TM6004

Teknik Pemboran Lanjut

DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Oleh

PRADINI RAHALINTAR
NIM: 22214003
(Program Studi Magister Teknik Perminyakan)

INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI BANDUNG

2015

CONTENTS
CONTENTS.............................................................................................................2
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................3
Chapter I Directional Drilling..................................................................................4
I.1

Introduction............................................................................................4

I.2

Definitions and Terminology.................................................................4

I.3

Applications of Directional Drilling......................................................6

I.4

Well Types..............................................................................................9

I.5

Devices.................................................................................................12

I.5.1

Current Directional Drilling Technology Limits....................................14

I.6

Wellbore Survey...................................................................................15

I.7

Advancements......................................................................................15

I.8

Directional drilling limitations.............................................................16

I.9

Surveying (including MWD)...............................................................18

I.10

Buoyancy and Drillstring Weight Calculations....................................18

I.11

BHA Design Considerations................................................................19

I.11.1

Pendulum Principle............................................................................19

I.11.2

Fulcrum Principle...............................................................................20

I.11.3

Packed Hole Stabilisation Principle...................................................20

Chapter III Discussions..........................................................................................23

LIST OF FIGURES
.
Figure 1. Measurement parameters of a directional well.........................................5
Figure 2. Application of Directional Drilling...........................................................7
Figure 3.. Extended Reach Drilling.........................................................................9
Figure 4. Vertical Type Well...................................................................................10
Figure 5. "J" Type Well..........................................................................................10
Figure 6. S Type Well.........................................................................................11
Figure 7. Horizontal Wells.....................................................................................12
Figure 8. Fulcrum Principle...................................................................................23

Chapter I Directional Drilling

I.1

Introduction
Directional drilling is the science of deviating a well bore aling a planned
course to a subsurface target whose location is a given lateral distance,
depth, and direction from the surface. It is the process of directing a
wellbore along some trajectory to a predetermined target. Basically it refers
to drilling in a non-vertical direction. Even vertical hole sometimes
require directional drilling techniques.
Controlled directional drilling is a technique for directing a well along a
predetermined course to a bottom hole target located at a certain distance
and direction from a surface location.
There are many reasons for drilling a directional wells, including:
1. Side-tracking
wells

existing

7. Environmental footprint
8. Salt dome drilling (direct

(because of hole

problems

or

fish

the well away from the salt

or

dome

to

avoid

casing

reaching new targets)

2. Restricted surface locations
3. To reach multiple targets
4. To reduce number of

collapse problems)
9. Geological requirements
10. To avoid gas or water

offshore platforms
5. Horizontal Drilling
6. To reach thin reservoirs

coning problems
11. For intersecting fractures
12. For re-entering existing

(using

horizontal

or

wells

multilateral drilling)
I.2

13.
Definitions and Terminology
14.

At it has been explained, directional drilling is the methodology for

directing a wellbore along a predetermined trajectory to a target. Vertical

wells are usually defined as wells with an inclination within 5. Wells with
an inclination greater than 60 are referred to as highly deviated wells. Wells
with a section having an inclination greater than 85 for a significant
distance are called horizontal wells. The following terminology is used:

Azimuth: The angle () between the north direction and the plane
containing the vertical line through the wellhead and the vertical line

through the target.

Build-up rate: The angle from the kick-off point is steadily built up.
This is the build-up phase. The build-up rate (/30 m) is the rate at
which the angle is built. The build up rate and drop off rate (in degrees
of inclination) are the rates at which the well deviates from the vertical
(usually measured in degrees per 100 ft drilled). The build-up rate is
chosen on the basis of drilling experience in the location and the tools

available, but rates between 1 degree and 3 degree per 100ft.

Tangent (or Drift) Angle
15. The tangent angle (or drift angle) is the inclination (in degrees
from the vertical) of the long straight section of the well after the build
up section of the well. This section of the well is termed the tangent
section because it forms a tangent to the arc formed by the build up
section of the well. The tangent angle will generally be between 10 and
60 degrees since it is difficult to control the trajectory of the well at
angles below 10 degrees and it is difficult to run wireline tools into
wells at angles of greater than 60 degrees.

16.
17.

