Studies On Growth and Development in Japan.

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 27:179-214 (1984)
Studies on Growth and Development in Japan

KUNIHIKO KIMURA
Department ofAnatomy, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa,
Saitama 359, Japan
KEY WORDS
Japanese, Growth, Development, Maturation, Twins, Physical fitness, Secular trends
ABSTRACT
Studies of growth and development in Japan since 1900 and
especially after World War I1 are summarized in several topical areas: physical growth, development of physical fitness, longitudinal and allometric studies, dental development, skeletal maturation, studies of twins, growth of
various groups of Japanese, i.e., Ainu children, children of Okinawa, Japanese Americans and Japanese-American hybrids, and the secular trend. In
general, Japanese growth and development are somewhat delayed compared
to Americans and Europeans until childhood, but then develop more rapidly,
reaching maturity at almost the same time. The secular trends for acceleration in growth and an increase in stature are observed in Japanese during
these eight decades. More recently, the secular trends seem to be arriving a t
its final stage.
Scientific studies on growth and development in Japan began with investigations
of physical measurements of schoolchildren by Hashiba (1888,1889) and Izumizawa
(1889). They measured stature, span of arms, and several head and face dimensions
of 31-52 boys 6-13 years of age. Results of the physical examination of army
conscripts (20-year-old males) were also published every year from 1892 to 1931.
Since 1900, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture has annually reported
on the physique (stature, body weight, and chest girth or sitting height) of schoolchildren and teachers (The Statistical Report of School Health). These studies expanded rapidly from 1910 to the 1940s to include almost all aspects of growth and
development. In 1902, Mishima published a small book on the growth of Japanese,
followed by Shindo (1926). Yoshida (1926) discussed Japanese physique based on the
stature, body weight, and chest girth of conscripts, while Akita (1930) and Akita and
Suzuki (1933, 1934) considered the growth and bodily proportions of schoolchildren
in detail. Yagi (1936) reviewed many papers by Japanese researchers and others,
including the variability of physical dimensions and external factors affecting them
during growth and development. Growth studies were more or less temporarily
suspended during World War 11.
After the war, studies on growth and development began again. Since 1945 and
1949, the Ministries of Health and Welfare, and of Education, Science, and Culture
have prepared reports entitled The Present Condition of National Nourishment and
The Report of Investigation of the Physical Strength and Motor Performance, respectively, every 5 years. Both publications present data on the physique and the
physical fitness of the Japanese across a broad age range. Several books on human
growth and development were also published by various authors: for example,
Nakagawa and Natori (19581, Kimura and Yamaguchi (19601, Baba (1966, 19671,
Kimura (1966, 19791, Yamagishi (19771, and Matsuura (1982). At the 15th General
Assembly of the Japan Medical Congress, Funakawa (1959) reported the physical
growth of Japanese children, while Kawahata (1974) reviewed the studies of growth
and development in physical education. More recently, Kimura (1975a, 1983a) re0 1984 Alan R. Liss, Inc.
180
YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
[Vol. 27, 1984
ported on growth studies of Japanese in the Japanese International Biological

Program Synthesis and in the Recent Progress of Natural Sciences in Japan, while
Ikai (1962) and Sawada (1964a,b, 1977) reviewed the studies on physical fitness of
Japanese.
Up to the present, human growth and development have been studied by Japanese
researchers in various fields, including anatomy, anthropology, hygiene and public
health, home economics, pediatrics, physical education, physiology, and psychology,
and has involved a wide variety of problems and approaches. The present review
introduces several topical areas of these studies of growth and development in
Japan.
PHYSICAL GROWTH
Physical growth has been studied by many researchers in order to develop norms
for various dimensions and characteristics in Japanese. Growth of children is an
extremely sensitive indicator of the general state of health. Systematic physical
measurements are a n important diagnostic tool in pediatrics and physical education,
as well as in morphology and anthropology. In the appraisal of physical condition by
this technique there are two major considerations: evaluation of status and progress.
Table 1gives means and standard deviations for stature, body weight, sitting height,
and chest girth in Japanese males and females in 1981 as reported by the Ministry
of Health and Welfare (1983). Although the data are cross-sectional, it is estimated
that the peak velocity in these physical measurements occurs between 11 and 12
years of age in females and 12 and 13 years in males, and that the measurements
reach a plateau a t or about 16 years in females and 17 years in males. Young adult
stature is about 170 cm in males and 157 cm in females, corresponding to the lower
range for Europeans and the higher range for Asians.
Growth of the Head and Face

