
**
*
***
*
**
***

****
**
*

**

****
**

*
****
**
*

RP

KL

****
**
**
***
***
**

****
**
**
****
***
**
*

*
**
***
**
*

*
**
***
***

***

**

**

DA, Dawn; CE, Central Extended; RP, Rose's Pride; KL Klondyke

****Predominant; ***common; **present; *rare

Quartz textures
A classification of quartz textures in epithermal veins from
Queensland has been developed (Dong et al. 1995). This
classification can be well applied in the Cracow gold field.
The crustiform texture is diagnostic of Stage II throughout the district (see Fig. 2). Additionally, coarse comb
texture predominates only at Dawn (Fig. 3a). The primary
and recrystallisation textures possibly inherited from silica gel, including colloform, moss, ghost-sphere, flamboyant and mosaic textures (Fig. 3b, c and d) are best developed and widespread at Central Extended. In addition,

215
microcrystalline comb, feathery, pseudo-acicular and
chalcedonic textures are present locally. The textural assemblage at Klondyke and Rose's Pride is characterised
by replacement textures including saccharoidal (Fig. 3e)
and pseudo-acicular (Fig. 3f).

<

Adularia textures
0

<

0
I I I I

<

2~

I I I I

;>

<

I I I I
~ O ~ O

0~

.9

='~

~D t D ~ O O

Adularia textures and their origins in epithermal veins

from Queensland have been reviewed (Dong and Morrison 1995). In Cracow, rhombic adularia (Fig. 4a) is the
main variety at all the ore bodies except Dawn where the
sub-rhombic type (Fig. 4b) is predominant. Pseudo-acicular adularia (Fig. 4c) is commonly found at Rose's Pride
and Klondyke but is volumetrically minor. Tabular adularia (Fig. 4d) is only seen at Central Extended.
Stage II at Central Extended is mineralised by sequential precipitation in open fractures. In general, there is
a consistent quartz texture assemblage within 100 metres
vertical interval, characterised by crustiform, and various
primary and recrystallisation textures possibly inherited
from silica gel. The only difference is that the proportion
of some textures varies slightly from top to bottom. For
example, moss, ghost-sphere and chalcedonic textures are
better developed at the top, as are mosaic and comb
textures at the bottom. Rhombic adularia is widespread
but richest at the intermediate level in correlation with
high grade ore.
The general impression from limited sample collection
at Rose's Pride is that calcite is present in the vein at all
depths (120 metres below the present surface), as are the
replacement textures. Careful inspection of thin sections
reveals that some specific textures like ghost-sphere and
flamboyant occur only at shallow levels, and give way to
euhedral quartz texture approximately 70 metres below
the present surface.
In summary, the orebodies at Dawn are relatively rich
in base-metal sulphides. Quartz is a predominant gangue
mineral, and nearly always shows coarse comb texture in
association with minor sub-rhombic adularia. The orebodies at Central Extended contain the best gold grades
among the studied deposits in the district. Base-metal
sulphides are only present locally and to a much lesser
extent compared with Dawn. Quartz is still the dominant
gangue mineral with well developed various primary and
recrystallisation textures possibly inherited from silica gel,
and significant amounts of rhombic adularia are widely
distributed. At Rose's Pride and Klondyke, base-metal
sulphides are virtually absent, but significant amounts of
calcite are widely distributed. Quartz is characterised by
replacement textures including saccharoidal and pseudoacicular types.

e"
O

Fluid inclusions studies on Stage II mineralisation

o
0

<<

Monophase liquid inclusions are predominant and abundant in quartz crystals. The lack of vapour bubbles in this
type of inclusion probably results from metastable nucleation due to their small sizes of <2 ~tm (Roedder 1984).
Liquid-rich inclusions are commonly seen in calcite and

216

Fig. 3a-f. Quartz textures in the Stage 1I veins, a Comb quartz

texture, showing groups of parallel or subparallel cystals perpendicular to vein bands, is predominant at Dawn. Crossed polars.
b Flamboyant texture, showing a radial or flamboyant extinction of
individual quartz crystals with more or less rounded crystal outline.
is well developed in the rims of quartz crystals with euhedral cores.
WILD30/65.05 meters, Central Extended. Crossed polars, c and
d Moss (groups of spheres) and colloform (continuous banding with
rounded surface) textures are highlighted by the distribution of

impurities. In this case, silica gel has transformed to microcrystalline

quartz, and original gel structures are preserved in quartz crystals.
Central extended open pit, plane polarised light for c and crossed
polars for d. e Saccharoidal texture, showing random distribution of
slender subhedral quartz crystals, is predominant at Rose's Pride.
Crossed polars, f Pseudo-acicular texture, indicated by linear arrangement of line elongated quartz grains, is a replacement texture
after calcite. In this photomicrograph, remnants of calcite can he
observed. Klondyke, crossed polars. All scale burs - 0.5 mm