Figure 1. Measurement parameters of a directional well (modified from

Gabolde and Nguyen, 1991)

Drop-off point: The depth where the hole angle begins to drop off (i.e.

tending to vertical).
Displacement: The horizontal distance between the vertical lines

passing through the target and the wellhead.

Inclination: Angle () made by the tangential section of the hole with

the vertical.
Kick-off point (KOP): The depth at which the well is first deviated from
the vertical. The kick off point is the along hole measured depth at
which a change in inclination of the well is initiated and the well is
orientation in a particular direction (in terms of North, South , East and
West). In general the most distant targets have the shallowest KOPs in
order to reduce the inclination of the tangent section of the well (see
below). It is generally easier to kick off a well the shallow formations
than in deep formations. The kick-off should also be initiated in
formations which are stable and not likely to cause drilling problems,

I.3

such as unconsolidated clays.

Measured depth (MD): Depth (length) of the well along the well path.
18.

Applications of Directional Drilling

1. Sidetracking
19. This technique may be employed either to drill around obstructions or to
reposition the bottom of the wellbore for geological reasons. Drilling
around obstructions, such as a lost string of pipe, is usually
accomplished with a blind sidetrack. Oriented sidetrack is required if a
certain direction is critical in locating an anticipated producing
formation. It is in fact quite difficult to control the angle of inclination of
any well (vertical or deviated) and it may be necessary to correct the
course of the well for many reasons. For example, it may be necessary
in the event of the drillpipe becoming stuck in the hole to simply drill
around the stuckpipe (or fish), or plug back the well to drill to an
alternative target.

20.

21.
22.

a). Sidetracking

(b). Salt Dome Drilling

Figure 2. Application of Directional Drilling

23.
2. Inaccessible Locations
24. A well is directionally drilled to reach a producing zone that is otherwise
inaccessible with normal vertical-drilling practices. The location of a
producing formation dictates the remote rig location and directional-well
profile. Applications like this are where extended-reach wells are most
commonly drilled. Vertical access to a producing zone is often
obstructed by some obstacle at surface (e.g. river estuary, mountain
range, city). In this case the well may be directionally drilled into the
target from a rig site some distance away from the point vertically above
the required point of entry into the reservoir
3. Salt Dome Drilling
25. Salt domes (called Diapirs) often form hydrocarbon traps in what were
overlying reservoir rocks. In this form of trap the reservoir is located
directly beneath the flank of the salt dome. To avoid potential drilling
problems in the salt (e.g. severe washouts, moving salt, high pressure
blocks of dolomite) a directional well can be used to drill alongside the

Diapir (not vertically down through it) and then at an angle below the
salt to reach the reservoir.
4. Fault Controlling
26. If a well is drilled across a fault the casing can be damaged by fault
slippage. The potential for damaging the casing can be minimised by
drilling parallel to a fault and then changing the direction of the well to
cross the fault into the target.
27.
5. Relief Well
28. An uncontrolled (wild) well is intersected near its source. Mud and
water are then pumped into the relief well to kill the wild one.
Directional control is extremely exacting for this type of application. If a
blow-out occurs and the rig is damaged, or destroyed, it may be possible
to kill the wild well by drilling another directionally drilled well
(relief well) to intercept or pass to within a few feet of the bottom of the
wild well. The wild well is killed by circulating high density fluid
down the relief well, into and up the wild well.
6. Platform
29. Multi-well Platform drilling is widely employed in the North Sea. The
development of these fields is only economically feasible if it is possible
to drill a large number of wells (up to 40 or 60) from one location
(platform). The deviated wells are designed to intercept a reservoir over
a wide aereal extent. Many oilfields (both onshore and offshore) would
not be economically feasible if not for this technique
7. Multilaterals
30. Directional drilling can also be used to drill multilateral wells.
Multilaterals are additional wells drilled from a parent wellbore.
Multilaterals can be as simple as an open hole sidetrack or it can be
more complicated with a junction that is cased and has pressure isolation
and reentry capabilities. Multilaterals are used where production can be
incrementally increased with less capital costs. Multilaterals can be used
offshore where the number of slots are limited. It is also used to place
additional horizontal wells in a reservoir. A very cost-effective way of
delivering high production rates involves intersecting multiple targets
with a single wellbore. There are certain cases in which the attitudes