Onishi (1919-19211, Suda (1941), Nagao (1951), Kakimoto (1953b), Kaneko (19561,
Maeno and Yasunaga (1961), Terada (1969), and others have discussed growth of
head dimensions. Facial dimensions were studied by Takaoka et al. (19431, Hori
(1952), and Maeno and Yasunaga (1961), and age changes of facial form based on
measurements (Ono, 1960; Fukawa, 1961)and on anthroposcopic observations (Hashimoto, 1957)were also described. Sat0 (1957) considered head dimensions of a longitudinal series of infants over 1 year, while Terada and Hoshi (1965a-c) followed a
longitudinal series for 3 years after birth. Growth in various head dimensions for
different intervals between 6 and 14 years was reported by Kida et al. (19651,
Tsubaki and Shimaguchi (1966), and Konoto et al. (1978). In general, head breadth
increases more rapidly than head length up to 12 months and then grows more
slowly. Thereafter, head length grows more rapidly, followed by head height, then
breadth. Growth patterns of these head dimensions show the neural type until about
10 years of age and then follow the general type (Kimura, 1966).Growth patterns in
head breadth and circumference appear different from those for head length (Kida
et al., 1965). Age curves of the cephalic index show a n inital increase and then a
subsequent decrease, with maximum values around 6 months in boys and 7 months
in girls (Nagao, 1951; Sato, 1957; Terada and Hoshi, 1965a-c). In Formosan infants,
Tsai (1968)reported the same trend a t about 5 months in boys and 6 months in girls.
The corresponding point appears a t 8 or 9 months of age in Europeans (Ewing, 1950;
Barber and Hewitt, 1956). Head length continues to increase until 40 years of age
in males and 25 years in females, while head breadth increases until 24 years and
19 years in males and females, respectively (Kakimoto, 1953b). The head-stature
index decreases from 5.4 in boys and 5.3 in girls a t 4 years of age to 7.1 and 6.9 in
each sex respectively at 20 years (Murakami and Otsuka, 1957).
With a head spanner developed after Todd (1924),the distance of each craniometric
point from porion on the head profile was measured by several researchers (Asao,
1953; Inaba, 1956; Nakamura, 1959).Head dimensions were also studied roentgenocephalometrically primarily by odontologists using the technique of Broadbent (1931).
Kimura]
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN
181
These include cross-sectional (Iizuka, 1958; Sakamoto, 1959; Ono, 1960; Komuro,
1960a-d; Yagi, 1961; Muraoka, 1961; Kuwabara, 1961; Sakamoto et al., 1963; Mochizuki and Ochiai, 1965; Iwahori, 1977; Sawa, 1978) and longitudinal (Mitani, 1972,
1974, 1977; Asai, 1973; Wada, 1977; Nagasaka et al., 1979; Nagasaka, 1980) analyses. For example, using 51 Japanese and 48 American children 7-15 years of age
with normal occlusion, Masaki (1980) suggested that retrusive occlusion based on
maxillary growth retardation tends to have a higher frequency in Japanese, while
maxillary protrusion tends to appear more frequently in Americans. Miyake and
Komiya (1976) presented norms of the crania1 index (Cronqvist, 1963), summation
index (Austin and Gooding, 1971)and posterior fossa index (Schey, 1973)in Japanese
children from birth to 15 years of age, and noted that these indices have distinctly
different meanings in clinical diagnosis.
Tanaka (1940) and Ishizuka (1959) studied the development of the paranasal
sinuses radiologically. The maxillary and ethmoid sinuses are rapidly formed in size
and fundamental shape between 1 and 6 years; subsequent changes are gradual.
However, these developmental changes in the frontal sinus proceed almost simultaneously after 8 years of age. Formation of the maxillary and ethmoid sinuses occurs
slightly earlier in Japanese than in Europeans. The frontal sinus appears almost at
the same time in Japanese and Europeans, but it occurs considerably less frequently
in Japanese than in Europeans.
According to Osugi (1922), Arima (1928), Kubota (1932), Yamaguchi and Yamada
(19381, Kakusaka et al. (1954), Masukawa (1957), Tsuyuki (1961), and Shimizu and
Akiyoshi (1970b), the external nose almost completes its growth in adolescence, but
growth continues slowly into old age. According to Miyajima (19351, Kaneko et al.
(1954), Yoda (19561, Shimizu and Akiyoshi (1970a), and Konishi (1977), auricular
length reaches a plateau by 16 or 17 years, while auricular breadth reaches a plateau
by about 10 years, although both dimensions continue to increase slightly into old
age. The auricle is more round in children and more slender in adults, and is
generally more round in females than in males.
Age changes in head hair
Based on a small number of specimens, Koyama (1928) noted that the crosssectional dimensions of hair increase gradually from infancy to adolescence, are
generally unchanged between 18 and about 40 years, and then decrease gradually
with age to reach almost the same values a s in childhood. Ikoma et al. (1967) studied
parietal hair in 3,970 males and females between birth and old age (80+ years).
Growth in hair diameter is similar in both sexes, except for minor differences in
females 13-48 years. Furthermore, in females there appears to be two critical points
at about 17 and 48 years of age, which correspond to menarche and menopause. In
both sexes, the hair index in cross section at the shaft is almost constant with age
after infancy.
Growth of the body surface area, volume and specific gravity
On the basis of data in 20 males and ten females at the ages of 5, 10, 15, 20, and
25 years, Koike (1943a-c) noted that the growth rate of body surface of the lower
limb was greatest, followed by the upper limb, the trunk, and then the head and
face. In data for 193 males and 158 females from 3 to 21 years of age, Nakao (1965)
reported that the body surface area is about 2,000 cm2 a t 3 years of age, increases
gradually with age reaching a peak velocity between 16 and 17 years, and then
reaches a plateau of about 1,960 cm2 a t 19 years of age. Growth of body volume and
specific gravity was studied by Numata (19471, Hara (1947,1951), Numata and Hara
(1953), Mizuno and Takahashi (1960), and Nakao (1965). The volume of each part of
the body (head and neck, thorax, abdomen and lower limb) shows significant correlations with body weight (r = .45 to 5 9 , n = 154) (Nakao, 1965). The volume of the
body increases in parallel manner to body weight (Mizuno and Takahashi, (1960).In
general, the specific gravity of the body (gm/cc) is 0.96 to 0.97 until about 12 years
Males
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-
in years
Age
123
137
139
128
148
155
171
166
174
142
153
150
128
137
89
96
87
79
70
49
47
47
62
44
52
267
894
850
8 12
487
366
"
80.89
88.94
96.74
103.35
109.00
115.47
120.45
125.43
131.69
136.34
142.83
149.06
156.76
163.11
166.92
167.70
170.13
169.69
169.97
169.67
169.19
169.81
168.38
169.55
168.63
168.65
166.07
163.27
161.47
159.44
156.42
Stature (cm)
~~
3.86
4.05
4.23
4.22
5.37
5.00
4.28
6.04
5.18
6.18
7.28
7.33
7.54
6.57
6.10
5.03
5.88
5.82
5.80
6.02
6.74
5.67
5.17
4.33
6.00
6.01
5.62
5.77
5.76
6.15
6.47
SD
~~
123
139
139
128
148
155
171
166
174
142
153
151
128
137
89
96
87
79
70
49
47
47
62
44
52
267
894
850
812
487
367
n
~
11.08
12.91
14.77
16.74
18.58
21.01
22.60
26.08
29.21
31.98
36.28
40.63
47.28
52.76
56.46
58.31
61.73
60.70
61.21
64.01
60.66
62.46
59.29
62.20
63.08
63.41
62.34
61.78
59.28
57.51
52.60
Body weight (kg)
1.29
1.60
1.64
1.87
2.53
3.25
2.63
5.32
4.72
5.99
6.95
7.87
8.90
10.25
9.08
8.25
9.41
8.15
7.70
9.24
8.51
6.92
7.12
7.38
7.89
8.97
8.47
8.57
8.69
8.41
8.44
SD
46.18
51.38
55.75
59.09
61.38
64.44
66.67
68.85
71.81
73.90
76.05
78.95
82.55
86.65
88.72
89.87
90.92
90.71
91.04
91.90
91.42
92.00
91.13
91.32
91.62
91.24
90.77
89.03
87.72
86.96
84.05
SD
12.43
8.05
2.48
2.79
2.93
3.31
2.78
3.59
2.67
3.56
7.24
7.55
8.61
4.27
3.26
2.76
3.08
3.51
3.60
3.53
3.96
2.66
3.00
2.47
3.11
6.48
3.11
6.24
6.23
3.65
7.38
Sitting height (cm)
123
139
139
128
148
155
171
166
174
142
153
151
128
137
89
96
87
79
70
49
47
47
62
44
52
267
894
850
812
487
368
123
139
139
128
148
155
171
166
174
142
153
151
128
137
89
96
87
79
70
49
47
47
62
44
52
267
894
850
812
487
368
TABLE 1. Physical measurements of Japanese males and females in 1981 (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 1983)
47.67
51.10
52.54
53.91
55.97
58.12
59.17
62.14
64.37
65.95
69.30
71.56
75.86
79.27
82.35
83.92
86.16
88.06
86.94
89.15
86.48
88.75
86.98
88.61
88.66
89.18
89.67
89.87
88.59
88.09
85.56
Chest girth (cm)
6.49
2.96
2.40
5.53
2.84
3.39
5.77
4.83
4.84
7.52
5.70
5.68
9.66
7.54
6.55
6.04
6.15
5.22
4.96
6.11
5.42
5.11
4.89
5.38
4.76
8.00
5.55
7.23
8.54
5.41
7.29
SD
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-
Females
115
123
112
150
145
133
164
173
177
184
153
135
113
150
80
96
91
94
70
61
85
62
75
85
95
418
1,457
1,312
1,117
706
508
78.96
87.91
95.61
102.12
108.57
114.20
120.46
125.40
132.17
137.60
143.60
149.60
152.98
155.20
156.62
156.23
156.59
156.52
156.98
157.34
156.04
156.49
155.62
156.24
155.36
155.18
153.34
152.01
149.65
147.01
142.28
4.40
4.31
4.43
3.66
4.73
4.76
5.10
6.24
6.06
6.39
6.70
6.42
5.31
5.07
5.19
5.49
4.53
4.66
4.78
4.70
5.64
4.87
5.02
5.04
4.63
5.41
4.97
4.91
5.12
5.39
6.27
115
124
112
150
145
133
164
173
177
184
153
135
113
150
80
96
91
94
70
60
81
54
72
75
84
368
1,433
1,312
1,117
706
511
10.46
12.27
14.39
16.18
18.26
19.72
23.05
25.06
29.04
32.56
36.80
41.92
45.22
48.04
50.34
51.32
52.03
51.33
51.50
51.78
50.12
50.49
50.29
50.72
51.50
50.91
52.34
53.69
52.38
49.98
46.02
1.45
1.55
1.64
1.69
2.32
2.47
3.80
4.38
5.47
5.96
6.73
7.14
7.26
7.10
6.37
5.82
7.51
6.32
8.44
6.42
7.22
6.71
7.49
6.94
7.56
7.23
7.75
7.94
8.30
8.60
8.33
115
124
112
150
145
133
164
173
177
184
153
135
113
150
80
96
91
94
71
61
85
62
75
85
95
418
1.457
1,312
1,118
706
512
45.43
49.52
55.02
58.18
61.05
63.92
66.99
68.63
72.06
74.54
77.55
80.66
82.76
82.22
84.51
84.82
84.93
84.79
82.57
84.48
84.03
84.83
85.02
85.37
85.69
85.45
84.59
83.95
82.55
80.64
76.42
~
~~
10.92
11.40
2.39
2.45
6.01
2.64
2.87
6.20
3.19
3.43
3.89
3.80
3.39
12.14
2.64
3.19
2.79
2.18
14.37
11.23
9.66
3.31
2.75
2.83
2.77
3.00
6.07
4.40
5.28
5.68
8.80
~~
115
124
112
150
145
133
164
173
177
184
153
135
113
150
80
96
91
94
71
60
81
54
72
75
84
368
1.433
1;312
1,118
706
512
46.66
49.32
50.71
52.62
54.91
55.55
58.38
59.05
63.29
65.97
69.60
73.56
75.30
77.65
79.41
80.46
80.82
80.34
78.66
81.30
79.45
81.28
80.76
81.00
81.13
81.64
83.08
85.11
85.43
84.31
82.49
6.66
2.64
5.36
5.02
2.93
2.54
6.28
7.86
5.44
5.67
6.47
6.37
9.68
8.28
5.14
5.01
6.26
5.15
14.75
4.35
10.57
4.42
5.69
5.60
10.91
5.82
6.91
7.53
7.95
7.50
8.69
184
rvoi. 27,1984
of age, and then increases rapidly to reach a plateau of 1.02 to 1.03 a t and after 16
years in females and 17 years in males (Mizuno and Takahashi, 1960; Nakao, 1965).
Growth of the trunk
Transverse and sagittal diameters of the thorax during childhood were measured
by Shima (1931),Yoshino (19421, Atsumi (1952-19541, Nakagawa (19541, Sat0 (19541,
Shiroyama (1956), Yano (1957), and Kimura and Tsai (1968). On the basis of 9,806
males and females between birth and 85 years of age, Atsumi (1952-1954) considered
age changes in thoracic form based on a n index of transverse and sagittal diameters.
On the average, the thoracic index is 97.9 at birth (Kojima, 1965) and 84.0 during
infancy (Atsumi, 1954a-d). The index changes during childhood and indicates a
flatter thorax in males than in females after about 15 years of age. The index
increases after 40 years of age, which may be related to age-associated changes in
the curvature of the vertebral column. In another study of age changes in the shape
of the thorax based on observation and measurement of 3,200 children from birth to
15 years of age, Yano (1957) reported that the thorax is trapezoidal in newborns and
especially broader a t the lower level; bell-shaped and broader at the middle level in
infants; and barrel- or basin-shaped in children, being broader a t the middle and
upper levels.
The ratio of bicristal to biacromial breadths has been used as a n index of androgyny. Tanner (1951) proposed an androgyny scale based on a discriminant function:
3 x biacromial breadth - bicristal diameter. Kimura (1969a) obtained a function of
7 x biacromial breadth - bicristal diameter from Japanese students. Kimura and
Tsai (1968)compared the time a t which sex differences in the androgyny scale occur
among Japanese, Taiwanese, and Poles. A critical point in the ratio of two measurements appears at about 11years in boys and 10 years in girls among Japanese and
Taiwanese, but a t 14 and 12 or 13 years in Polish boys and girls, respectively. Sex
differences in the androgyny scale appear a t 13 years in the Japanese, 14 years in
the Taiwanese, and 15 years in the Poles.
Growth of the hand and foot
There are many studies of growth of the hand (Kakimoto, 1953a; Haramoto, 1961;
Kimura and Noriyasu, 1966)and foot (Tokuda, 1951; Kondo, 1953; Kakimoto, 1953a;
Tamura, 1953; Toki, 1953; Kawamura, 1956; Kondo and Shimamura, 1958; Hashimoto, 1959; Tomita, 1961; Shimizu and Akoyoshi, 1970~).
In a sample of 1,556 males
and 1,626 females from birth to 91 years of age, Kakimoto (1953a) reported that the
length and breadth of the hand and foot reach a plateau at about 17 years in males
and 16 years in females. In both sexes, the foot completes growth in length somewhat
earlier than the hand. There is a variation in growth of the components of hand
length. The palm reaches adult values earlier than the fingers (Kimura and Noriyasu, 1966). Significant differences between the left and right hands occur only in
hand breadth, and this laterality appears before 6 years of age and remains almost
constant from 6 to 12 years.
Growth of the foot ceases first in height, then in breadth, and finally in length.
The last-mentioned occurs at about 16 years in males and 15 years in females. The
longitudinal arch of the foot becomes higher rapidly until 7 years of age, and reaches
adult values at about 13 years of age (Kondo and Shimamura, 1958). Growth of the
foot is more conspicuous in the tarsometatarsal area than in the toes, and more in
the anterior than in the posterior part of the tarsometatarsal area. The relative
breadths of the foot and of heel to foot length do not show any age changes (Koyama
et al., 1982).
Among specific segment lengths of the upper and lower extremities, Kimura (1979)
noted that the foot and forearm grow most rapidly, followed by the lower legs, then
the upper arm and thigh, and finally, the hand which is slower in growth than the
other segments. Kondo (1953) noted that growth of the foot stops earlier than that of
stature, and also that development of the arch is much faster than growth of other
Kimura]
185
parts of the body. He suggested that the relative rapidity of foot growth may be
associated with erect posture in man.
Age changes in posture
Using a conformateur modified after Nedrigailowa (1929) and Cureton (19311,
Kawakami (19561, Shigeta et al. (1960), Kimura and Omori (1974), and Yamaguchi
et al. (1976) described age changes in posture. On the basis of the external curvature
of the vertebral column of 152 boys and 140 girls 7-15 years, Kimura and Omori
(1974) estimated three developmental periods in posture: childhood before 7 years,
preadolescence between 7 and 13 years, and adolescence after 13 years. Adolescent
development of posture seems to begin about 1 year earlier in Japanese than in
Poles, as reported by Wolanski (1964). Yamaguchi et al. (1976) classified posture into
27 types according to the external curvature of the vertebral column in 1,082 males
and females 17-28 years of age. The standard type, which occurs in 35.6% of the
young adult sample, decreases in frequency with age, especially in females. For
example, it occurs in 30.6 and 19.8% of males and females respectively, in their 40s,
and 13.6 and 5.5% of males and females respectively, in their 70s. A kyphosis of the
thoracic part is more conspicuous in females than in males, and this senile change
appears earlier in females than in males (Otsuki, 1953; Takahashi, 1956; Yamaguchi
et al., 1976).
Using a sample of 1,186 males and 1,974 females from 1to 20 years of age, Ishiko
et al. (1960) noted that the height of the center of gravity shows a growth curve
similar to that of stature and leg length, while the height of the center of gravity
relative to stature shows a n opposite age trend to that of relative leg length to
stature, i.e., the former decreases while the later increases with age.
Toyoda (1922) devised a method of selecting chairs and desks for schoolchildren
based on the sitting height, while Kimura (1969~)discussed the design of school
chairs and desks from the perspective of age changes in sitting posture. Kimura
concluded that the height of the eyes and knees in the sitting posture, based on
allometric equations with stature, would be more useful in choosing the Japanese
Industrial Standard to fit each individual.
Age changes in skin color
Age changes in skin color were first studied by Takemura (1930) in schoolgirls
using the von Luschan color table. Studies of age changes in the skin color of
Japanese from birth to 88 years of age were directed by many researchers from 1950
to 1970 using the Mori-Kaneko color fan (K. Suzuki, 1951, 1952; Tamura, 1955;
Matsuyoshi, 1958; Asami, 1961), the standard color plate of the Munsell system
(Hirowatari, 1955; Mori et al., 1956; Amari and Takamizu, 1956; Tokuhashi, 1956a;
Takamizu, 1956; Nishiura, 1965; Kisoyama, 1972), and the Toshiba photoelectric
color-and-gloss-meter (Mori et al., 1954; Amari, 1955; Furusawa, 1955b, Takamizu,
1956; Tokuhashi, 195613; Mori and Tokuhashi, 1956). The first optical study of skin
color was done by Matsumoto in 1943. With the photoelectric color-and-gloss-meter,
reflection of light on the skin is analyzed into three primary colors using filters and
then expressed quantitatively as three elements of color, luminance, and hue. Gloss
is measured from the volume of diffused reflection of light on the skin. Data from
studies of eight body parts in 234 males and 241 females ranging over the entire life
indicate most redness in newborns, which decreases considerably during infancy.
Redness then increases again to a maximum in adolescence, only to decrease during
adulthood and old age, Blueness shows a pattern of age change opposite to that for
redness in most parts of the body, except the dorsum of the hand and the outer
surface of the upper arm. Luminosity is relatively low in newborns, but increases
considerably to a maximum value toward the end of the suckling period. It then
decreases to a minimum value in adolescence, but increases again in adulthood and
old age. Individual differences in gloss are generally marked, showing minimum
values in newborns and increasing toward elementary school age. Examining the
skin color in twins and in Japanese-American hybrids with the photovolt photoelec-
186
[Vol. 27, 1984
tric reflection meter, Omoto (1965, 1968) observed a strong genetic component of
variability in skin lightness.
PHYSICAL FITNESS
The physical fitness of the Japanese was studied as early as 1930. Grip and back
muscle strength were measured in children by Ishikawa (1930), and Shikuma (1933),
vital capacity by Shima (1929) and Yoshida (1937), and motor performance by Shima
(1929), Mikuni (1932), and Noguchi (1936a). The Report ofInvestigation ofthe Physical Fitness and Motor Performance, which has been presented by the Ministry of
Education, Science, and Culture every 5 years since 1949, includes the following
items: dynamometric grip and back muscular strength, 50-m dash, vertical jump,
distance throw, endurance runs of 1,500 or 2,000 m, chinning, side step, chest and
leg raising, toe touching, and step test. Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for
several measurements of physical fitness in Japanese children and youth from 4 to
20 years of age.
Several researchers have tried to more precisely examine age changes in muscular
strength with more refined equipment; for example; Ishiko (1953) on grip strength,
Yasunaga (1961)on finger strength, Niwa (1969)and Mizutani et al. (1973)on elbow
flexion strength, and Tsushima (1961a-c, 1962) on back muscular strength. Examining the fitness of about 3,000 males and females from 4 to 20 years, Fujimoto
(1955) noted that growth curves of grip and back muscle strength, vital capacity and
basal metabolic rate per day are similar to the general curve of Scammon. Emmerts
test and hand tapping show a growth pattern of the neural type, while reaction time
and approximate time of rotation of the eyeball show a curve which is the reverse of
the neural type. The standing broad jump shows a pattern similar to the neural type
in females, while it shows a linear growth curve in males. Age changes in blood
pressure also show a linear curve in both sexes. Developmental characteristics of
each physical fitness test may be defined by specific growth patterns (Kimura, 1966).
Grip and back muscle strength show maximum values in the 20s and 30s for males
and in the early 20s for females. According to Kawahatsu (19741, the maximum
value for maximum force of the leg muscle in males is observed between 20 and 24
years, while the maximum value for velocity and power of the leg muscles appears
a t 15 years of age, and the values subsequently decrease with age.
Maximum aerobic capacity was measured by Takebayashi (19501, Yoshizawa (1971,
19721, and Asahina et al. (1972)in both sexes from 9 to 20 years of age. According to
the last indicated report, maximum oxygen intake increases from 12 to 16 years in
males and from 9 to 13 years in females, and reaches a plateau at 20 and 15 years of
age in males and females, respectively.
Developmental studies of physical fitness have been done in preschool children.
For example, Yamakawa (1957)studied the effect of learning on a tapping test, while
Nakao (19611, Hotta et al. (19611, and Watanabe et al. (1961) studied the influence of
growth in physique and the hip joint upon the development of the motor functions.
Munetake et al. (19771, Matsuura and Nakamura (19771, and Nakamura and Matsuura (1979) examined fundamental motor abilities, while Matsuura (1978) studied
ball-handling skills in children under 6 years of age. Sashida (1952a,b), Shirai and
Sashida (1952a,b), Ikeda (19541, and Yoshizawa et al. (1975, 1979, 1980, 1981) also
investigated the aerobic work capacity in preschool children.
Physical fitness and physique were also compared in children at different socioeconomic levels and in various local districts (Kimura, 1951, 1952, 1954, 1955, 1956a,b;
Ono et al., 1962, 1963, 1965a,b; Tamura et al., 1968; Tamura et al., 1968; Hayashi,
1970a,b, 1971).From these studies, it was noted that conditions of daily life are very
important in growth and development of both physical fitness and physique. Grip
strength and vital capacity are generally less in Japanese than in Americans,
especially after 15 years in grip strength and 13 years in vital capacity (Ikai, 1967).
Physical fitness standards for the Japanese were edited by the Physical Fitness
Laboratory, Tokyo Metropolitan University, in 1970, and a third edition (1980) is
currently available.
Kimura]
GROWTH A N D DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN
187
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
The first longitudinal study of growth in Japanese was done by Seki (1915), who
followed the stature, body weight, and chest girth of 196 girls for 6 years from 7 to
13 years of age. After World War 11, Masutani (1948) studied body weight in a
longitudinal series of 217 boys from 6 to 19 years of age. Subsequently, Takeda
(1953) reported a longitudinal study of growth in stature, body weight, and chest
girth in 53 boys and 56 girls from 6 to 11years, and 150 girls from 12 to 15 years of
age. A comprehensive longitudinal study of Japanese-American hybrid children was
conducted by Suda and colleagues from 1951 to 1965. Takaishi (1957a,b, 1958)
followed the growth of stature and body weight longitudinally in about 9,000 infants
during the first year of life and in 1,005 children from 6 to 12 years. Sawada (1960)
compared the growth of physique in schoolchildren followed longitudinally from 6 to
14 years of age in three districts: large and small cities and a rural town. In 1961,
there was a small discussion concerning a longitudinal study of growth between
Imamura and Fujita. Imamura (1961)expressed doubts about secular environmental
changes in each longitudinal series and about the application of usual methods of
analysis for study in a longitudinal series as in a cross-sectional one. Fujita (1961)
and Shimizu (1961a) replied independently, emphasizing the need for longitudinal
studies to ascertain the true nature of physical growth and development.
Significant correlations over 10 years between 7 and 17 years were noted for
stature and body weight (0.61 and 0.461, but not for chest girth (0.22) in 370 girls
(Chiba, 19591, and for stature measured in 126 boys (0.75) and 105 girls (0.79)
(Aoyama, 1977). However, few significant correlations were obtained for stature
(0.26 for both sexes) and body weight (0.22 for boys and 0.11 for girls) in 167 boys
and 162 girls measured at birth and at 14 years of age (Tanaka, 1977). Studying 11
measurements in 76 infants during the first year of life, Sat0 (1957) noted that
cranial measurements generally show higher individuality, followed by sitting
height, stature, and limb lengths, and then head and chest girths. In a longitudinal
series of 587 girls, 5-20 years of age (Chiba, 1959), only a few girls followed the
standard growth curve in either stature or body weight, while Terada and Hoshi
(1965c, 1966)tried to classify individual growth patterns into several types according
to the standard-channel method. Kida et al. (1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1969) reported
longitudinal studies of physical measurements and strength in 252 schoolchildren,
6-14 years of age, and suggested that the age at commencement of the adolescent
spurt depends upon physical growth in the preceding period.
Adolescent spurt
From longitudinal studies of physical measurements and/or fitness in males and
females a t various ages including adolescence, the following results are suggested
in Japanese studies. Peak velocity of stature appears between 11 and 12 years in
boys and 9 and 10 years in girls (Ando et al., 1978). In 40 girls, the peak velocities
were 8.7 cm in stature a t 11.3 years, 5.4 cm in lower limb length a t 11.3 years, and
4.1 cm in upper limb length a t 11.45 years of age, while menarche occurred a t 12.64
years, which is 1.38 years later than the age of peak height velocity (Yanagisawa
and Furumatsu, 1977). At menarche (mean age, 12.7 years), mean values were 148
cm for stature, 41.1 kg for body weight, 74 cm for chest girth, and 81 cm for sitting
height (Kato, 1965). The adolescent peak appeared earlier in physical growth, followed by jumping power and muscular strength, and then flexibility (Mizuno et al.,
1973). Stature and sitting height did not show a tendency to increase after 18 years
of age in both sexes, while mean values of chest girth and body weight continued to
increase a t least until 20 or 21 years in males and 19 years in females (Hattori,
1975a).
Obesity and other studies
In longitudinal data for 395 boys and 420 girls measured a t birth, and a t 1, 3, and
6 years of age, obese children at 1year of age were not always fat at 3 years, while
almost all obese children at 3 years were still fat at 6 years (Sawaki, 1975). In a
1.33
2.01
1.70
1.97
2.41
2.84
4.67
4.94
6.72
6.98
7.14
6.03
5.85
6.58
6.58
6.62
6.74
1.62
1.91
1.50
1.76
2.08
2.23
4.15
4.63
4.85
4.66
4.85
4.66
4.61
4.54
4.64
4.17
4.68
6.6
8.6
9.7
10.6
12.3
13.4
17.1
19.9
23.3
25.7
27.4
29.1
29.9
30.7
29.8
30.2
30.1
27
53
104
104
109
111
939
956
973
955
969
964
966
938
1,795
1,740
881
SD
7.3
9.4
10.5
12.5
13.9
15.9
18.7
21.3
26.4
32.3
37.4
42.1
44.4
46.7
46.7
48.0
47.6
25
59
101
109
119
128
952
961
960
988
990
957
967
938
1,631
1,562
99 1
20.4
21.0
26.5
32.3
46.8
57.0
63.7
69.2
76.2
76.3
81.7
83.3
81.9
84.4
82.6
930
945
929
957
959
928
953
940
1,487
1,326
773
60.7
70.6
82.8
95.0
112.7
123.1
132.9
139.4
132.5
133.4
137.4
945
952
943
964
989
943
981
938
1,451
1,349
792
34
47
35
50
21.4
27.0
37.6
41.7
25
26
26
24
Back
strength (kg?
13.74
15.63
16.54
16.93
18.89
16.43
16.70
16.44
17.26
18.69
19.37
5.4
6.4
7.6
8.4
17.21
17.69
22.91
24.19
24.62
23.01
24.60
24.66
23.29
14.68
24.50
5.2
6.7
7.1
7.0
SD
85
138
126
136
927
947
928
956
959
927
953
941
1,368
1.198
686
88
186
134
152
942
952
942
949
985
943
982
858
1,358
1,261
714
11.7
10.8
10.4
9.8
9.3
8.9
8.8
8.6
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.7
8.8
8.8
8.8
11.2
10.5
9.9
9.4
9.0
8.7
8.4
8.0
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.3
7.2
50-m dash
(sec13
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.54
0.55
0.65
0.52
0.65
0.55
0.62
0.51
0.58
0.58
0.65
1.1
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.58
0.68
0.57
0.62
0.46
0.40
0.45
0.31
0.42
0.34
0.41
SD
85
139
128
136
968
97 1
98 1
982
984
978
980
957
1,854
1.767
892
121
260
90
130
135
153
976
976
976
993
994
972
97 1
946
1,647
1,575
1,013
18.4
19.8
23.2
24.7
32.6
35.8
38.4
40.8
42.2
43.2
43.4
44.7
42.2
42.0
41.1
33.9
37.6
42.9
48.8
54.6
58.7
61.0
63.1
61.1
61.4
59.6
2fi.5.
-.
15.3
15.4
18.5
21.3
25.0
4.6
4.7
4.9
4.9
5.4
5.8
5.9
6.6
6.9
6.3
6.1
6.4
5.9
5.8
6.3
4.26
4.34
4.6
5.1
5.4
5.3
6.0
6.0
7.3
8.3
8.1
7.5
7.2
7.4
7.8
7.3
7.5
SD
Vertical
jump ( ~ r n ) ~
TABLE 2. Statistical ualues for measurements of physical fitness in Japanese
Tokyo Met. Univ. (19681, Minist. Educ. Sci. Cult. (19791.