217

Fig. 4a-d. Characteristics of adularia from different deposits.

a Rhomic adularia, typically very fined-graind (< 0.2 mm) and having perfect rhombic forms, is predominant at Central Extended.
Plane polarised light, b Sub-rhombic adularia crystals, typically
coarse-grained ( > 2 mm) and subhedral with a rhombic termination,
is mainly found at Dawn in association with comb quartz. Crossed
polars, e Pseudo-acicular adularia aggregates, displaying a radial-

acicular appearance, is commonly found at Rose's Pride and Klon~

dyke (this sample). Plane polarised light. When crossing polars, each
needle actularly consists of several elongated or ragged adularia
grains, d Tabular adualria, showing lath-shaped and perpendicular
to vein bands, is only found at Central Extended. Crossed polars. All
scale bars = 0.5 mm

sphalerite, but far less commonly in adularia and quartz.

Their sizes range from < 2 to 30 gm in diameter commonly with 5 20 volume percent of vapour. Seventeen
doubly polished thin sections were carefully checked for
the presence of vapour-rich inclusions, liquid CO2 or
clathrate in inclusions, but these were not observed.
Due to the fine grained host minerals of most of the
samples and small size ( < 2 Jam) of the majority of fluid
inclusions, only eight out of seventeen doubly polished
thin sections were proved to contain workable fluid inclusions. The total measurements of 120 homogenisation
temperatures and 64 ice melting temperatures from primary or pseudo-secondary inclusions were obtained and
the results are summarised in Table 4.
In general, there is a wide range of homogenisation
temperatures of fluid inclusions district-wide, with Th
values between 153 ~ and 287 ~ and being significantly
higher at Dawn and Central Extended (247 to 287~
than at Klondyke and Rose's Pride (153 to 226~

A number of inclusions with variable phase ratios were

apparently not homogeneous when trapped (bubble volume only slightly decreased during heating up to 400 ~
The ice melting temperatures measured in all samples are
generally close to zero, with an average of - 0 . 1 ~ from
Rose's Pride and Klondyke, - 0 . 3 ~
from Dawn and
- 0 . 6 ~ from Central Extended.
The fine-grained nature of vein material and prevalent
recrystallisation in epithermal environments make fluid
inclusion study extremely difficult. The data obtained
therefore are usually insufficient to represent entire range
of fluid conditions. The measurements for Stage II at
Central Extended were made only from fluid inclusions
within comb quartz and tabular adularia which represent
a very small proportion of the vein material. The majority
of vein material, composed of fine-grained quartz with
well-developed recrystallisation textures, did not contain
suitable fluid inclusions for measurements. However, the
presence of the silica gel precursor, evidenced by various

218
Table 4. Fluid inclusion data from Stage II veins
Sample Host
Location
no.
mineral

RL"
(metres)

Th (~
Range

Average

Tmice (~
Range

KL21
KL52

Cal
Cal

KL waste dump
KL outcrop

280-320
320

181 to 211
153 to 189

202.4 (42)
171.5 (11)

0.0 to - 0.1

- 0.1 (18)

0.18

RP66
RP49

Cal
Cal

RP RPD9/154.2
RP outcrop

159
290

187 to 226
162 to 183

211.7 (20)
171.6 (12)

- 0.0 to
0.2
- 0.0 to - 0.2

- 0.1 (20)
- 0.1 (3)

0.18
0.18

CE16
CE04

Adu
Qtz

CE WHD30/65.5
CE open pit

335
375

264 to 278
247 to 269

271.4 (8)
252.1 (7)

- 0.3 to - 0.6
- 0.4 to - 0.6

- 0.5 (5)
- 0.6 (4)

0.87
1.05

DA64
DA08

Qtz
Sph

Dawn NS64/54.7m
Dawn waste dump

275
285-305

254 to 285
264 to 287

270.3 (8)
271.0 (12)

- 0.2 to - 0.4
- 0.2 to - 0.3

- 0.3 (7)
- 0.2 (7)