(bed dips) of the producing formations are such that the most
economical approach is a directional well for a multiple completion.
This is also applicable to multiple production zones adjacent to a fault
plane or beneath a salt dome.
31.
32.
8. Extended Reach drilling
33. Another application of directional drilling is what is commonly termed
extended reach drilling. As illustrated in Figure below, extended reach
drilling is where wells have high inclinations and large horizontal
displacements for the true vertical depth drilled. Extended reach drilling
is used to develop reservoirs with fewer platforms or smaller sections of
a reservoir where an additional platform cannot be economically
justified. Extended reach drilling will become more popular as the cost
of platforms in deeper water and severe environments becomes more
expensive.

34.
35.

36.

Figure 3.. Extended Reach Drilling

Advances in technology have allowed operators to drill extended

reach wells with very high HD/TVD ratios (the ratio of the horizontal
displacement to true vertical depth). Wells have been drilled with
HD/TVD ratios in excess of 6/1. In these wells the horizontal departure
was more than six times the true vertical depth with the total measured
depth exceeding 32,800 feet (10,000 m).

37.
I.4

Well Types
1. Vertical
38. This type of wells are only made up of a vertical section.

39.
40. Figure 4. Vertical Type Well

2. Slant (J)
41. Type Slant wells are made up of a vertical section, a deep kick off and a
build up to target. They are also called Deep Kick off wells or J Profile
wells (as they are J - shaped). They are similar to the Type S well except
the kickoff point is at a deeper depth. The well is deflected at the kickoff
point, and inclination is continually built through the target interval
(Build component). The inclinations are usually high and the horizontal
departure low. This type of well is generally used for multiple sand
zones, fault drilling, salt dome drilling, and stratigraphic tests. It is not
used very often.

42.

10

43. Figure 5. "J" Type Well

3. S
44. Type S wells are made up of a vertical section, a kick- off point, a buildup section, a tangent section, a drop-off section and a hold section up to
target. They are also called S Profile Wells (as they are S - shaped). Like
Type J Wells, the Type S wells are drilled vertically from the surface
to the kick-off point at a relatively shallow depth. From the kick off
point, the well is steadily and smoothly deflected until a maximum angle
and the desired direction are achieved (Build component). The angle and
direction are maintained until a specified depth and horizontal departure
has been reached (Tangent Component). Then, the angle is steadily and
smoothly dropped (DROP) until the well is near vertical. Finally the
angle and direction is maintained till we reach the target depth.

45.
46. Figure 6. S Type Well

47. A disadvantage of the Type S is that it will generate more torque and
drag for the same horizontal departure. Usually this method is employed
to hit multiple targets or to avoid faulted region or to minimize the
inclination in the zone which will be fractured during completion or for
sidetracking.
48.
4. Horizontal
49. Horizontal wells are wells where the reservoir section is drilled at a high
angle, typically with a trajectory to keep the well within a specific
reservoir interval or hydrocarbon zone. In a strict sense, these wells are

11

rarely perfectly horizontal, but they tend to be near horizontal mostly,

generally at an angle greater than 80 from vertical.

50.
51.

Figure 7. Horizontal Wells

52. Horizontal wells are drilled in a specific configuration. The tangent

section of the well is drilled along a deviated well path to just above the
reservoir section, to what is known as the kick off point. From the kick
off point, the well is drilled at an increasingly higher angle, arcing
around toward an angle close to horizontal. The point at which the well
enters (or lands on) the reservoir is called the entry point. From there on,
the well continues at a near-horizontal orientation with the intention of
keeping it substantially within the reservoir target until the desired
length of horizontal penetration is reached
I.5

53.
Devices
54.

The techniques began with the use of devices such as:

1. Whipstock
55. The whipstock is a steel wedge, which is run in the hole and set at
the KOP. This equipment is generally used in cased hole when
performing a sidetracking operation for recompletion of an existing
well. The purpose of the wedge is to apply a sideforce and deflect the
bit in the required direction. The whipstock is run in hole to the point
at which the sidetrack is to be initiated and then a series of mills (used
to cut through the casing) are used to make a hole in the casing and