Nakamura et al. (19791, Minist. Educ. Sci. (1979).
RNishiokaet al. (1971), Minist. Educ. Sci. Cult. (1979).
Nishioka et al. (1971), Minist. Educ. Sci. Cult. (19791.
Fujimoto (1955).
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
IS
20
11
5
6
7
8
9
10
Males
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Females
4
Ageinyears
Grip
strength (kg)
24
76
44
67
52
51
69
43
60
110
110
46
38
45
68
23
50
44
68
76
76
48
52
96
107
82
36
901
950
1,182
1,315
1,480
1,554
1,660
2,079
2,220
2,220
2,120
2,150
2,300
2,420
2,430
906
1,042
1,264
1,531
1,734
1,802
1,850
2,143
2,380
2,746
2,842
3,042
Vital
capacity (cc15
220
213
242
256
262
287
324
338
392
368
354
434
30 1
482
436
226
231
262
278
342
338
338
412
445
602
582
495
SD
Kimura]
GROWTHAND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN
189
sample of 25 boys and 26 girls who were judged as obese among 268 boys and 264
girls investigated longitudinally from 6 to 11 years, obesity was more frequently
observed in the first half of this range (6-9 years) than in the later half (10 and 11
years) in both sexes, and skinfold thicknesses increased sharply at 8-9 years of age
(Kurihara, 1967).
Following the stature and body weight of 174 low-birth-weights infants until 5
years of age, Karasawa (1974) found that their mean body weight was lower than
that of a control group during the first year after birth, but that they were already
approaching the control group in stature and body weight by 5 years of age. In
general, low-birth-weight infants showed large individual differences in the growth
of physique and body proportions. In a 3-year study of junior high schoolchildren
classified as having a weakly physique, Takaishi et al. (1971) estimated that the
diagnosis was due only to retardation of growth, especially of the adolescent spurt.
ALLOMETRIC STUDIES
A relation of E = Ksr between the brain weight (E) and body weight (s)was first
observed by Snell(l892). The concept and mode of allometry was noted in the 1930s
by Huxley, Tessier, and Normura independently. Following Thompson (19381, Shimizu (1942) first applied allometry to the study of human growth in Japanese, and
then published monographs on allometric growth in fetuses, newborns, and infants,
and on allometry of bones (Shimizu, 1946, 1947). According to allometric relationships of stature and body weight in schoolchildren 6-18 years of age, critical points
appear at about 11 years for boys (Sato, 19471, and 8 and 14 years for boys and 11
years for girls (Shimizu and Inoue, 1956). Relative growth coefficients were 2.45 and
3.73 for boys (Sato, 19471, and 1.90, 2.81, and 2.05 for boys, and 2.29 and 3.20 for
girls (Shimizu and Inoue, 1956). Allometric relationships were also studied among
physique and physical fitness (Shimizu and Maezawa, 1963; Morishita, 1966).Using
the data of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, Hattori
(1975b) analyzed age changes in the allometric coefficient of body weight, chest
girth, and sitting height relative to stature in children 6-14 years and noted that
allometric coefficients varied in each age group and within the same stature class,
and also showed directional changes with age. Hence, age definition should be
required, especially between 11 and 14 years, due to marked variation in the
coefficients.
Allometric growth patterns
Using longitudinal data, allometric relationships between stature and body weight
were discussed by Morishita (1965, 1966)for infants and young children from 1to 6
years, and by Shimizu (1957, 1961b), Imoto et al. (1963), Inoue and Shimizu (19641,
Kimura (1970), and Komiya (1974, 1977)for schoolchildren 6-17 years of age. Inoue
and Shimizu (1964) divided relative growth into mono- and diphasic allometric types.
Examining longitudinal data for 155 girls, three patterns of allometric growth were
identified by Kimura (1970). The first pattern was characterized by two allometric
phases and one critical point, and girls (47.6%)showing this pattern were comparatively premature and fat at maturity. The third pattern had three allometric phases,
one critical point and one discontinous point, and girls (25.9%) showing the third
pattern were retarded in sexual development and had a slender body build at
maturity. The second pattern was intermediate in characteristic between the first
and third patterns and was evident by 20.3% of the girls. According to Komiya
(1974), allometric growth of stature and body weight was classified into three patterns: mono-, di-, and triphasic. The diphasic pattern was further divided into two
patterns based on the period of occurrence of a critical point. In the monophasic
pattern and the diphasic pattern with a n earlier critical point, there were no
significant sexual differences in the relative growth coefficients, though the critical
point occurred at lower values of stature and body weight in females than in males.
The diphasic pattern with a later critical point in females showed a larger relative
growth coefficient than that in the other diphasic pattern in males and females.
190
[Vol. 27, 1984
Other applications of allometry in growth studies