0.53
0.35

Average

Equiv.b
wt% NaCI

Cal, Calcite; Adu, Adularia; Qtz, Quartz; KL, Klondyke; RP, Rose's Pride; CE, Central Extended
"Elevations of the samples, it has been assumed that the samples from waste dumps came from between the lowest level of the mining and the
present surface
bCalculated from Potter et al. (1978)

primary and recrystallisation textures (e.g., colloform,

moss, flamboyant, and ghost-sphere), may indicate that
the majority of vein material, precipitating initially from
silica gel, is very likely to be formed at relatively low
temperature, probably below 220~ (Dong et al. 1995).
The temperatures obtained from fluid inclusion measurements in tabular adularia and comb quartz (245 ~ to
275~
may represent the upper temperature limit of
Stage II at Central Extended.
It is proposed that the data collected from inclusions in
sphalerite and quartz at Dawn, can represent the fluid
condition fairly well, since the quartz texture is quite
simple, being dominated by coarse comb texture. In addition, quartz and sphalerite are the main phases in the vein
material. At Rose's Pride and Klondyke, only calcite contains measurable fluid inclusions. The consistently low
homogenisation temperatures measured from fluid inclusions in calcite are considered to be reasonable, since
appropriate precautions (e.g., reproducibility of thermometric results) have been taken to avoid leakage problem
which is fairly c o m m o n in minerals with good cleavage
such as calcite. The common presence of vein laumontite
at Rose's Pride and Klondyke, indicating an approximate
temperature range of 150 ~ to 200~ (Browne 1987), further confirms the low temperature nature of the vein
formation. Unlike other deposits where calcite occurs
alone in veinlets or in cavities within quartz veins (i.e.
Stage V), calcite at Rose's Pride and Klondyke manifests
itself in crustiform bands repeatedly alternating with
quartz and adularia in Stage II. It is therefore reasonable
to assume the data measured from calcite represent approximately the fluid conditions at which quartz and
adularia co-precipitated with calcite.
It appears that both chloride and CO2 concentrations
in the inclusion fluids are generally low since an overwhelming majority of ice melting temperatures are higher
than - 0 . 6 ~ which is equivalent to less than 1.05 wt%
NaC1 or less than 0.32 molal dissolved CO2, considering
the sole contribution of electrolyte (e.g., Na +, C1-) and
nonelectrolyte (e.g., CO2) to ice melting temperature respectively (Hedenquist and Henley 1985).

Stable isotope studies on Stage II mineralisation

The 6180 values of quartz and calcite, 513C values of
calcite and the calculated isotopic compositions of the
fluid are listed in Table 5. The isotopic compositions of
two samples from Back Creek limestone adjacent to
Rose's Pride and Klondyke are also included in Table 5.
The equations of Clayton et al. (1972) and O'Neil et al.
(1969) are used in this study for oxygen isotope fractionation between quartz and water, and calcite and water,
respectively. In epithermal environments where the temperature is generally below 300 ~ and the fluid is buffered
by the silicate and carbonate assemblages of wall rocks,
the aqueous carbon species in the fluid are dominated by
H z C O 3 and H C O 3 (Reed and Spycher 1985). Since the
ratio of H z C O 3 and HCO~- is difficult to determine, two
extreme cases, i.e. fluid with aqueous species of H z C O 3
only and that of HCO~- only, are considered in the calculation of the carbon isotopic composition in the fluid. In
doing so, equilibrium isotopic fractionation factors of
carbon compounds with respect to CO2 from O h m o t o
and Rye (1979) are used in this study.
Since fractionation factors relating the isotopic composition of the minerals and that of the fluid are significantly temperature dependent, uncertainties in estimation
of the temperature of crystallisation lead to uncertainties
in the calculated isotopic composition of the fluid. The
average value of homogenisation temperatures is used in
the calculation where available. For those samples which
contain no workable fluid inclusions, other temperature
constraints on the basis of textural, mineralogical and
geological evidence are applied in this study (see Table 5).
In general, the temperature used for individual samples
have a range of + 20~
therefore the calculated fluid
isotope values represent average compositions of the fluid.
A few important observations can be made regarding
the isotopic compositions of fluids and minerals:
1. The values of ~18On2o calculated from quartz range
from - 1 7 . 4 to -11.8%o, and show a decrease trend from
Dawn with an average of - 12.2%o, to Central Extended

219
Table

5. Oxygen and carbon isotope data from Stage II veins

Sample

Location

Mineral

T (~

Minerals

Fluid ~

1~lSOsMow 613CpDB
%
%0

~lSOH20

(~13C1

(~13C2

%0

%0

%0

no.