12

initiate the sidetrack. When the hole in the casing has been created a
drilling string is run in hole and the deviated portion of the well is
commenced.
2. Jetting
56. Jetting bits can be used to change the trajectory of a borehole, with
the hydraulic energy of the drilling fluid used to erode a pocket out of
the bottom of the borehole. The tricone bit with one large nozzle is
oriented to the desired hole direction to create a pocket. The drilling
assembly is forced into the jetted pocket for a short distance. This
procedure continues until the desired trajectory change is achieved.
Jetting is seldom used today because of its slow penetration rate and its
limitations in soft formations.
3. Motor and bent sub
57. The most commonly used technique for changing the trajectory of
the wellbore uses a piece of equipment known as a bent sub. and a
Positive Displacement (mud) motor. A bent sub is a short length of
pipe with a diameter which is approximately the same as the
drillcollars and with threaded connections on either end. It is
manufactured in such a way that the axis of the lower connection is
slightly offset (less than 3 degrees) from the axis of the upper
connection. When made up into the BHA it introduces a tilt angle to
the elements of the BHA below it and therefore to the axis of the
drillbit. However, the introduction of a bent sub into the BHA means
that the centre of the bit is also offset from the centre line of the
drillstring above the bent sub and it is not possible therefore to rotate
the drillbit by rotating the drillstring from surface. Even if this were
possible, the effect of the tilt angle would of course be eliminated since
there would be no preferential direction for the bit to drill in.
4. BHA to control inclination in tangent section
58. Adjustable-gauge stabilizers (AGS) are used to control inclination
in tangent section. Running AGSs with the steerable motor assemblies
makes it possible to control inclination with the stabilizer while
drilling in the rotary mode. If the wellbore requires a change in
azimuth, one would have to revert to a sliding mode.

13

59.
5. Wireline steering tool to orient and survey
60. Although technically wireline steering tools are also MWD
systems, the term MWD is commonly used in the industry to mean
systems

with

non-wireline

data

transmission

systems.

The

disadvantage of the mud pulse MWD systems is their relatively slow

data rate and hence update of the downhole measurements. In a
number of applications, e.g. with deep kick-offs or high torque motors,
the MWD data rate is insufficient for obtaining a consistent
orientation, and a wireline system has to be used.
61. Wireline steering tools can only be used when the drillstring is not
being rotated. Wireline steering tools are applied when:
kicking-off;
side-tracking;
making correction runs.
62. Wireline steering tools save substantial rig time and are cost
effective in comparison with single-shot surveys, despite higher direct
survey cost.
6. Rotary steerable systems (RSS)
63. The RSS is an evolution in directional-drilling technology that
overcomes the drawbacks in steerable motors and in conventional
rotary assemblies. To initiate a change in the wellbore trajectory with
steerable motors, the drilling rotation is halted in such a position that
the bend in the motor points in the direction of the new trajectory. In
extreme extended reach drilling (ERD), the frictional force builds to
the point at which no axial weight is available to overcome the drag of
the drillstring against the wellbore, and, thus, further drilling is not
possible.
64.
I.5.1

Current Directional Drilling Technology Limits

1. L Longest horizontal section (>86) in excess of 26,700 feet (8150
mtr)
2. Motor run in excess of 610 hours
3. Longest Extended Reach well 29,796 feet (9082m) measured depth.
Lateral reach 24,911 feet (7593m). (SPE 98945-MS)
4. Shortest measured length from vertical to horizontal 35 feet TVD.
(SPE 35244-PA)

14

I.6

Wellbore Survey
65. Surveys are required to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

I.7

Satisfy regulatory agencies

Stay within lease boundaries or limits
Construct accurate subsurface maps
Determine location and control wellbore path
Reach a target by steering
66.
Advancements
67. Current technologies are:

1. Steerable mud motors

68.

This steerable can drill directionally or straight ahead, as required.