Allometric equations were also utilized to analyze the growth of children under
various conditions, i.e. local or regional variation (Imoto et al., 1963; Kimura, 1975b),
secular trends (Kimura, 1967; Miyajima, 1972) and genetic (Kimura and Tsai, 1967,
1968; Kimura, 1969b; Hoshi, 1978). For example, using stature and the logarithm of
body weight to compare the growth of Taiwanese, Japanese, Polish, and southern
and central Chinese children, Kimura (1969b) concluded that the difference between
the Taiwanese and the southern Chinese was due to environmental factors, while
that between the central Chinese and the former two groups was due to both
hereditary and environmental factors. The allometric technique was also applied to
comparisons of growth in each long bone of the hand (Kimura and Takeuchi, 19761,
and in garment design (Amano et al., 1976; Yanagisawa et al., 1979).
In the allometric studies, a n inspective approach was first used to decide a type of
polyphasic allometry. Subsequently, the reduced major axis method on double
logarithmic diagrams was used (Komiya and Osaka, 1975; Hoshi, 1978; Yanagisawa
et al., 1979), while Takai (1976) and Takai and Akiyoski (1981) used a new method
of fitting polyphasic allometric lines with Hudsons segmented regression method
and Akaikes MAICE method, and also used a multivariate allometric method
according to a principal-component analysis of the covariance of natural logarithms.
Factor Analysis
Recently, attempts have been made to analyze growth of physique and physical
fitness and sexual maturation with factor analysis techniques (Kitamura and Matsuura, 1971; Tamura et al., 1972, 1973; Inoue and Matsuura, 1972, 1976; Ohyama,
1974).Kawabe et al. (1980, 1982)considered the characteristics of various indices of
body build in children using principal-components analysis. Sex differences were
negligible, and three components accounted for over 90% of total variance: body size,
body build, and skinfold thicknesses. Of these the first component was highly
correlated with age, while the other two were age independent. Accordingly, the
second and third components should be evaluated for assessment of individuals
within a population of a wide age range.
DENTAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Tooth eruption
The first observations on dental eruption were made by Kitamura (1917) and
Hamano (1930a,b) on deciduous teeth and by Okamoto (1934), Nagamine (19341, and
Kitamura (1935) on permanent teeth. Table 3 shows the mean and maximum and
minimum ages in days for the eruption times of deciduous teeth, and in months for
the eruption times of permanent teeth (Fujita, 1965). Subsequently, dental eruption
was studied longitudinally from plaster casts or x-rays by many researchers (Okuya,
1950; Kamijo et al., 1952; Tsutsumi et al., 1953, 1954; Nomi, 1956; Okada, 1958a-c;
Sakamoto, 1959; Mochizuki, 1965; Oshima, 1972). On the basis of 6,936 casts for 389
infants followed longitudinally from 3 months to 4.5 years of age, Suzuki (19601,
Kashiwai (19601, and Mori (1960) noted the following trends: two-thirds of complete
crown length was evident by 4-5 (upper) and 5-6 (lower) months in the medial
incisors, by 4-6 months in the upper and lower canines, and by 6-8 (upper) and 4-7
(lower) months in the first molar. Comparing the figures in Table 3 with those of
American Whites and Blacks (Garn et al., 1973) for the permanent teeth of the
upper and lower jaws, the medial and lateral incisors and the first molar, which
appear before 8 years of age, appear earlier in Blacks, followed by Whites, then the
Japanese, while the canine, the first and second premolars, and the second molar,
which appear after 10 years, erupt earlier in the Japanese, followed by the Blacks,
then the Whites. It thus appears that dental development is delayed in early
childhood, and more advanced in later childhood and adolescence in the Japanese
compared to American Whites and Blacks.
Many papers were published on the eruption of the third molar in Japanese
following Yano and Kajizuka (1919). According to Kasai (1959), on the basis of 6,002
Kimura]
191
TABLE 3. Ages at the eruption of teeth in Japanese (Fujitq 1965)