DA08
DA10

DA, waste dump

As above

Qtz
Qtz

270
270 b

- 3.22
- - 3.97

11.8
12.5

CE22
CE16
CE04

CE, WHD28/58.1m
CE, WHD30/64.5m
CE, open pit

Qtz
Qtz
Qtz

230~
230~
210~

- 3.09
- 2.99
- 1.44

13.5
13.4
13.0

RP49-1
RP49-2

RP, outcrop
As above

Qtz
Cal

170e
170

- 2.06
- 6.66

- 6.23

16.4
17.4

7.0

8.2

KL52-1
KL52-2
KLB1
RPB1

KL, outcrop
As above
Back Creek limestone
As above

Qtz
Cal

170a
170

- 2.65
- 6.34
19.9
18.0

- 5.79
4.7
2.6

17.0
17.1

6.5

7.7

Some of the samples contain no workable fluid inclusions, therefore following assumptions have to be made:
a 6lSO fluid data are calculated from mineral data; 613C1 (613 Cmco3) and 613C2 (613 Cnco~) are calculated asssuming fluid with aqueous
species of H2CO3 only and that of HCO 3 only, respectively. Uncertainities in the calculated isotopic composition of the fluid are mainly due
to uncertainties in estimation of the temperature of crystallisation which have a range of _+15~ This would result in an uncertainty in
calculated 6lSOn2o value of about +0.6% at 280~ about +_1.4% at 150~ and uncertainties in calculated 61aCH2co3and 613 CHCO3values
o f less than 0.5%0 and 0.3%0, respectively at temperature between 150~ to 175~
bUsing the Th of DA08, considering the similarities in location and mineralogy between the two samples
cAssuming 40~ below the fluid inclusion measurements from adjacent, early comb quartz or tabular adularia banding, see text f o r
explanation
d Using Th from calcite which coexists with quartz

with an average of 13.3%o, to Rose's Pride and Klondyke

with an average of -16.7%o.
2. Calculated values of 61SOn2o for the calcite fluids at
Rose's Pride and Klondyke show similar values as those
calculated from quartz, suggesting that isotopic equilibrium was achieved between the two minerals.
3. In the temperature range of calcite precipitation at
Cracow (150 to 200~
calculated 613Czc values in the
fluids, either assuming H2CO3 and H C O 3 as the predominant aqueous carbon species, a r e n o t significantly
different to the values of measured 6X3C of calcite.
4. The isotopic compositions of calcite in the veins are
significantly different from those of the nearby Back Creek
limestone.

calcite, therefore, suggest that the hydrothermal fluids at

Rose's Pride and Klondyke represent virtually unshifted
palaeo-meteoric water.
The 61aOH2o values calculated from Stage II quartz at
Dawn and Central Extended veins, however, are much
enriched, ranging from - 1 3 . 5 to - 1 1 . 7 % . This 61SOH2o
enrichment is mainly attributed to the exchange of light
palaeo-meteoric water at Cracow (6180 = -17%o) with
relatively heavy oxygen (6180 = + 6 to +8%0) in the
volcanic rocks during the fluid circulates, as commonly
founded in geothermal system in New Zealand (Hedenquist 1986), although the input of a small component of
magmatic water into the ore-forming fluids at Dawn and
Central Extended cannot be completely dismissed if the
magmatic water was diluted.

Origin of Stage ll fluids

Precipitation

One of the prominent characteristics of the data is that the

6180H20 values in the Rose's Pride and Klondyke veins
are low, ranging from - 17.4 to - 16.4%o. The epithermal
veins at Cracow were formed during the Early Permian
when a palaeolatitude of 65 ~ for the Bowen Basin is
suggested (Veevers 1984). At this polar or sub-polar temperature of condensation, the meteoric water is expected
to be extremely depleted isotopically. Bird and Chivas
(1988) indicated that palaeo-meteoric water in equilibrium
with early Permian kaolinite from the Gunnedah Basin in
New South Wales had t~180 of ~<-17%o and ~D
o f ~< -125%o. This isotopic composition of palaeo-meteoric water is considered to be similar to that which
occured in the Cracow field during the mineralisation.
The 61SO,~o values calculated from both quartz and

of ore

minerals

from

Stage

II fluid

In epithermal environments, precipitation of metals is

generally thought to be induced by processes such as
conductive cooling, boiling or mixing with other fluids
(e.g., Buchanan 1981; Reed and Spycher 1985; Berger and
Henley 1989; Seward 1989).
Cooling of hydrothermal fluids by simple conductive
heat loss could cause precipitation of ore minerals, particularly base-metal sulphides. However, as indicated by
Seward (1989) and Sander and Einaudi (1990), such a
process would lead to metals being spatially distributed
throughout the permeability path traversed by the
rising and cooling fluids, which might only lead to a
geochemical anomaly with respect to metals, but not to
an ore deposit.