This enables the driller to control the wells trajectory without making
time consuming trips to change bottomhole assemblies. To steer the hole
during kickoffs or course corrections the system is oriented using MWD
readings so the bit will drill in the direction of the navigation subs offset
angle. When drilling in this way the system is said to be drilling in the
oriented or sliding (since the drillstring is not rotating) mode. The bit is
driven by the downhole motor, and the rotary table is locked in place, as it
is when conventional motor drilling. As mentioned previously, the
systems two stabilizers and bit serve as the tangency points that define the
curve to be drilled by the oriented assembly. The dogleg rate produced can
be controlled by varying the placement and size of the stabilizers, by using
a DTU with a different offset angle, or by alternating drilling with oriented
and rotary intervals.
2. MWD
69.

MWD or Measurement tools provide real-time or immediate

recording and transmission to the surface of downhole data related to bit

operating conditions and directional information. Advantage of MWD
tools over other methods of acquiring similar data is time, more frequent
measurement, and reduction in risk of pipe sticking while the drillstring is
motionless

15

70.

A variety of MWD services are available - the most common is the

steering tool application, which provides a continuous or near continuous

reading of drift angle, azimuth and tool face for directional drilling.
3. LWD
71.

LWD (Logging-While-Drilling) is similar to MWD in that it is

designed to provide a real-time or immediate recording and sometimes

transmission to the surface of downhole formation evaluation data
72.

A variety of LWD services are available - the most common is the

resistivity application, which provides qualitative formation evaluation

information about the formation penetrated. Sonic, gamma ray, neutron
density, caliper, annular pressure and other parameters may be measured
4. Rotary steerable systems
73.

A Rotary Steerable System (RSS) is a combination of motor and

stabilizer arrangement that allows surface rotation of the drill pipe while
keeping the bit orientation fixed. May use specialized stabilizer (push to
steer). May use specialized bit directing technology (point to steer)
74. These tools, in combination, can be used to direct or redirect well
profiles without changing the BHA and have enabled the drilling of
extended reach, horizontal and multilateral wells.
75.
I.8

Directional drilling limitations

1. Torque and Drag
76. Drag is the force difference between free rotating weight and the force
required to move the pipe up or down in the hole. Pick-up drag force is
usually higher than free rotating weight. While slack-off drag force is
usually lower than free rotating weight. Drag force is used to overcome
the axial friction in the well. Torque or moment is generally a force
multiplied with a lever arm. Torque is the moment required to rotate the
pipe. The moment is used to overcome the rotational friction in the well
and on the bit. Torque is lost from the rotating string so that less torque
is available at the bit for destroying rock. High drag forces and high
torque normally occur together. In a perfect vertical well the torque loss
would be zero, except for a small loss due to viscous force from the

16

mud. In a deviated well the torque loss could be great, especially in long
complex or extended reach well, where torque loss is a major limiting
factor to how long we can drill, as it eventually will overcome the rig or
drill strings limitation
2. Hole cleaning
77. Hole cleaning during drilling of directional wells is a major concern,
that should be monitored and controlled. Cuttings accumulations may
cause costly problems such as stuck pipe and excessive torque and drag.
Cuttings transport in a wellbore depends largely on the inclination,
annular flow velocity, viscosity and rotation of the pipe. Generally high
rotational speed at above 120 RPM increases hole cleaning, small
annuluses have the best effect of rotation. Annular flow velocity and
thus flow regime depends on hole size, drill string size and pump rates.
Generally hole cleaning increases with annular velocity, up to a certain
maximum where the benefit diminishes. Viscosity of the mud is
important as a too high viscosity would lead to poor hole cleaning in a
horizontal section since the low velocity area would be larger, and pump
pressure and ECD would also increase. A too low viscosity would
decrease the distance the fluid can carry a particle and reduce the
viscous coupling that agitates the cuttings and thereby decreasing the
hole cleaning. An increase in rate of penetration ROP increases the hole
cleaning requirement. The way cuttings behave in different inclination
ranges are as follows (Nazari and Hareland 2010).
3. Depth with heat for motors and MWD/LWD equipment
4. Not enough near bit technology available
78. The limitations of directional drilling are primarily dependent upon
maximum hole angle, rate of angle change, and torque or friction
considerations. In directional drilling, it is now common for the
horizontal displacement of the bottom hole location to be twice the total
vertical depth (TVD) of the well. However, in a shallower well, such as
one in which a potential target is two miles away from the drill site but
only one mile deep, directional drilling would be much more difficult,
risky, and costly (Schmidt 1994)
5. Air drilling with motors and MWD/LWD
6. Steering in less than 5ft TVD thick producing zones