X
Males
Max-min.
Females
Max.-min.
Deciduous teeth (in days)

Upper jaw
Medial incisor
Lateral incisor
Canine
1st molar
2nd molar
298
366
537
530
808
523-125
677-171
812-294
873-227
1,088-365
310
371
533
497
840
436-209
546-247
707-348
677-370
1,023-329
Lower jaw
Medial incisor
Lateral incisor
Canine
1st molar
2nd molar
248
392
563
531
766
497-111
734-151
846-273
895-204
1,007-335
241
401
559
521
670
364-176
598-223
851-363
812-363
1,069-505
Permanent teeth (in months)

Upper jaw
Medial incisor
89
Lateral incisor
103
Canine
131
1st. premolar
113
2nd. premolar
120
1st. molar
80
143
2nd. molar
3rd. molar
239
117-63
138-82
138-106
143-78
150-84
112-61
161-119
264-204
86
97
122
112
125
76
144
252
110-65
128-74
160-85
151-75
194-82
150-57
200-112
276-180
Lower jaw
Medial incisor
Lateral incisor
Canine
1st. premolar
2nd. premolar
1st. molar
2nd. molar
3rd. molar
95-58
110-66
140-92
150-81
152-93
107-56
152-108
264-192
74
84
109
113
122
72
133
252
96-58
131-66
141-64
173-64
167-68
136-54
194-110
288-180
78
87
118
118
124
76
135
236
males and females from 6 to 35 years of age, the dental germ of the third molar
began to appear at about 7 years of age and increased gradually until 14 or 15 years.
Its rate of occurrence then slowed down to reach an almost constant value at about
20 years, being 79% for the upper and 85% for the lower jaw in males, and 74% and
82% for the upper and lower jaws in females, respectively. Eruption of the third
molar began at 15 years and ceased at 23-25 years. It appeared earlier in females
by about 1 year, but complete eruption was somewhat later in females than in
males. Asymmetrical occurrence of the third molar occurred in about 19% of this
series. According to Fanning (1962),the median age of emergence of the upper third
molar was 20.5 years in the nonmutilated dentitions of Boston males and females,
while the lower third molar emerged at 19.8 years in the nonmutilated dentitions of
Boston males and females, while the lower third molar emerged at 19.8 years in
males and 20.4 years in females. The Japanese data (19.8 years in males and 21.0
years in females, Table 3) agree closely with these values.
The eruption of permanent teeth proceeds very rapidly initially and then more
slowly (Kurita, 1958a-d; Amano, 1959). Kurita stated that eruption is due to the
development of the enamel substance and dentin, while Amano agreed with the
opinion of Orban (1944), that tooth eruption is due to the development of the dental
root. Formation of the dental roots of the permanent dentition was radiographically
observed by Aoki (1930a-c), Wada (1936a-d, 1937), Kaneda (19561, Sakuma (1957)
and Y. Nakamura (1974). According to Kaneda (1956), considerable differences in
root formation were apparent between the upper and lower teeth within a pair, and
between males and females, but few differences were noted in root formation be-
192
[Vol. 27, 1984
tween the left and right sides. In root formation, the lower teeth generally preceded
the upper, and females preceded males. Further, the apical part of the root required
more time for formation than the middle and cervical parts of each tooth. Comparing
the results of studies by Fujita (1965) and Kaneda (1956), it appreared that dental
root formation is completed about 3-4 months after the eruption of teeth.
Age changes of the dental arch
Growth of the dental arch was first studied by Iwagaki (1926) in the longitudinal
records of four boys and one girl for 5 years, from 6 to 10 years of age. Subsequently,
Wada (1938) made cross-sectional observations on plaster casts of 292 males and
females from 6 years to adulthood. Recently arch changes were studied by Ono et al.
(1960),Kanematsu (1973), and Kitajima (1974) in infants, and by Yamamoto (1956)
in 924 males and females from 2 t o 91 years of age. These studies noted the following
trends. Almost all measurements of the dental arch increased gradually with age
after 2 years and reached a plateau by 16-17 years in males and 15-16 years in
females. Length of dental arch showed a maximum value at about 10 years in both
sexes, and then gradually decreased until about 20 years. In general, increments
with age were somewhat greater in length than in width of the palate. Accordingly,
the dental arch changed gradually from a round shape to an elongated horseshoe
shape by 9-10 years of age, and then to a somewhat round shape in adults. Growth
of the dental arch was also studied in longitudinal series by Hirayama (19591,
Mochizuki (1965), Kumazawa (1968a-d), and Yoshida (1976). According to these
studies, arch width developed anteroposteriorly. The maximum value for length of
the arch was obtained at 12 years (upper) and 11 years (lower) in boys, and at 10
years (upper and lower) in girls (Kumazawa, 1968a-d). The most frequent shape of
the dental arch was parabolic by 13 years in males, and round to square after 8
years of age in females (Sato et al., 1969). In general, the dental arch showed few
sex differences in size, though it was slightly larger in males than in females
(Ninomiya and Kameda, 1969; Kitajima, 1974).
Relationship between tooth eruption and physical growth
The correlation between the eruption of deciduous and permanent teeth and
physical growth was examined by many researchers, including Nagamine (19341,
Saito and Ozaki (1937), Ninomiya and Yamato (1951), It0 (1956), Ariga (19581, Sato
(1959a,b),Okamoto (1960), Hayashi (1960), Matsui (1961), and Inoue (1961). Results
of these studies indicated that stature, body weight, sitting height, and chest and
upper arm girths showed a peak in growth 2-3 years later than the eruption of the
second lower molar and about 1 year after the completion of its root. Shinomiya
(1959) observed that the second molar appeared in two-thirds of girls at the age of
menarche, when mean stature was 149.5 cm. Wada (1971)also noted a close relationship between completion of the premolar root and menarche, while Koishi et al.
(1952)observed a correlation between eruption of the second molar and development
of the mammary areola as well as physical growth. Finally, observing the frequencies of erupted permanent teeth in each age group of children from 6 to 15 years for
10 years from 1948 to 1958, Osanai (1959)noted a secular trend in earlier eruption
of the teeth.
SKELETAL MATURATION
The assessment of skeletal maturation by radiographs was initiated in Japan

between 1910 and 1930 with studies of the carpus by Fujinami (1912), of the carpus
and tarsus by Ukita (1923), of long bones of the extremities by Suzuki (1924-1925),
of the bones of the hand and wrist by Oda (1926), and of the bones of the elbow by
Minami (1929).At first, maturity was generally assessed by the number of ossification centers in each body region. In the newborns, the capitate and hamate (Fujinami, 1912; Fukabori, 1924) and the distal epiphysis of the femur (Saito, 1952)were
noted as valuable for assessing maturity. The time of appearance and order of
Kimura]
193
ossification of centers, and the number a t each age were observed in detail by
Ishikawa (1953), Sakai (1954) and Yamamoto et al. (1962a-c) on males and females
from birth to 14 and 18 years of age. In addition, Suzuki (1924-1925) measured the
length of the epiphysis of each long bone, and Oda (1926) measured the diameter
and area of ossification of each carpus. Similar studies were subsequently undertaken by Koyanagi (19301, Ichikawa (1941), Ohira (1952a,b, 19561, Ueyama and
Shima (19581, Kawada et al. (1959), and Shinada (1960). Using 1,022 children from
birth to 15 years of age, Ohira (195213) developed a standard for skeletal maturity
based on the area of carpal ossification centers, which was better correlated with
stature than with chronological age. Consequently, Ohira found that there were
significant correlations between a maturation quotient, calculated from the ratio of
bone agelchronological age, and the eruption of permanent teeth, age a t menarche,
stature, and body weight.
In the tradition of Todd (1937) and Greulich and Pyle (1950), Ohwada and Sutow
(1953) used the 50th percentile method to devise a n atlas of the skeletal development
of the hand and wrist based on 2,412 children from 6 to 19 years of age. Sat0 (19601,
Inoue and Shimizu (1965), and Suzuki (1968 a,b) also developed similar atlases of
skeletal maturity. Following the Oxford method (Acheson, 1954), Nakazawa (1959)
devised a new method of assessing skeletal maturation based on the indicators of
Ohwada and Sutow (1953). After the studies by Sugiura et al. (1961, 19631, Sugiura
and Nakazawa (1968) published a method for assessing the skeletal maturation of
Japanese children in the Chubu district. Using this method, skeletal age was
assessed for children in Tokyo (Eto, 19711, Shizuoka (Kawashima et al., 19721, and
Kagoshima (Ueno, 1977a,b). Using the maturity indicators of Greulich and Pyle
(1959), Kimura (1972b) devised a new analytical (K score) method for assessing
skeletal maturation. In this method, three bone areas, the phalanges and metacarpals, the carpals, and the radius and ulna, are designed to contribute equally to the
total maturity score (K), which ranges from 0 to 100. Furuya (1950) followed the
maturation of bones of the foot for 6 years in 70 schoolchildren from 6 to 12 years of
age. Following the study by Sugiura and Nakazawa on the hand and wrist, Tajima
(1964, 1966)prepared a n atlas of skeletal maturation of the bones of the knee and of
the ilium and ischium, while Muramoto (1965) developed a n atlas of the bones of the
elbow.
The Tanner-Whitehouse (TW1) method (Tanner et al., 1959) was first applied by
Ashizawa (1970), while the revised (TW2) method (Tanner et al., 1962) was used by
Kawashima et al. (1972) in the assessment of skeletal maturation in Japanese
children. Comparing the skeletal ages assessed by the method of Sugiura and
Nakazawa and by the TW1 method in 652 children from 4 to 12 years of age in
Tokyo, Eto (1971) suggested that the former was more applicable to boys 4-8 years
and to girls 8-12 years than the latter. However, Kawashima et al. (1972) pointed
out that, although the TW2 skeletal age was more compatible with chronological
age than bone ages after the Sugiura and Nakazawa method before 8 years of age,
the situation was reversed after 12 years. Comparing maturity scores by the Oxford
and TW1 methods, Kimura (1972a) suggested that the TW1 method was superior in
simplicity and understanding, while the Oxford method was excellent in giving
essentially a linear maturity graph. The TW1 method tended to underestimate
maturity of Japanese children in infancy compared to the Oxford Method.
Suzuki (1968a,b) observed a linear relationship between skeletal and chronological
ages, with a n increasing variance as chronological age advanced. Kimura (1972b)
also obtained a significant linear regression between chronological ages and the K
scores in cross-sectional samples of 274 boys and 222 girls, 7-12 years of age in
Tokyo. Ishii et al. (1953) and Monden (1955) considered the relationship between
skeletal age and age a t menarche, Appearance of the sesamoid of the first metacarpophalangeal joint could be used to estimate the occurrence of menarche (Monden,
1955). Appearance of secondary sex characters is also more highly correlated with
skeletal than chronological age (Sato, 1960; Inoue, 1969). Kawada et al. (1959)
observed a significant correlation between the area of carpal bones and the number
194
[Vol. 27, 1984
of erupted permanent teeth, but the studies by Takahashi (1960), K. Kato (1960),
and Inoue (1969) gave only low correlations (about 0.2) between skeletal and dental
ages. Significant correlations between skeletal maturation and physical growth
have been reported by many authors (Hayami, 1930; Inoue, 1948; Ohira, 1952a,b;
Ishikawa, 1953; Yamamoto et al. 1962a-c; Suzuki, 1968a,b; Ohara a-e; Yosioka et
al., 1981). According to Suzuki (1968a,b), bone age shows high correlation with
stature of 0.93 in boys and 0.95 in girls, and with body weight 0.96 and 0.90 in boys
and girls, respectively. Ohara (1971a-e) developed equations to predict skeletal
maturation (maturity score, MS) from chronological age (CAI and stature (s) as
follows, MS = 4.6CA + 0.8s - 29 for boys and MS = 5CA + 1.6 -115 for girls.
Konishi and Ohyama (1982) reported significant correlations between skeletal maturity and nutritional indices; i.e., 0.46 for the Rohrer and 0.54 for the Kaup indices.
On the basis of longitudinal data for 87 children from 6 to 17 years, Kuroda et al.
(1969) suggested that the period of peak velocity for stature could be predicted from
the appearance of the ulnar sesamoid.
Comparing the appearance of ossification centers of the hand and wrist in Japanese and American children from birth to 5 years, Kokubo (1960) noted only few
differences for the metacarpals and phalanges, while the carpal centers and the
distal epiphysis of the ulna appeared somewhat later in the Japanese. Using the
Greulich-Pyle method, Inoue and Shimizu (1965) observed that skeletal maturation
was more delayed in Japanese than in American children at a n early age, but was
more advanced in the former after 11years in boys and 7 years in girls. On the basis
of 963 children from 6 to 18 years of age, Ashizawa (1970) also observed that TW1
skeletal ages were advanced compared to chronological age after 8.5 years in boys
and until 13.5 years in girls. Table 4 shows means and variances for skeletal age
(TW2) within specific chronological age groups of Japanese children in Tokyo and
Sapporo (Kimura, 1977a,b). From studies of children in Tokyo, Okinawa, and Sapporo, Kimura (1972a,b, 1976a,c 1977a,b) concluded that the TW1 and TW2 skeletal
ages were almost the same as or less than chronological ages until 10 years of age.
Thereafter, skeletal ages were in advance of chronological ages. However, bones of
the hand and wrist reached maturity at almost the same time in both Japanese and
British children, i.e., 18 years in boys and 16 years in girls.
Cortical thickness and bone density