220
Mixing of near-neutral, metals-transporting fluid with
cooler, descending acid sulphate fluids or ground water
would also cause metal deposition in response to decreasing temperature, concentrations of chloride and reduced
sulphur. Henley (1991) pointed out that this process is
usually associated with the waning stage of hydrothermal
activity, since a decline of heat supply from the source
regime changes the balance of pressure between hot upflow
(and metal supply) and surrounding (descending) cooler
fluids, and leads to progressive inundation of the system.
The mixing model is unlikely for Stage H mineralisation at
Cracow because Stage I1 is paragenetically old.
Based on exploration of active geothermal systems,
numerous studies (e.g., Browne and Ellis 1970; Browne
1978; Henley 1985; and Hendenquist 1990) showed that
vein adularia, formed due to the fluid becoming more
alkaline, and vein calcite, deposited due to CO2 loss, are
mineralogical indicators of boiling. These observations
were strongly supported by a number of thermodynamic
studies (e.g., Drummond and Ohmoto 1985; Reed and
Spycher 1985; Spycher and Reed 1989; Cathles 1991). The
investigation of the structural state of adularia in epithermal veins (Dong and Morrison 1995), showing relatively
disordered structures, further indicates that vein adularia
was formed under rapid crystallisation conditions which
are most likely induced by boiling of hydrothermal fluids.
In the Cracow district, vein adularia is widespread in
Stage II of all studied vein deposits. Calcite occurs mainly
at Klondyke and Rose's Pride. However, pseudo-acicular
quartz texture, a replacement texture after calcite (Dong et
al. 1995), is often found in Stage II at Central Extended,
indicating the present of calcite precursors. Therefore,
mineralogical and vein textural features suggest that
boiling took place during the Stage I1 mineralisation in all
studied vein deposits.
Many of the effects of boiling on ore deposition have
been computationally modelled and discussed by a number of researchers, including Drummond and Ohmoto
(1985), Reed and Spycher (1985), Seward (1989) and
Cathles (1991). In an example, the evolution of fluid composition has been modelled using the computer program
C H I L L E R (Spycher and Reed 1990). This program is
designed to model boiling, cooling, and various other
chemical interactions in aqueous systems, including solid
and gas phases. The initial fluid composition used in this
calculation is similar to that at the Dawn deposit, which is
in equilibrium with quartz, adularia, albite, illite, chlorite,
pyrite, epidote and calcite at 285 ~ (Dong 1993). Fluid
buffered conditions are assumed during vein formation
because fluids are effectively isolated from wall rocks as
soon as early vein minerals (particularly quartz) precipitate on the walls of fluid conduits.
In most natural systems, when a fluid first boils at deep
levels where permeability is low, very little gas can escape
from the system and the fluid exchanges some heat with
wall rocks (most likely heat is lost through the wall rock,
i.e., subisoenthalpic boiling, cf. Spycher and Reed 1989)
because it flows relatively slowly. However, as the fluid
moves up and encounters an environment of increased
permeability which induces effective gas removal and
a high flow rate, boiling will proceed more vigorously and
heat conduction through wall rocks can be ignored (i.e.,

isoenthalpic boiling). Accordingly, the calculations assume subisoenthalpic boiling (heat loss of 0.8 kcal per
degree C.) in a closed system from 285 ~ to 265 ~ and
followed by isoenthalpic boiling in an open system below
265'~C. The temperature 265~C and the heat loss of
0.8 kcal per degree C. are somewhat arbitrarily chosen,
but this does not matter for the purpose of the exercise
which is mainly for modelling a qualitative trend in the
changes of the solubilities of various species during boiling
of the initial fluid at Cracow. Due to the lack of concentration data for metal species and other aqueous species in
the initial fluid, no attempt is made regarding quantities of
minerals deposited during boiling.
2 ....

7.5

o2

pH
6.5
-3
-4
-2

'

T4~-

-----""''"~

i
:

5.5

"8
HSO4"
-6

0"

-,Ik2-,2~ : . . . . .
-::::

.
=

l
9

9
_-

I
--

....