17

I.9

Surveying (including MWD)

79. The standard surveying technique of today is to use downhole
measurement while drilling MWD directional sensor tools, which
measure the direction of the earth gravity by using 3 orthogonally
mounted sensitive accelerometers. Hole inclination is found by doing
simple trigonometry to measured values. The azimuth direction is
measured likewise with 3 orthogonally mounted magnetometers, which
measures earths magnetic field. The measured magnetic direction must
be corrected for the magnetic fields declination angle and grid
convergence in order to achieve the true north direction.
80. The MWD tool transmitted the survey reading to surface through the
mud stream in the drill pipe. The drilling process was stopped for few
minutes and survey readings were obtained in pump off condition. This
saved times to greater extent compared to wireline logging. MWD was
considered a better option for survey data transmission compared to
wireline procedure.
81. Initially the system delivered three basic information: Inclination,
Azimuth and Toolface. These three parameters helped the directional
driller to position the well correctly to the desired target. MWD tools
can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit. This
may include:
-

Rotational speed of the drillstring

Smoothness of that rotation

Type and severity of any vibration downhole

Downhole temperature

Torque and Weight on Bit, measured near the drill bit

Mud flow volume

82.

I.10 Buoyancy and Drillstring Weight Calculations

83. The weight of a drill string in a well filled with mud is the weight in air
minus the weight of mud that the steel in the string displaces, this is also

18

known as the Archimedes principle. For convenience we can define a

buoyancy factor as:

84.
85. Buoyancy factor multiplied with weight in air gives the weight of a pipe
immersed I mud. If there is a density difference between the fluid in the
inside and the outside of the pipe, like during tripping in, during
displacing to a different mud weight and cementing. Then the buoyancy
factor becomes:

86.
87. Subscript o means outside the pipe and subscript i means inside the pipe.
If the fluid density inside and outside the pipe is equal the buoyancy
factor equation becomes like first equation. A heavy mud will decrease
the effective weight of the drill string, and thus decrease side force and
the loads from friction and torque. However a heavy mud has more
weighing particles which could lead to less lubricity and therefore
higher friction.
88.
I.11 BHA Design Considerations
89. The bottom hole assembly refers to the drillcollars, HWDP, stabilisers
and other accessorie used in the drillstring. All wells whether vertical or
deviated require careful design of th bottom hole assembly (BHA) to
control the direction of the well in order to achieve th target objectives.
Stabilisers and drillcollars are the main components used to control hol
inclination.
90. There are three ways in which the BHA may be used for directional
control:
I.11.1 Pendulum Principle
91.

The pendulum technique is used to drop angle especially on

high angle wells where it is usually very easy to drop angle. The pendulum

19

technique relies on the principle that the force of gravity can be used to
deflect the hole back to vertical. The force of gravity is related to the
length of drillcollars between the drill bit and the first point of tangency
between the drillcollars and hole. This length is called the active length of
drillcollars and can be resolved into two forces: one perpendicular to the
axis of the wellbore and is called the side force and one acts along the
hole.
92.

Increasing the active length of drillcollars causes the side

force to increase more rapidly then the along hole component. The side
force is the force that brings about the deflection of the hole back to the
vertical. Some pendulum assemblies may also use an under gauge near-bit
stabilizer to moderate the drop rate.
93.

High WOBs used with a pendulum assembly may bend the

BHA and cause the hole angle to build instead of drop. Also pendulum
assemblies have a tendency to walk to the right depending on the type of
bit used and since they are flexible they will follow the natural walk of the
drill bit.
94.
I.11.2 Fulcrum Principle
95.

This is used to build angle (or increase hole inclination) by

utilising a near bit stabiliser to act as a pivot or a fulcrum of a lever. The

lever is the length of the drillcollars from their point of contact with the
low side of the hole and top of the stabiliser. The drillbit is pressed to the
high side of the hole causing angle to be built as drilling ahead progresses.
Since the drillcollars bend more as more WOB is applied, the rate of angle
build will also increase with WOB.
96.

The build rate also increases with:

Distance from near bit stabiliser to first stabiliser in the BHA

Reduction in RPM

Increase in hole angle

Reduction in drillcollar diameter

97.