Nagamine et al. (1976) and Yamakawa et al. (1976) measured the bone density of
1,185 children from 3 to 15 years using a photodensitometer. As a n indirect indicator
of mineral content of the bone, Kimura (1976d, 1978)measured the cortical thickness
of the second metacarpal a t midshaft, in addition to breadth and length. Cortical
thickness was absolutely and relatively less in Japanese than in Americans and
Guatemalans (Garn, 19761, especially after adolescence. This trend may be characteristic of Mongoloids (Kimura, 1976d). Discussing growth of the second metacarpal
in relation to chronological and skeletal ages, Kimura (1976b, 1978) noted that the
growth curve of bone length was almost parallel in both sexes until adolescence,
followed by a more rapid increase in males than in females. Cortical thickness
increased in proportion to growth of the bone in length and breadth (more so relative
to length) in a similar manner for both sexes. On the basis of skeletal maturity,
mean values of length, breadth, and cortical thickness of the second metacarpal
were almost always significantly greater in males than in females, increasing
steadily from infancy to 13 years in boys and 11years in girls. Subsequently, the sex
difference was considerably greater for metacarpal breadth and cortical thickness.
Studies of Twins
The incidence of twins in Japan is low (0.6-0.7%) due to a low frequency of
dizygotic twins (Komai and Fukuoka, 1936). In general, monozygotic twins showed
similar results for morphological measurements and psychological tests, but for
motor performances and mental abilities heritability was less clear (Araki, 1934;
Fukuoka, 19371.A cooperative investigation of twins from 6 to 15 years of age was
Kimura]
195
TABLE 4. Sample sizes (n), mean chronological ages (CA) per age group, and means (3) and variances (u)
for the skeletal age (TW2) (SA) in Japanese children in Tokyo and Sapporo (Kimura, 19774b)
Males
Females
SA
Ape
CA
3
9
14
14
13
13
17
56
34
36
53
39
58
21
14
28
28
29
22
8
0.4
1.0
2.2
3.1
4.1
4.9
5.9
7.1
8.1
9.0
10.1
11.0
12.0
12.3
13.2
14.0
15.0
16.0
16.9
17.7
3.4
4.2
4.9
5.7
6.9
8.0
9.8
10.5
11.4
13.0
13.2
14.2
15.4
16.5
17.2
17.7
18.0
1.28
1.13
1.55
0.94
1.11
1.49
1.94
1.58
1.41
1.63
1.32
1.34
0.84
1.01
0.73
0.35
3
8
13
10
12
11
11
12
11
12
13
12
7
6.4
7.1
8.0
9.1
10.0
11.1
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.1
18.0
5.8
6.3
7.5
8.5
9.3
10.8
12.9
13.7
15.1
15.5
16.9
17.4
18.0
0.16
2.24
1.98
1.54
0.49
0.87
1.41
3.59
0.43
0.43
1.26
0.71
Tokyo
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
SA
0.00
CA
1
9
13
16
9
17
10
42
46
33
35
41
27
13
15
24
24
24
20
10
0.3
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.2
6.0
7.1
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.1
12.0
12.2
13.1
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
17.8
3.5
4.1
5.5
6.4
7.0
8.0
9.7
10.9
12.3
13.4
13.8
14.6
15.2
15.7
16.0
16.0
16.0
0.38
0.44
1.03
2.24
1.24
0.86
1.54
1.74
1.55
0.56
0.90 0.99
0.86
0.37
0.02
6.4
7.O
8.0
9.1
10.0
11.1
12.2
13.1
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.1
18.0
6.5
6.0
7.7
8.7
10.1
11.4
12.9
13.4
14.5
15.3
15.8
16.0
16.0
0.00
0.00 -
Sapporo
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
0.00
4
15
10
15
10
12
9
10
16
8
11
8
0.51
0.61
1.02
1.18
0.63
1.74
0.34
0.51
0.94
0.69
0.17
0.01
0.00
Numbers within brackets show the semilongitudinal data from the twin study
undertaken by several researchers, while a comprehensive investigation has been