>.

-6 -

-6 ~

-8
"6

-9
-10
AgCb.-1 1

-5

'

'

-6

s
q0"
-5

" 6 "! ~

,.~.. ~

-7
E

5
-12

1
285

,
265

245
Temperature

~
225

205

(~

Fig. 5. Changes in the solubilities of metal complexes and several

important chemical parameters during boiling of a fluid close to
compositions of the initial fluid at Dawn

221
The results are illustrated in Fig. 5. When sub-isoenthalpic boiling first starts in a closed system, the solubility
of gold is virtually unchanged until about 270 ~ chiefly
because the effect of an increase in pH (stabilising
Au(HS)2 ) overrides that of HzS loss (destabilising
Au(HS)s With further boiling, the effect of H2S degassing becomes more competitive. In addition, when the pH
becomes so high that the dominant sulphide aqueous
species becomes HS-, further increase in pH would have
an opposing effect on gold solubility (i.e. destabilising
Au(HS)2). In this case, gold solubility decreases, especially
when the system is totally open. The solubilities of base
metals invariably drop as the boiling proceeds, mainly in
response to decreasing temperature and increasing pH.
The behaviour of silver depends on the ratio of Ag chloride-complex to Ag bisulphide-complex in the fluid. In the
case of the fluid at Dawn, which shows AgC12greater than
Ag(HS)2, the solubility of total silver drops as boiling
proceeds, similar to that of base metals. In this way,
a metal depth zoning may be developed if the initial fluid
is saturated with respect to Au, Ag and base metals, i.e.
base metal sulphides precipitate immediately after the
fluid boils at deep levels, whereas gold preferentially deposits at shallower levels.

Zoning model for Stage II mineralisation at Cracow

The mineralogical, textural, fluid inclusion and stable
isotope studies place constraints on any model that may
be used to explain the zonation of Stage II mineralisation
in the Cracow district. Such a model must be consistent
with all the following observations:
1. The orebodies at Dawn are relatively rich in base-metal
sulphides. Quartz is the predominant gangue mineral, and
commonly shows a coarse comb texture. Adularia is
mainly present in a sub-rhombic variety. The heatingfreezing results indicate a mineralisation temperature of
275 4- 10~ and a salinity range of 0.35 to 0.67 wt%. The
isotopic study indicates an palaeo-meteoric water source
with heavily enriched 61sOn2o value of -12%o.
2. The orebodies at Central Extended contain the best
gold grades among the studied deposits in the district.
Base-metal sulphides are only present locally and to
a much lesser extent compared with Dawn. Quartz is still
the dominant gangue mineral, but significant amounts of
rhombic adularia and chlorite are widely distributed.
Various primary and recrystallisation textures possibly
inherited from silica gel are well developed and widespread. At individual sites where crustiform bands developed from both walls of a fissure, temperatures could
drop sharply from 275 ~ (measured from fluid inclusions
in early formed bands of comb quartz and tabular adularia) to less than 220 ~ (indicated by the presence of silica
gel textures). The hydrothermal fluid at Central Extended,
compared with that at Dawn, was more dilute and less
isotopically enriched (618Ou2o value of -13.5%o) meteoric water.
3. At Rose's Pride and Klondyke, base-metal sulphides
are virtually absent, but significant amounts of calcite and