20

I.11.3 Packed Hole Stabilisation Principle

98.

This is used to hold or maintain hole inclination and

direction and are typically used to drill the tangent section of a well. The
packed BHA relies on the principle that two points will contact and follow
a sharp curve, while three points will follow a straight line. Packed BHA
have several full gauge stabilizers in the lowest portion of the BHA,
typically three or four stabilisers. This makes the BHA stiff and hence it
tends to maintain hole angle and direction.
99.
100.

By using those principles of BHA control discussed above, there

are five basic types of BHAs which may be used to control the direction
of the well.
1. Pendulum Assembly
101.
The pendulum assembly makes use of the gravitational effects
acting on the bit and lower portion of the BHA to maintain vertical hole or
drop angle back to the vertical. In this assembly, the first string stabiliser is
placed approximately 30, 40 or 60 feet above the bit. The assembly is
commonly used as an angle reducing assembly on deviated wells but is
difficult to control.
2. Packed Bottom Hole Assembly
102.
A packed assembly typically uses a near-bit stabiliser and string
stabilisers a further 30 and 60 feet from the bit. A tightly packed assembly
incorporates a further string stabiliser normally located 15 feet from the bit.
This type of assembly is often run where formation dip cause angle building
tendency and is also used to maintain vertical hole when higher weights
(WOB) are used. This BHA is typically used in 12" and 8" hole sections
on vertical well and in tangent sections of deviated wells to maintain the hole
inclination.
3. Rotary build assembly
103.
A rotary build assembly is based on the fulcrum principle and is
used to build hole angle after initial steering runs on deviated wells. Rotary
build assemblies are usually used after the initial kick-off to eliminate the need
for further use of a mud motor.

21

104.

The BHA consists of: near bit stabiliser, two drillcollars, a first

string stabiliser located a further 60 feet from the bit, DC and a further string
stabiliser 30 feet above. During drilling operations, application of WOB
causes the two drillcollars above the near bit stabiliser to be bent and
consequently cause the drillbit to loaded on the high side of the hole thereby
causing increases in hole angle as the hole is drilled.
4. Steerable assembly
105.
Steerable assemblies include the use of the following:
106.
Bent motor housing tool and MWD tool
107.
Double tilted U-joint housing (DTU) and MWD tool
108.
The above BHAs are run stabilised and can be used to drill the
build and tangent sections of a hole. When used in steering mode, a steerable
system can be used to correct both hole angle and direction. In rotary mode, a
steerable system is used to maintain hole direction.
5. Mud motor and bent sub assembly
109.
This assembly is typically run for performing the initial kick-off
and build up sections of deviated wells. It is then pulled prior to running a
packed BHA for drilling the tangent sections. This BHA may also be used for
correction runs
110.

111.

22

Chapter III Discussions

112.
1. Effect of moment of inertia on directional drilling
113.
The moment of inertia of a system about some rotational point is
the measure of an object's resistance to a change in the object's angular
acceleration due to the action of a torque. The moment of inertia depends upon
how an object's mass is distributed relative to it pivot point. Torque is the
moment required to rotate the pipe. The moment inertia is used to overcome
the rotational friction in the well and on the bit. Torque is lost from the
rotating string so that less torque is available at the bit for destroying rock. In a
perfect vertical well the torque loss would be zero, except for a small loss due
to viscous force from the mud.
114.
2. Fulcrum effect
115.
When a stabilizer is run below the point of tangency, it has a
fulcrum effect, which causes the hole to pick up angle. The angle formed by
this point of contact and the clearance between the drill collars and wellbore
approximate the change in deflection that would accompany the next
increment of drilled hole.

116.
117. Figure 8. Fulcrum Principle

118.
119.
120.
3. Non-magnetic drillcollar

23

121.

The readings from a magnetic compass will be incorrect if the

compass is close to a magnetised piece of steel. Since both the drillstring and
casing will be magnetised, as they are run through the earths magnetic field,
the magnetic surveying tools cannot be used unless some measure is taken to
ensure that the well direction according to the earths magnetic field is
accurately recorded on the compass. In the case of the drillstring this is done
by using non-magnetic drillcollars in the BHA. These collars are made from
Monel and the Earths magnetic field is undisturbed by their presence
122.
Magnetic surveys suffer from the following sources of error:
123.

