Chapter 1

The Main Themes of Microbiology

Microbiology
Microbiology

is a specialized area of biology that deals

with living organisms ordinarily too small to be seen
without magnification

Such

microscopic organisms are collectively referred to

as microorganisms or microbes

Microorganisms

include:

bacteria

viruses

fungi (microscopic, fungal spores)

protozoa (unicellular)

helminths (parasitic worms)

algae
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Microbiology
Microbiology

is one of the largest and most complex of

the biological sciences because it integrates subject
matter from many diverse disciplines

Microbiologists

study every aspect of microbes

their genetics

their physiology

characteristics that may be harmful or beneficial

the ways they interact with the environment and with their
hosts

their uses in industry and agriculture

Microbiological Endeavors-A sampler

Immunology
Public
Food,

health microbiology and epidemiology

dairy and aquatic microbiology

Agricultural

microbiology

Biotechnology
Genetic

engineering and recombinant DNA technology

Specialty Professions of Microbiology

Geomicrobiologists

- focus on the roles of microbes in the

development of earth s crust

Marine

microbiologists - study the oceans and its

smallest inhabitants

Pharmaceutical

microbiologists - discover and develop

new drugs from microbial sources

Nurse

epidemiologists - analyze the occurrence of

infectious diseases in hospitals

Astrobiologists

space

- study the possibilities of organisms in

The Impact of Microbes on Earth

For

billions of years, microbes have extensively shaped

the development of the earth s habitats and the
evolution of other life forms

Procaryotes
Eucaryotes

(no nucleus) appeared first

(with nucleus) appeared later

Microbes

can be found nearly everywhere, from the deep

in the earth s crust, to the polar ice caps and oceans, to
the bodies of plants and animals

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Microbial Involvement
Nutrient
Energy

production (photosynthesis)

flow through the earth s ecosystems

Decomposition

and nutrient recycling

Biotechnology

production of foods, drugs and vaccines

Genetic

engineering

Bioremediation
Infectious

diseases

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Infectious Diseases and the Human

Condition
Humanity

is plagued by nearly 2,000 different microbes

that can cause various types of diseases - pathogens

Infectious

diseases still devastate human populations

worldwide, despite significant strides in understanding and
treating them

10

B new infections/year worldwide (WHO)

12

M deaths from infections/year worldwide

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The General Characteristics of

Microorganisms
Prokaryotes

and eukaryotes

prokaryote microscopic, unicellular organisms, lack nuclei and

membrane-bound organelles

eukaryote unicellular (microscopic) and multicellular, nucleus

and membrane-bound organelles

Viruses

acellular, parasitic particles composed of a nucleic acid and

protein

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Microbial Dimensions
Prokaryotes
Viruses

are measured in micrometers (10-6 m)

in nanometers (10-9 m)

Helminths

are measured in millimeters (10-3 m)

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Insert figure 1.7

measurements

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Lifestyles of Microorganisms
The

majority of microorganisms live a free existence in

habitats such as soil and water, where they are
relatively harmless and often beneficial

free-living organism can derive all required foods and

other factors directly from a nonliving environment

Many

microorganisms have close associations with other

organisms

parasites - harbored and nourished in the bodies of larger

organisms called hosts

a parasite s actions may cause damage to its host through

infection and disease

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Historical Foundations of Microbiology

300

years of contributions by many microbiologists

Prominent

discoveries include:

microscopy

The rise of the scientific method

development of medical microbiology

germ theory

modern microbiological techniques

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

Dutch
First

Insert figure 1.8

linen merchant

to observe living microbes

Single-lens

magnified up to 300X

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Insert figure 1.9 (a)

microscope

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Spontaneous Generation
Early

belief that some forms of life could arise from vital

forces present in nonliving or decomposing matter (flies
from rotten meat, mushrooms on rotting tree, rats and
mice from piles of litter. etc)

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Scientific Method
A

general approach to explain a natural phenomenon

Form

a hypothesis - a tentative explanation that can be

supported or refuted by observation and experimentation

lengthy process of experimentation, analysis and

testing either supports or refutes the hypothesis

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Scientific Method
Results

must be published and repeated by other

investigators

If

hypothesis is supported by a growing body of evidence

and survives rigorous scrutiny, it moves to the next level
of confidence - it becomes a theory

If

evidence of a theory is so compelling that the next

level of confidence is reached - it becomes a Law or
principle

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Discovery of Spores and Sterilization

John

Tyndall and Ferdinand Cohn each demonstrated the

presence of heat resistant forms of some microbes

Cohn determined these forms to be endospores

Sterility

requires the elimination of all life forms

including endospores and viruses

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Development of Aseptic Techniques

Dr.

Oliver Wendell Holmes observed that mothers of

home births had fewer infections than those who gave
birth in hospital

Dr.

Ignaz Semmelweis correlated infections with

physicians coming directly from autopsy room to
maternity ward

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Development of Aseptic Techniques

Joseph

Lister introduced aseptic techniques reducing

microbes in medical settings to prevent infections

involved disinfection of hands using chemicals prior to surgery

use of heat for sterilization

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Pathogens and Germ Theory of

Disease
Many

diseases are caused by the growth of microbes in

the body and not by sins, bad character, or poverty, etc.

Two

major contributors:
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch

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Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

Showed

microbes caused fermentation

and spoilage

Disproved

spontaneous generation of
microorganisms

Insert figure 1.11

Developed

pasteurization

Demonstrated

what is now known as

Germ Theory of Disease

Developed

a rabies vaccine

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Robert Koch (1843-1910)

Established

Koch s postulates - a

sequence of experimental steps that

verified the germ theory

Insert figure 1.12

Identified

cause of anthrax, TB, and

Developed

pure culture methods

cholera

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Taxonomy: Organizing, Classifying and

Naming Living Things
Formal

system originated by Carl von Linn (1701-1778)

Concerned

with:

classification orderly arrangement of organisms into groups

nomenclature assigning names

identification discovering and recording traits of organisms

for placement into taxonomic schemes

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Levels of Classification
Domain

- Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya

Kingdom
Phylum

or Division

Class
Order
Family
Genus
species

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Naming Microrganisms
Binomial
Gives

(scientific) nomenclature

each microbe 2 names:

Genus - noun, always capitalized

species - adjective, lowercase

Both

italicized or underlined

Staphylococcus aureus

(S. aureus)

Bacillus subtilis "(B. subtilis)

Escherichia coli "(E. coli)

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Evolution - living things change gradually

over millions of years
Changes

favoring survival are retained and less beneficial

changes are lost

All

new species originate from preexisting species

Closely

related organisms have similar features because

they evolved from common ancestral forms

Evolution

usually progresses toward greater complexity

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3 Domains
Bacteria

- true bacteria, peptidoglycan

A rchaea

- odd bacteria that live in extreme

environments, high salt, heat, etc.

Eukarya-

have a nucleus and organelles

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Insert figure 1.15

Woese-Fox System

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