quartz with minor adularia are widely distributed. Replacement textures are distinct, and textures inherited
from silica gel in the upper sections of the deposit give way
to euhedral textures with depth. The mineralisation temperature is determined to be less than 220 ~ and salinity
to be less than 0.18 wt%. Isotopic data indicate nearly
unshifted meteoric water, with 618On2o value of -17% o.
The different characteristics documented above may be
related to several possible factors in epithermal deposits
(Heald et al. 1987). These include:
1. Metal content and mineralogy of the source rock with
respect to the availability of metals for extraction;
2. Chemistry of hydrothermal fluids with respect to their
relative ability to extract, transport, and precipitate metals; and
3. Evolution of the ore-forming hydrothermal system (a)
in time (e.g., different stages of mineralisation) and (b) in
space (e.g., zonation with depth).
As discussed in previous sections, all studied deposits in
the Cracow district are confined to an area of approximately 30 km 2, and are hosted in the Camboon Andesite
which has a massive nature and about 3000 metres in
thickness. Studies of the paragenesis indicate that all deposits experienced essentially the same hydrothermal activities across the camp, and Stage II is a major gold
mineralisation stage. Therefore, differences in the chemistry of the hydrothermal fluids (factor 2) and evolution of
the hydrothermal systems in space (factor 3b) are considered to be the major factors accounting for different
characteristics of Stage II in individual deposits at
Cracow.
The active geothermal systems are considered to be the
archetypes of those systems responsible for epithermal
precious- and base-metal deposits (White 1955, 1981;
Henley and Ellis 1983; Henley 1985). There are three
major end-member fluid types in New Zealand geothermal systems (Hedenquist 1986, 1990). These are: the chloride fluid originating from deeply circulating meteoric
water, and characterised by its high temperature, near
neutral pH, chloride as the dominant anion, a variable
CO2 content, and enriched 6180 with respect to local
meteoric water due to extensive water-rock interaction;
the acid sulphate stream-heated fluid formed by condensation of steam into groundwater near the surface where
H2S is oxidised to sulphate; and the CO2-rich steamheated fluid formed by condensation of steam into nonoxygenated groundwater and characterised by very low
salinity (close to zero) and low temperature (120 to
180 ~ Both steam-heated fluids have isotopic compositions similar to ground water, and generally form an
"umbrella" over the deep chloride upflow.
Many conceptual and descriptive zoning models for
epithermal gold-silver deposits have been proposed (e.g.,
Buchanan 1981; Giles and Nelson 1982; Berger and
Eimon 1982; Henley and Ellis 1983; Sillitoe and Bonham
1984; Silberman and Berger 1985; Heald et al. 1987).
Buchanan (1981) summarised and tabulated data from
over 60 epithermal deposits hosted by volcanic in the
western US, and presented an empirical zoning model
that effectively illustrates the geometric arrangement of

222
Deposits

Ore Zones

Fluid T ~1:0H20 Ore

types (~
(%0)

Gangue

Quartz textures

Adularia textures

.................................................................................................................................................................

Present surface
Rose's
Pride
&
Klondyke

Precious

metal
Central
Extended

.=~
. ~ . ~ 150 -17.4 pyrite
~'~"
=-o /
~ +hessite
~ ~,~ 220 -16.4 +electrum
~
.~
o

interval

'S
.t-,

Base metal

Dawn
interval

&

quartz
Crustiform,Saccharoidal,
calcite
Pseudo-acicular,
adularia +colloform, +moss, _+comb
laumontile

pyrite
quartz
<210 -13.5 chalcopyrite adularia
sphalerite chlorite
hessite
+sericite
270 -13.0 galena
electrum

Rhombic
Pseudo-acicular

Crustiform, CoUoform, Moss, Rhombic,

Flamboyant, Ghost-sphere, Pseudo-acicular
Mosaic, Pseudo-acicular,
Tabular
+comb, +feathery, +zonal
+sub-rhombic

250 -12.5 sphalerite quartz

Crustiform, Comb, Zonal,
galena
+_adularia +feathery, +mosaic
280 -11.8 chalcopyrite +chlorite

Sub-rhombic
:t:rhombic

pyrite
hessite
+elecmam

(not to scale)

Intrusive
+
+ +
Heat Source
+

..................................................................................................................................................................

Fig. 6. A schematic zoning model for Stage II mineralisation in the Cracow hydrothermal system

ore, gangue and alteration zones in epithermal veins.

More recently, based on an extensive reconnaissance of
a number of epithermal veins in Queensland, coupled with
detailed work on a few selected occurrences, Morrison
et al. (1990) developed an empirical textural zoning model
in epithermal veins, in which three superzones, representing fundamental changes in predominant quartz textures,
are defined.
The following Cracow model is established on the basis
of the current understanding of fluid types in epithermal
systems and comparison of the characteristics of the
Cracow deposits with the available models of epithermal
deposits (Fig. 6).
The deeply circulating dilute chloride fluid is considered
to be dominant fluid type during mineralisation at Dawn
and Central Extended. Given a source of heat, presumably
a cooling magma at depth, any available ground water
would be caught up in a hydrothermal convection system.
As the ground water circulates, it interacts with wall rock,
becoming enriched in ligands and metals, as well as ~80.
This deeply circulating dilute chloride fluid eventually
starts boiling at shallow levels, leading to the formation of
ore bodies. The difference in characteristics between the
orebodies at Dawn and Central Extended is thought to be
related to the depth of erosion and boiling in different
conditions.
The orebodies at Dawn are most likely to be situated in
the bottom zone of a boiling system where sub-isoenthalpic boiling initiates with very little gas removal. In this
environment, base metal sulphides precipitate whereas
most of the gold still remains in the fluid. Relatively slowly