Drillstring

magnetisation
124.
Magnetic

effects

126.

effects
127.

Magnetic

storm
Wireline

from casing strings or BHA

125.

Geological

magnetization
128.

structures containing magnetic

declination
129.
Tool misalignment
130.
Depth measurement

materials
131.

Magnetic

Drill string magnetisation causes the largest errors in magnetic

surveys. These errors can be reduced by housing the survey instrument in nonmagnetic drillcollars (e.g. K-Monel).
132.
4. Whipstiock
133.
The whipstock is widely used as a deflecting medium for drilling
multilateral wells. It consists of a long inverted steel wedge (shute) which is
concave on one side to hold and guide a deflecting drilling or milling
assembly. It is also provided with a chisel point at the bottom to prevent the
tool from turning, and a heavy collar at the top to withdraw the tool from the
hole. There are two main types of Whipstocks:
The standard removable Whipstock which is used to kick off
wells and for sidetracking. The Whipstock is used with a
drilling assembly consisting of a bit, a spiral stabilizer, and an
orientation sub, rigidly attached to the Whipstock by means of
a shear pin. To deflect the well, the whipstock and kick off
assembly is run in hole and oriented in the required direction.

24

Weight is then applied to shear the pin and allow the drilling bit

to slide down the shute and drill in the set direction.

The Permanent Casing Whipstock is designed to remain permanently
in the well.
Thru tubing whipstock

134.
5. Directional Survey
135.
The method used to obtain the measurements needed to calculate
and plot the 3D well path is called directional survey. Three parmeters are
measured at multiple locations along the well pathMD, inclination, and hole
direction. MD is the actual depth of the hole drilled to any point along the
wellbore or to total depth, as measured from the surface location. Inclination is
the angle, measured in degrees, by which the wellbore or survey-instrument
axis varies from a true vertical line. An inclination of 0 would be true
vertical, and an inclination of 90 would be horizontal. Hole direction is the
angle, measured in degrees, of the horizontal component of the borehole or
survey-instrument axis from a known north reference. This reference is true
north, magnetic north, or grid north, and is measured clockwise by
convention. Hole direction is measured in degrees and is expressed in either
azimuth (0 to 360) or quadrant (NE, SE, SW, NW) form.
136.
Each recording of MD, inclination, and hole direction is taken at a
survey station, and many survey stations are obtained along the well path. The
measurements are used together to calculate the 3D coordinates, which can
then be presented as a table of numbers called a survey report. Surveying can
be performed while drilling occurs or after it has been completed.
137.
The purposes of directional survey are to:
Determine the exact bottomhole location to monitor reservoir

performance.
Monitor the actual well path to ensure the target will be reached.
Orient deflection tools for navigating well paths.
Ensure that the well does not intersect nearby wells.
Calculate the TVD of the various formations to allow geological

mapping.
Evaluate the DLS, which is the total angular inclination and azimuth in

the wellbore, calculated over a standard length (100 ft or 30 m).

138.
6. Geosteering

25

139.

The term Geosteering is often used when the steerable system is

used to drill a directional well. Geosteering in general is drilling a horizontal

wellbore that ideally is located within or near preferred rock layers. As
interpretive analysis performed while drilling or after drilling, geosteering
determines and communicates a wellbore's stratigraphic depth location in part
by estimating local geometric bedding structure. Early geosteering was
performed mostly with interpretation from cuttings samples, paper well logs
and maps, and rough sketches. Modern geosteering normally incorporates
multiple dimensions of information, including insight from quantitative
correlation methods. Ultimately, today's geosteering methods provide explicit
approximation to the location of nearby geologic beds in relation to a wellbore
or coordinate system, and as such, help to explain rock/wellbore completion
and subsequent oil/gas/water/frac fluid-flow observations from or into rock.
140.

26

141.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.

REFERENCES

142.
Bourgoyne, Adam T. et.al., 1986, Applied Drilling Engineering, Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Richardson TX, United State of America.
Heriot-Watt University, Drilling Engineering Handbook.
Rabia, Hussain, Well Engineering & Construction.