conducted since 1951 on twins from 12 to 18 years of age at the junior and senior
high school attached to the Faculty of Education, University of Tokyo. Some of the
results have been published a s monographs, Studies of Twins, Z-ZZZ, in 1954, 1956,
and 1962. On the basis of this series of 75 monozygotic (MZ) and 17 dizygotic (DZ)
twin pairs, Suzuki and Kondo (1966) noted that intrapair differences for several
measurements were consistently small in about 30%of M Z twins, and always larger
in about 45% of DZ twins. In a survey of stature, body weight, chest girth, and
sitting height in 185 M Z and 31 DZ twin pairs from 7 to 17 years of age, Hoshi et al.
(1982a,b) obtained six types of age change of intrapair differences. Features of the
adolescent spurt were seemingly more sensitive to minute differences in environmental conditions than final absolute body size.
Analyzing intrapair differences of somatic traits in 59 male and 69 female M Z
twins between 12.25 and 13.25 years of age, intraclass correlations and coefficients
of similarity for 28 anthropometric dimensions were highest for stature, body weight,
and iliospinal height, and lowest for skinfold thickness, radiographic thickness of
calf fat, and several cephalic measurements. Among 26 indices, relative body weight,
the Kaup and Rohrer indices, and cephalic modullus were high in similarity, while
abdominal and acromiocristal indices were low. Absolute and relative circumferences were noticeably more similar in male than in female twins. Physiological
196
[Vol. 27, 1984
ages, including skeletal maturity, menarche, and peak height velocity, showed high
similarity. In calf tissue composition, bone was higher in similarity in twins, followed by muscle and then fat.
Discussing heritability of skeletal maturity and bone growth based on 1,072
radiographs of the hand and wrist in 63 male and 70 female M Z twin pairs, and 25
male and 21 female DZ twin pairs 12 to 18 years of age, Kimura (1981, 1983)found
that skeletal maturity (TW2, K) had higher heritability than growth of second
metacarpal dimensions. In the latter, length had higher heritability than width and
cortical thickness. A dosage effect seemed to be evident in width and several indices
of the second metacarpal, but was not confirmed in skeletal maturation.
Kamata (1958) found that the profile of head and face showed high heritability,
especially around the lip. Analyzing genetic and environmental components affecting the mesiodistal crown diameters of deciduous teeth, Asano (1965) suggested that
this trait may be applicable to zygosity diagnosis. According to Ochiai et al. (19661,
the difference in intrapair variances for deciduous teeth between MZ and DZ twins
was larger in the posterior than in the anterior teeth, in the lower than in the upper
teeth of the posterior group except for the upper second molar, and in the second
molar than in the first molar.
According to Kimura (195613) and Mizuno (1956), heritability of physical fitness
showed the following trends. It appeared highest for motor power (50-m dash,
standing long and vertical jump, ball throw for distance, burpee, and chinning), then
motor skill (key tapping, match board, and picking up balls), and finally physical
strength (grip and back muscle strength). Further, with few exceptions, there were
few correlations between heritabilities of these traits.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS GROUPS OF JAPANESE
Ainu children
Comparatively few studies have been done on the growth and development of Ainu
children. According to investigations between 1934 and 1937 (Inoue et al., 19371938, 1941a,b, 1942a-d), the Mongolian spot appeared less frequently in pure Ainu
infants in Hokkaido (46.3% of 186 infants) and Sakhalin (85.7% of 36 infants) than
in Japanese infants (95.0%).Ainu-Japanese hybrid infants showed a n intermediate
value between those of the parental groups, i.e., 74.6% of 71 Hokkaido mixed Ainu
and 87.1% of 31 Sakhalin mixed Ainu (Inoue et al., 1941a).In a study of 50 Hokkaido
and 53 Sakhalin Ainu infants from 0.5 to 6 years of age (Inoue et al., 1941b), these
infants had, on the average, greater dimensions than Japanese infants for length,
chest girth, head circumference, and subcutaneous fat thickness of the abdomen.
The bregmatic fontanelle also closed markedly later and the eruption of deciduous
teeth occurred slightly later in Sakhalin Ainu infants than in Hokkaido Ainu and
Japanese infants. On the basis of 441 Ainu, 291 Ainu-Japanese hybrids, and 1,574
Japanese schoolchildren 6-15 years of age (Inoue et al., 1942a-d), Ainu children
showed, on the average, larger dimensions than the Japanese for absolute and
relative chest girth, shoulder breadth, cephalic length, relative sitting height, relative arm span, and the Rohrer index. Japanese were, on the average, larger in
stature, body weight, arm span, sitting height, pelvic breadth, and cephalic breadth.
After World War 11, a comprehensive investigation of mainly Hokkaido Ainu was
conducted by Ueda, Suda, Kohama, Shima, and colleagues between 1951 and 1958.
According to Kohama (1957, 1968, 19691, Ainu adults were as tall as Japanese, the
mean statures being 160.1 cm in males and 147.7 cm in females. The Ainu had
relatively long arms and legs, a short trunk, and broader shoulders and pelvis
compared to Japanese. The most distinctive trait of the Ainu was a large cephalic
length. However, cephalic breadth was slightly less than that of Japanese. From the
data on 410 boys and 366 girls from 6 to 14 years of age, Tanaka (1959) concluded
that the metric traits of Ainu children generally showed a trend similar to that for
adults, and noted that the cephalic characteristics of the Ainu were already obvious
during childhood. Comparing the reports of Inoue et al. (1942a-d) and Tanaka (1959),
Kimura]
197
a slight secular trend in height was evident. In 1934-1937, the mean statures for
boys and girls, respectively, were 107.8 cm and 106.7 cm a t 6 years, and 133.3 and
131.0 cm at 12 years. In 1951-1958, corresponding values were 108.1 and 107.3 cm
at 6 years, and 135.1 and 134.8 cm at 12 years for each sex, respectively.
Children of Okinawa
Nansei (Southwest) Islands form a slightly curved row from Kyushu, the southern
end of Honshu (main) Islands of Japan, to Taiwan between the Pacific Ocean and
the East China Sea. Initially Nishiyama (1931a-c, 1932) suggested that the inhabitants of Okinawa belonged to a population found in other districts of Japan and
that their comparatively inferior physique could be due to their postnatal environments, especially protein malnutrition. Suda (1950) concluded that the inhabitants
of the Nansei Islands could be somatologically divided into five groups, corresponding to geographical areas: Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, and Yaeyama. He
also indicated that these islanders were generally shorter than the Japanese in
other districts, especially during and after adolescence. The onset of adolescence was
earlier in the island residents by about 2 years and lasted longer than in the
Japanese, and the sex differences during this period were greater in the islanders
than in the Japanese. Subsequently, growth and development of children on Nansei
Islands were primarily studied by Omori and his colleagues between 1957 and 1975
(Sako, 1957; Izumi, 1958; Iwai, 1959; Toyojima, 1959a,b; Kinjo, 1960; Matsumoto,
1960; Sunakawa, 1960; Hirata, 1961a,b; Yasudome, 1973a,b; Hamada et al., 1975).
According to Sunakawa (1960) and Hamada et al. (19751, for example, pubic hair
appeared in boys on Okinawa a t 13.5 years, on Miyako a t 13.3 years, and on Ishigaki
a t 13.0 years, while menarche occurred at 13.2, 13.5, and 12.9 years on each island,
respectively. The appearance of secondary sex characteristics was earlier in the
island children than in the inhabitants of the southern districts of Kyushu or in the
Japanese in general.
In 1971 and 1972, the Union of Nine Scientific Societies and Associations began a
comprehensive investigation of the population of Okinawa. Based on three studies,
Kimura (1973, 197510, 1976a) concluded that children of Okinawa were the shortest
among those in all districts of Japan, the difference already evident in infancy. A
unique characteristic of children of Okinawa was their adolescent growth spurt,
which occurred earlier and lasted longer than that of children from other districts
in Japan. Children of Okinawa were somewhat delayed skeletally in early childhood
compared to those of Tokyo. However, they matured more rapidly during childhood
and adolescence than children in other districts. On the basis of growth of the lower
extremities relative to stature, the natives of Okinawa seemed to show a trend
similar to that in the Ainu, while the Amami islanders had a closer relationship to
the inhabitants of Kagoshima than to the natives of Okinawa. Using the Denver
developmental screening test on 615 children, 16 days-5.0 years of age, on Miyako
and Yaeyama Islands, Ueda and Furuya (1978) reported earlier development in
Okinawa than in Tokyo in the first year of life, although the children in Tokyo were
generally more advanced than those in Okinawa after 1 year of age. Children of
Okinawa were initially delayed in gross motor development compared to Denver
children.
Japanese American (Nisei)
The first investigation on Japanese-Americans was done by Yoshida (1925) on
2,321 children, from 7 to 16 years of age, in Hawaii and Seattle. Ishihara (1931)
compared the physiques of 253 Japanese-Americans 19-26 years of age in Los
Angeles with those of native Japanese. Under the supervision of Ishihara, Susuki
(1932, 1933, 1949) studied the growth of Japanese-Americans from 6 to 20 years of
age, while It0 (1936, 1942, 1954) reported on the physique of newborns and adult
female Japanese-Americans, and Iidaka (1953)discussed the physique of 258 soldiers
and civilians employees 20-30 years of age in the occupation forces in Tokyo.
Ishihara (1956)concluded that adult Japanese-Americans were 5.0-9.3 cm taller and
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[Vol. 27, 1984
9-12 kg heavier than native Japanese.The mean growth curve of the JapaneseAmericans was similar to that of American Whites from 6 to 15 years, but thereafter,
the Japanese-Americans increased only 5.5 cm compared to 12.8 cm in American
Whites. Leg length was 2.8-8.3 cm greater, and sitting height was about 1.2 cm less
in the Japanese-Americans than in native Japanese. Accordingly, leg length relative
to stature was somewhat greater in the Japanese Americans than in native Japanese. However, second-generation Japanese in other countries, such as the Philipines, Sumatra, Korea, and Manchuria, did not show the same growth trends evident
in Japanese-Americans.
Recently, Kondo and Eto (1975) compared the physical growth and maturation of
483 Japanese-American boys and 473 girls, 4-18 years of age, living in Los Angeles
with those of children in Nagoya and Tokyo. There were few differences between the
samples, in both physical growth and skeletal maturation, except for some physical
measurements during the prepubertal period. Accordingly, the authors concluded
that the differences would be due to nutrition and other favorable environmental
conditions existing in Los Angeles, and that, in the final stage of growth, the
physical characteristics in these two populations seem to be determined more by
common genetic background than by the environment. Comparing growth curves of
stature in Japanese-Americans of Los Angeles and San Francisco in the 1930s,
1950s, and 1970s, as well as those in native Japanese in about the same years,
Kimura (1977~)observed that the grade of secular changes was considerably larger
from the 1930s to the 1950s than from the 1950s to the 1970s. The JapaneseAmericans were taller than the native Japanese in the 1930s and 1950s, but there
were small differences between the two groups in the 1970s. Greulich (1976) suggested that the California Japanese had attained what seems to be their growth
potential.
Japanese-American hybrids
Studies on the growth and development of hybrids between Japanese and other
populations have been conducted by many researchers. After World War 11, a relatively large number of children were born of American servicemen and Japanese
women. Since 1949, several researchers have been engaged in longitudinal and
cross-sectional surveys of these children (see Suda, 1968). Kubota (19531, Furusawa
(1955a1, and Kaneko (1961) reported on the Mongolian spot, and Ishihara (1955) and
Kaneko (1961) studied skin, hair, and iris colors in hybrid infants. The Mongolian
spot was present in 44.7% of 47 Japanese-American White (JW)and 47.8% of 23
Japanese-American Black (JB)hybrid infants from birth to 1 year of age, and in
26.5% and 16.5% of 151 JW,and in 61.0% of 59 and 76.1% of 67 JB hybrid childrens
from between birth and 4 or 16 years of age. In contrast, it was present in 95.0% of
Japanese children from birth to 5 years (Kubota, 1953; Furusawa, 1955a,b). In
general, the skin color of JW and JB hybrids resembled that of Whites and Blacks,
respectively, more than that of the Japanese (Ishihara, 1955; Kaneko, 1961). With
age, hair color changed from light to dark in 85% of the JW and 60% of the JB
hybrid children, while color of the iris changed from dark to light in 65% of the JW
and 30% of the JB hybrid children (Kaneko, 1961).
Studies of the physical growth of Japanese-American hybrid children from birth
to 6 years (Kubota, 1953; Ishihara, 1955) and from 6 to 15 years (Suda et al., 1956,
1968, 1973, 1975, 1976; Hoshi, 1969) produced a number of interesting results. For
example, the growth curves of stature for JW and JB hybrids and their parental
populations are compared in Figure 1. The hybrids present a higher rate of growth
in cephalometric measurements than the Japanese. The hybrids are absolutely
larger for most measurements except head breadth than the Japanese until 11years
of age. Some measurements show differences between the JW and JB hybrids in
infancy, especially those of the nose and mouth regions. Whether the father is White
or Black does not a e c t the growth of stature, body weight, chest girth, and sitting
height of the hybrids. For example, the hybrids are as tall as the Japanese until 6
years of age, but they are in a n intermediate position between both parental popu-
Kimura]
199
lations at 15 years of age. With respect to the anterior trunk height and iliospinal
height and their proportions, the hybrids tend to approach the Japanese in both
sexes. On the other hand, the hybrids tend to approach the Americans of both sexes
in biacromial breadth. With respect to the ratio of biacromial breadth to the bicristal
breadth the JW hybrids tend to approach the Japanese, while the JB hybrids
resemble American blacks. These findings suggest that growth in the prepubertal
period depends upon environmental conditions, while hereditary influences appear
at adolescence. The peak velocity in adolescent growth is reached almost at an
identical age in the hybrids, Whites, and Japanese, but the annual increments at
peak growth in stature, body weight, and chest girth are considerably greater in the
hybrids than in the others. Further, from Figure 1it could be suggested that growth
in infancy of the hybrids resembles American infants more than Japanese.
Notable differences between the JW and JB hybrids are evident in subcutaneous
fat thickness of the calf and thigh from 6 to 18 years of age (Kohara, 1968). Fat
thickness on the face and lower limbs is greater in JW hybrids than in JB hybrids,
while there are few differences in fat thickness on the trunk and upper limbs.
In a mixed-longitudinal series of 57 male and 33 female JW hybrids from 3 to 18
years of age, Kimura (1971, 1976e) noted that the skeletal maturity (TW2 and K
methods) tended toward greater advancement in childhood for the Whites than or
the hybrids and Japanese. However, the preadolescent spurt in skeletal maturity
occurred earlier in the Japanese and the hybrids than in the Whites, and the hybrids
showed intermediate skeletal maturity between those of the Japanese and the
Whites at adolescence. This observation agrees well with results of the physical
measurements.
SECULAR TRENDS IN GROWTH
Shima (1929)first suggested a change in the physique of school children in Kanazawa between 1910 and 1929. Similar observations were made by Nose and Naka1 8 0 , .
160
:m
140
160
120
140
100
120
80
100
60
80
H
H J JW
W
hybrids
- 4 JB hybrids
..-.
c
.
A m .W t e s
I #
1
lo11
.-.-a
Am.Blacks
Japanese
60
1213141516y~s
Fig. 1. Growth curves of stature in Japanese-American White and Black hybrids (Suda et al., 1956),
Japanese (Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, 1947-1962), and American White and
Black (Garn, 1976) children.
200
[Vol. 27, 1984
mura (1932), Murakami (1936), and Takaishi (1936) on schoolchildren or infants in