changing conditions also account for the common presence of coarse comb quartz texture and sub-rhombic
adularia variety. The deep position in the system allows
extensive water-rock isotopic exchange to take place and
prevents the participation of fresh meteoric water, thus the
6180 values of the fluid were shifted from palaeo-meteoric
water to as high as -12Too at Dawn.
The formation of orebodies at Central Extended is
perhaps a good example of extensive boiling at shallow
levels. Here isoenthalpic boiling took place in an open
system. The rapid loss of volatile components and cooling
led to a sharp decrease in gold solubility, with essentially
all of the gold being deposited over a narrow depth
interval. The rapidly changing conditions also account for
the common presence of micro-rhombic adularia and
widespread quartz textures possibly inherited from silica
gel. Conventionally, there should be a deeper zone rich in
base metal sulphides. However, if the initial fluid was
dilute and therefore could only carry limited amounts of
base metals, or the initial fluid was substantially undersaturated with respect to base metals, a base-metal sulphide-rich zone may not be developed at depth.
CO2-rich-steam-heated fluid is considered to have been
predominated in the upper parts of the systems as represented at Rose's Pride and Klondyke. Heating of this
CO2-rich steam-heated fluid will lead to precipitation of
calcite due to its inverse solubility. However, this process
cannot account for the coexistence of calcite, adularia and
quartz-the mineral assemblage commonly observed at
Rose's Pride and Klondyke, because both the solubility of
quartz and the AI(OH)2 stability increase with increasing

223
temperatures which results in a fluid undersaturated with
respect to quartz and adularia. On the other hand, boiling
of the CO2-rich steam-heated fluid, resulting in loss of
CO2, cooling, enrichment of solutes and increase in pH, is
a better mechanism of mineral deposition at Rose's Pride
and Klondyke. The low temperature and low salinity of
the fluid preclude the transport of base metal complexes,
hence base metal sulphides are virtually absent at Rose's
Pride and Klondyke. As indicated by Hedenquist (1986
and 1990), the mixed-layer illite-smectite along with minor
kaolinite is consistent with the presence of COz-rich
steam-heated waters at shallow levels in New Zealand
geothermal systems. However, from the examination of
available samples and drill core logs, these minerals
are only present in minor amounts at Rose's Pride and
Klondyke thus indicating that the argillic alteration
was not well developed in association with Stage II mineralisation at these deposits. A possible explanation is that
the CO2-rich steam-heated fluid underwent boiling soon
after condensation of the steams into groundwater, shifting mineral-fluid equilibria back to K-feldspar stability
field.

Conclusions

The different characteristics of selected epithermal veins in

the Cracow gold field can be explained by the depth
zoning in typical boiling epithermal systems. F r o m top to
bottom, Zone I (corresponding to Rose's Pride and Klondyke) is characterised by widespread replacement textures
after carbonate, corresponding to the CO:-rich steamheated fluid which is predominated in the upper portion of
an epithermal/geothermal system. Zone II (corresponding
to Central Extended) is marked by the development of
delicate crustiform-colloform banding, various textures
possibly inherited from original silica gel (e.g., moss, colloform, flamboyant, ghost-sphere, mosaic and pseudoacicular) and the presence of significant amounts of microrhombic adularia. The development of Zone II is thought
to be related to extensive boiling at relatively shallow
levels which induces a rapid change in m a n y important
parameters including temperature, pH, redox and activity
of H2S. Gold mineralisation is most likely to occur within
this zone. Zone III (corresponding to Dawn) is dominated
by coarse c o m b quartz texture in association with subrhombic adularia. This zone could be relatively rich in
base metal sulphides and is considered to be developed
when sub-isoenthalpic boiling initiates at deep levels
where permeability is low and fluid conditions do not
change dramatically.
Acknowledgements. This paper represents part of a Ph.D thesis by
the senior author. Sincere thanks are due to Myles Worsley, Gregg
Morrison, Subhash Jaireth, Neil Phillips, Chris Cuff, Dick England,
Mike Rubenach, and Peter Pollard for their valuable comments and
supports. Funding for the project was provided by the Australian
Mineral Industries Association (AMIRA), who and sponsor companies are gratefully acknowledged. Additionally, the Cracow Mining Venture is thanked for providing logistical support during the
field work. This paper has benefited greatly from the comments and
editorial suggestions by T.M. Seward and one anonymous Mineralium Deposita reviewer.

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