several cities. On the basis of the records of the Ministry of Education, Science, and
Culture since 1900, Iwahara (1932)and Shioya (1934) considered the secular changes
in physique of schoolchildren from 1900 to 1930. Agreeing with Yagi (19361, S.
Suzuki (1937) suggested that the secular change could not be solely responsible for
the acceleration of growth, as presented by Koch (19351, but that it was attributable
to changes in the environment which remove inhibitory growth factors. He also
noticed that secular changes were not always identical for each physical trait.
Influence of the war on growth
After World War 11,many researchers considered the influence of the poor wartime
conditions on the growth and development of children (Abe, 1950; Hashiguchi et al.,
1952; Saito and Funakawa, 1954 Tokuyama et al., 1955; Kato, 1955, 1957; Kimura
and Kitano 1959). Results of all studies indicated a decrease in size during and
following the war. For example, mean stature began to decrease about 1939 and
showed a minimum value in 1949. Birth weight also decreased during and following
the war. However, by 1953, the average birth weight had returned to its maximum
prewar value (Takno, 1950; Iijma et al., 1954; Nagahashi, 1955). Analyzing the
Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture data by the population follow-up method,
Kimura and Kitano (1959) indicated a decrease in mean stature during the war
which was most marked a t 14 years of age in boys and 13 years in girls, and that
mean stature returned to prewar levels by 1956 in boys and 1953 in girls. More time
was required to recover the prewar level in those children who were between birth
and 12 years of age during the war. The poor living conditions during the war had a
harmful effect on the growth of younger children, but girls had greater resistance to
these conditions than boys. Recovery of stature, body weight, and chest girth in
schoolchildren occurred most rapidly in large cities, followed by small cities, and
then rural and mountain villages (Kato, 1955).
Secular trends in growth
More than 100 papers have been published on secular trends in physique and
physical fitness of Japanese since the 1950s. Utilizing the graphic method of relative
growth of stature and body weight based on the population follow-up data of the
Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture since 1900, Kimura (1961, 1967) found
that the secular trend in the Japanese physique during the preceding five decades
was divided into two phenomena: a n acceleration of growth until adolescence and a
secular change in the physical form in adults. The rate of acceleration of growth was
estimated a t about 12 months in males at 14 years of age and about 18 months in
females a t 12 years of age during these five decades, i.e., about 2.2 and 3.6 months
per decade in each sex, respectively.The secular increase in stature and body weight
in adults results from secular changes in growth a t and after peak velocity. The
estimated increase per decade in the two dimensions was 6 cm (1.2 cm) and 4 kg (0.8
kg) among males, and 5 cm (1 cm) and 1 kg (0.2 kg) among females, respectively,
during these five decades. Thus, the size of Japanese has increased progressively
from decade to decade since 1900. Analyzing the trend of menarcheal age in Japan
from the late 19th century to the present, Moriyama et al. (1980) found that it was
divided into two periods. The age a t menarche decreased slowly in women born
between 1900 and 1923, and more rapidly in women born between 1930 and the
present. However, the age at menarche became slightly older in women born between 1924 and 1930, i.e., those who were attaining menarche prior to and during
the war years.
Following Fischer (1930) and Weidenreich (19451, a secular trend in the Japanese
skull was also noticed by several authors since 1950. H. Suzuki (1953, 1954, 1956)
discussed brachycephalization and secular changes in the nasal region of the Japanese skull from the Jomon age to the present, while Morita (1963) and Kimura and
Iwamoto (1969) reported on more recent secular changes in the Japanese skull.
Dolicocephalization from the Middle to the Early Modern (Edo) ages have been
Kimura]
201
reported (H. Suzuki, 1953, 1956). In lateral views of Japanese skulls, the changes
towards greater head length and higher total auricular height during the present
ages were due to the neural cranium moving upwardly and ventrally in a circular
direction with porion as a center (Kimura and Iwamoto, 1969). According t o Hiramot0 (19721, who investigated secular changes in estimated stature predicted from
femoral length, the stature of Japanese populations increased gradually from the
Jomon to the Kofun age and then decreased gradually to the Early Modern age.
Since Jomon times, the Japanese were shortest in stature at the end of the Edo age.
These results may suggest that body size shows cyclic rather than cumulative
changes in certain centuries.
The trend of acceleration is more obvious for physique than for motor performance
in schoolchildren (Kato and Abe, 1957; Matsuura, 1964). Results of motor performance of Japanese children in 1954, 1966, and 1976, are progressively improved in
each motor test except back muscle strength. Relative to stature, performance was
advanced in the 50-m dash and vertical jump, almost the same in grip strength, and
poorer in back muscle strength during these 22 years (Kimura, 1979).
Katsuki (1965)believed that the rapid improvement in nutrition played an important role in the postwar trend of rapid increase in stature and body weight. Nishikawa (1958) suggested that the increase in the size of schoolchildren was not
necessarily the result of an improvement in all children, but of an increase in the
number of children with better physiques. According to Ikuyama and Arao (19801,
an increased lower limb length was the primary factor in the stature increase. In an
analysis of the statures of parents and brothers of 12,903 boys at 17 years of age,
Furusho (1973) assumed that the increase in average stature of the Japanese after
the war had nothing to do with the genotype responsible for stature; rather it was
due to increasing the minimum value of the stature distribution by nearly the same
amount for all members of the group as a result of an improved environment after
the war.
Has the secular trend stopped?

Most students suggest that the tendency toward larger growth is still going on
(Fujimoto et al., 1963).Taking the age at maximum growth as an indicator of growth
acceleration, Kudo et al. (1976) are of the opinion that the growth acceleration is
likely to proceed for some time along the regression line based on the prewar
acceleration rate. On the othe hand, following Bakwin and McLaughlin (19641,
Takaishi (1975) noted a slowing of acceleration in growth of the Japanese in recent
years. Kahyo et al. (1977) indicated that the slope of birth weight was gradually
decreasing as the level of birth weight increased, thus suggesting that birth weight
in Japanese is reaching its ultimate level. Investigating the secular trend in Japanese stature and sitting height, and sex differences in the stature between 1900 and
1982, Kimura (1977, 1984) noted the following: The secular acceleration of growth
has slowed in the generations born after approximately 1950. The secular trend
towards greater stature in adults also stopped after about 1970 in students and 1980
in the Japanese population in general, although there were some local differences
in the trend. Sitting height already had reached a final stage of the trend by 1963.
Therefore, the trend in recent samples was towards slightly longer legs, relative to
the trunk. Females had possibly greater resistance to the poor living conditions
during the war than males. The recovery of growth in females also occurred more
rapidly than in males. The postwar acceleration of growth in females surpassed the
prewar trend, although the secular trend in size after the war generally followed the
prewar trend. After a brief period of the postwar growth retardation, males returned
to the course of the original secular trend, and soon surpassed it. Sex differences in
stature decreased from 1900 to 1950 in students and to 1970 in the general Japanese
population. It may thus be concluded that the Japanese have attained something
close to their full growth potential, and that the secular trend toward an increase in
stature has reached its final stage.
202
[Vol. 27, 1984
EPILOGUE
Recent studies of growth and development in Japan, especially after World War II,
were introduced in several topical areas. The general features of growth and development of Japanese were also described. These scientific studies commenced at about
1900, and then developed rapidly, covering almost all the aspects in various fields
until the beginning of the war. After a temporary suspension of study during the
war, studies on growth and development started again with supplementary reexamination of the prewar studies. Therefore, a short history of research was added in
each topical area.
Many researchers have tried to develop the norm of Japanese growth and development in physique and physical fitness, and to assess the growth and development
in individuals and populations for education and clinical aims. On the average,
present-day adult Japanese belong to the upper class of Asians and the lower class
of Europeans in physique. For example adult heights of Japanese are about 170 cm
in males and 157 cm in females. Physical measurements generally show a peak
velocity at approximately 12 years in males and 11 years in females, and reach a
plateau of adult size at about 17 and 16 years in each sex, respectively. The maximal
annual increment of stature in females is, on the average 8.7 cm. Peak velocity of
the stature occurs 1.38 years earlier than menarche, which occurs at 12.6 years of
age. Peak velocity occurs 2 or 3 years and about 1 year later than the eruption of
the second lower molar and the completion of its root, respectively, and almost at
the same time as the appearance of the ulnar sesamoid in females. Sex differences
appear at about 13 years. According to skeletal maturation, dimensions of the second
metacarpal are always larger in males than in females after birth, and sex differences become rapidly greater in size and form after 13 years. According to physical
growth, dental development, skeletal maturation, and appearance of sex differences,
Japanese are somewhat more delayed until childhood and then develop more rapidly
in preadolescence and adolescence than Americans and Europeans. However, they
reach maturity at almost the same time. Thus, growth and development are in
general more advanced in Japanese than in Americans and Europeans around
adolescence, except in secondary sex characters.
Growth and development of various groups of Japanese, i.e., Ainu children, children of Okinawa, Japanese-Americans, and Japanese-American hybrids, were also
described. The adolescent spurt occurs earlier and lasts longer in children of Okinawa than in children of other districts of Japan. Hybrid studies suggest that growth
in the prepubertal period depends upon environmental conditions, while hereditary
influences appear at adolescence. Finally, the secular trends for acceleration in
growth increase in stature in Japanese are considered, and it appears that the
secular trends have arrived at a final stage in the Japanese.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Professor Ronald Singer, Department of

Anatomy, University of Chicago, and Professor Robert Malina, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, for their helpful advice in the preparation
of the manuscript.
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YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 27:179-214 (1984)

Studies on Growth and Development in Japan

Japanese, Growth, Development, Maturation, Twins, Physical fitness, Secular trends

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

ported on growth studies of Japanese in the Japanese International Biological

Growth of the Head and Face

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

Body weight (kg)

Sitting height (cm)

Chest girth (cm)

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

GROWTH A N D DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

TABLE 2. Statistical ualues for measurements of physical fitness in Japanese

Tokyo Met. Univ. (19681, Minist. Educ. Sci. Cult. (19791.

GROWTHAND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

Other applications of allometry in growth studies

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

TABLE 3. Ages at the eruption of teeth in Japanese (Fujitq 1965)

Deciduous teeth (in days)

Permanent teeth (in months)

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

The assessment of skeletal maturation by radiographs was initiated in Japan

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

Cortical thickness and bone density

GROWTHAND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

undertaken by several researchers, while a comprehensive investigation has been

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

mura (1932), Murakami (1936), and Takaishi (1936) on schoolchildren or infants in

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

Has the secular trend stopped?

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Professor Ronald Singer, Department of

GROWTHAND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

Akita, Y, and Suzuki, S (1934)Studies of the growth

Barber, CR, and Hewitt, D (1956) Growth of the

Cronqvist, S (1968) Roentgenologic evaluation of

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

on variations caused by season. J. Dermatol.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

[Vol. 27, 1984

GROWTH A N D DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

Kimura, K (19764 On the skeletal maturation of

Kinjo, K (1960) Studies on the physical character

Kitamura, E, and Matsuura, Y (1971) Multivariate

YEARBOOK OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY