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Linear Transformations
In your previous mathematics courses you undoubtedly studied real-valued functions of one or more variables. For example, when you discussed parabolas the
function f (x) = x2 appeared, or when you talked abut straight lines the function f (x) = 2x arose. In this chapter we study functions of several variables,
that is, functions of vectors. Moreover, their values will be vectors rather than
scalars. The particular transformations that we study also satisfy a linearity
condition that will be made precise later.
3.1
110
x ) = cL(x
x), for any scalar c and vector x in V .
2. L(cx
Lets go back to Example 2 and verify that we did indeed have a linear transformation. For any x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ), we have
x + y ) = L[(x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )] = [x1 + y1 , (x2 + y2 ) (x1 + y1 ), x2 + y2 ]
L(x
x) + L(yy ).
= (x1 , x2 x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 y1 , y2 ) = L(x
Thus, condition 1 holds. Moreover
x) = L[(cx1 , cx2 )] = (cx1 , cx2 cx1 , cx2 ) = c(x1 , x2 x1 , x2 ) = cL(x
x)
L(cx
Since 1 and 2 hold, L is a linear transformation from R2 to R3 . The reader
should now check that the function in Example 1 does not satisfy either of these
two conditions.
Example 3. Define L : R3 R2 by L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x3 x1 , x1 + x2 ).
a. Compute L(ee1 ), L(ee2 ), and L(ee3 ).
b. Show L is a linear transformation.
c. Show L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 L(ee1 ) + x2 L(ee2 ) + x3 L(ee3 ).
a. L[(1, 0, 0)] = (1, 1), L[(0, 1, 0)] = (0, 1), L[(0, 0, 1)] = (1, 0).
x + y ) = L[(x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 )]
b. L(x
= ((x3 + y3 ) (x1 + y1 ), (x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 ))
= (x3 x1 , x1 + x2 ) + (y3 y1 , y1 + y2 )
x ) + L(yy )
= L(x
x ) = L[(cx1 , cx2 , cx3 )] = (cx3 cx1 , cx1 + cx2 )
L(cx
x)
= c(x3 x1 , x1 + x2 ) = cL(x
Thus L satisfies conditions 1 and 2 of Definition 3.1, and it is a linear transformation.
c. L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = L(x1e 1 + x2e 2 + x3e 3 )
= L(x1e 1 ) + L(x2e 2 ) + L(x3e 3 )
= x1 L(ee1 ) + x2 L(ee2 ) + x3 L(ee3 )
Notice that c implies that once L(eek ), k = 1, 2, 3, are known, the fact that L is
x) for any vector x in R3 .
a linear transformation completely determines L(x
We collect a few facts about linear transformations in the next theorem.
Theorem 3.1. Let L be a linear transformation from a vector space V into a
vector space W . Then
1. L(00) = 0
111
x) = L(x
x)
2. L(x
n
n
P
P
xk )
3. L
ak L(x
ak x k =
k=1
k=1
Proof.
x) = L(x
x + 0 ) = L(x
x ) + L(00). Adding
1. Let x be any vector in V . Then L(x
x) to both sides, we have L(00) = 0 , where the zero vector on the
L(x
left-hand side is in V while the zero vector on the right-hand side is in W .
x x ) = L(x
x) + L(x
x). Thus L(x
x) = L(x
x).
2. 0 = L(00 ) = L(x
3. We show that this formula is true for n = 3 and leave the details of an
induction argument to the reader.
L(a1x 1 + a2x 2 + a3x 3 ) = L(a1x 1 + a2x 2 ) + L(a3x 3 )
= L(a1x 1 ) + L(a2x 2 ) + L(a3x 3 )
x1 ) + a2 L(x
x2 ) + a3 L(x
x3 )
= a1 L(x
Example 4. Let L : R3 R4 be a linear transformation. Suppose we know
that L(1, 0, 1) = (1, 1, 0, 2), L(0, 1, 1) = (0, 6, 2, 0), and L(1, 1, 1) =
(4, 2, 1, 0). Determine L(1, 2, 1).
Solution. The trick is to realize that the three vectors for which we know L form
a basis F of R3 . Thus, all we need to do is find the coordinates of (1, 2, 1)
with respect to F , and then use 3 of Theorem 3.1. The change of basis matrix
x]TF = P [x
x ]TS .
P below is such that [x
1
P = 0
1
0
1
1
1
0 1
1
1 = 1
2 1
1
1 1
1
Using this matrix to find the coordinates of (1, 2, 1) with respect to F , we have
0 1
1
1
3
[1, 2, 1]TF = P [1, 2, 1]TS = 1
2 1 2 = 6
1 1
1 1
4
Thus
112
x1
1 1 2
x2
L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
4
1 3
x3
x1 x2 + 2x3
=
4x1 + x2 + 3x3
The reader should note that L(ee1 ) is the first column of A, L(ee2 ) is the second
column of A, and L(ee3 ) is the third column.
x) = Ax
x , then L(eek ) will be the
In general, if A is an m n matrix and L(x
kth column of the matrix A.
(a , b )
r
(a, b)
Figure 3.1
Until now weve thought of a linear transformation as an expression combining n variables to produce a vector in Rm . If we limit ourselves to this algebraic
viewpoint we miss a fuller appreciation of linear transformations. For example,
consider the mapping that rotates the points in the plane through an angle
about the origin. Thus, if the point (a, b) is rotated through an angle to the
position (a , b ), it turns out that the formulas relating (a , b ) to (a, b) imply
that this is a linear transformation. In fact (cf. Figure 3.1), setting
r = (a2 + b2 )1/2 = [(a )2 + (b )2 ]1/2 ,
113
we have that
a = r cos( + ) = r(cos cos sin sin )
= a cos b sin
b = r sin( + ) = r(sin cos + sin cos )
= a sin + b cos
Thus,
a
cos
=
b
sin
sin a
cos b
a b
Now whenever we see a matrix A of the form
, where a2 + b2 = 1, we
b
a
can think of A as defining a linear transformation from R2 to R2 that rotates
the plane about the origin through an angle , where cos = a, sin = b. Note
that AT = A1 corresponds to a rotation of .
In the succeeding pages we sometimes describe a linear transformation in
a geometrical manner as well as algebraically, and the reader should try to
visualize what the particular transformation is doing.
Example 6. Describe in geometrical terms the linear transformation defined
by the following matrices:
0 1
a. A =
. This is a clockwise rotation of the plane about the origin
1 0
through 90 degrees.
2 0
b. A =
0 13
T
1
T
A[x1 , x2 ] = 2x1 , x2
3
This linear transformation stretches the vectors in the subspace S[ee1 ] by
a factor of 2 and at the same time compresses the vectors in the subspace
S[ee2 ] by a factor of 13 . See Figure 3.2.
1 0
c. A =
. For this A, the pair (a, b) gets sent to the pair (a, b).
0 1
Hence this linear transformation reflects R2 through the x2 axis. See
Figure 3.3.
114
(3.3)
L[(3.3)] = (6, 1)
Figure 3.2
(a, b)
(a, b)
Figure 3.3
x) = Ax
x T for every x in R3 .
b. Find a 1 3 matrix A such that L(x
c. Compute L(eek ) for k = 1, 2, 3.
x : Ax
x T = 0}.
d. Find a basis for the subspace K = {x
2. Let L be a linear transformation from R3 to R2 such that L(ee1 ) = (1, 6),
L(ee2 ) = (0, 2), L(ee3 ) = (8, 1).
a. L(1, 2, 6) =?
b. L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =?
x) = Ax
xT .
c. Find a matrix A such that L(x
3. Let L be a linear transformation from R3 to R5 . Suppose that L(1, 0, 1) =
(0, 1, 0, 2, 0), L(0, 1, 2) = (1, 6, 2, 0, 1), and L(1, 1, 2) = (2, 3, 1, 4, 0).
Notice that the three vectors for which we know L form a basis of R3 .
a. Compute L(eek ) for k = 1, 2, 3.
b. L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =?
x) = Ax
xT .
c. Find a matrix A such that L(x
115
d. f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x2 , x2 , x3 , x3 , x1 )
5. Let L : V W be a linear transformation. Let K be any subspace of
x) : x is any vector in K}. Show that L(K) is a
V . Define L(K) = {L(x
subspace of W .
6. Let L : V W be a linear transformation. Let H be any subspace of W .
x : L(x
x ) is in H}. Show that L1 (H) is a subspace of
Define L1 (H) = {x
V.
7. Show that the function defined in Example 1 is not a linear transformation.
8. Let L1 and L2 both be linear transformations from V into W . Let B =
{ff k , k = 1, . . . , n} be any basis of V . Suppose that L1 (ff k ) = L2 (ff k ) for
x ) = L2 (x
x ) for every vector x in V .
each k. Show that L1 (x
x) = Ax
x T , show that L(eek ) is the
9. Let A = [ajk ] be an m n matrix. If L(x
kth column of A.
10. Let S = cI2 , be an arbitrary 2 2 scalar matrix. Describe the geometrical
xT has on R2 .
effect that the linear transformation Sx
d
0
is an arbitrary 2 2 diagonal matrix. Describe
11. Suppose D = 1
0 d2
x T for various values
what happens to x under the linear transformation Dx
of dj .
12. If D is any invertible 2 2 diagonal matrix, describe geometrically the
effects of the linear transformations defined by the two matrices D1 and
D1 D.
13. Let Pn be the vector space of all polynomials of degree at most n. Define
L(pp) = t2p for each p in Pn . Then L can be thought of as a mapping from
Pn to some vector space W . List some of these vector spaces, and then
show that L is a linear transformation for each of your W s.
14. Let V = C[0, 1], the vector space of continuous functions defined on [0,1].
1
a. Define L[ff ] = 0 f (t)dt. Show that L is a linear transformation from
V to R1 .
t
b. Define T [ff ](t) = 0 f (s)ds, for each t in [0,1]. Show that T is a linear
transformation from V to V .
116
15. Show that the operation of differentiation can be viewed as a linear transformation from Pn to Pn1 .
16. Let V = C[0, 1].
a. Let L : V V be defined by L[ff ](x) = f (x) sin x. Is L a linear
transformation?
b. Let L : V V be defined by L[ff ](x) = sin x + f (x). Is L a linear
transformation?
2 3
17. Let A =
. Let V = M22 .
1
5
x) = x A (matrix multiplication). Compute
a. Define L : V V by L(x
L(eej ) for j = 1, 2, 3, 4, where the e j s denote the standard basis
vectors of M22 .
b. Show that L is a linear transformation.
x) = Ax
x.
c. Repeat parts a and b for L : V V defined by L(x
3.2
Matrix Representations
Then
L(ee1 ) = L(1, 0, 0) = (0, 1, 1, 3) = (a11 , a21 , a31 , a41 )
L(ee2 ) = L(0, 1, 0) = (6, 1, 1, 1) = (a12 , a22 , a32 , a42 )
L(ee3 ) = L(0, 0, 1) = (2, 1, 6, 4) = (a13 , a23 , a33 , a34 )
117
0 6
2
1 1
1
A=
1
1 6
3 1
4
x). Let x =
The next task is to show how to use this matrix in computing L(x
(x1 , . . . , xn ). Then, assuming L : Rn Rm ,
!
n
n
X
X
x) = L
xk L(eek )
L(x
xk e k =
k=1
k=1
n
X
k=1
xk
m
X
j=1
ajk e j =
" n
m
X
X
j=1
ajk xk e j
k=1
0 6
2
1 1
1
A=
1
1 6
3 1
4
x , we have
Computing Ax
0 6
2
6x2 + 2x3
x
1
1 1
x2 = x1 x2 + x3
1
1 6
x1 + x2 6x3
x3
3 1
4
3x1 x2 + 4x3
x gives us the coordinates of L(x
x) in R4 .
Thus, Ax
The preceding computations were based upon the vector spaces being Rn
and Rm and using the standard bases. None of this is necessary in order for us
to interpert L as matrix multiplication.
Let L : V W be a linear transformation from V into W . Let F =
{ff k : k = 1, . . . , n}, and B = {gg j : j = 1, 2, . . . , m} be bases of V and W ,
respectively. Proceeding as before, we write L(ff k ) as a linear combination of
the basis vectors in G.
L(ff k ) = a1kg 1 + a2kg 2 + + amkg m
m
X
ajk g j
=
j=1
(3.2)
118
Let A = [ajk ] be the mn matrix whose kth column is [L(ff k )]TG , the coordinates
of L[ff k ] with respect to the basis G. This matrix A depends upon three things:
1. The linear transformation L
2. The basis F in V
3. The basis G in W
If we change either of the bases picked, the matrix representation A will also
change.
The next calculation illustrates how to use the representation A to calculate
x ). Let x be any vector in V . Let[x
x ]F = [x1 , . . . , xn ]. We
the coordinates of L(x
x] with respect to G are given by the
want to show that the coordinates of L[x
x]TF . Computing L[x
x] we have
matrix product A[x
" n
#
n
X
X
x) = L
L(x
xk L(ff k )
xk f k =
k=1
k=1
n
X
k=1
m
X
j=1
m
X
ajk g j
xk
j=1
n
X
k=1
ajk xk g j
(3.3)
119
1 1
0
A = 1
0
1
b. L(ee1 ) = (1, 1, 0) = 0(1, 0, 1) + 0(0, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 0) = 0gg 1 + 0gg 2 + g 3
L(ee2 ) = (1, 0, 1) = 0(1, 0, 1) + (0, 1, 1) (1, 1, 0) = 0gg 1 + g 2 g 3
0
0
1
A = 0
1 1
c. L(ff 1 ) = L(1, 1) = (0, 1, 1) = e 2 + e 3
L(ff 2 ) = L(1, 1) = (2, 1, 1) = 2ee1 e 2 + e 3
0 2
A = 1 1
1
1
d. L(ff 1 ) = 0gg 1 + g 2 + 0gg 3
L(ff 2 ) = 0gg 1 + g 2 2gg 3
0
0
1
A = 1
0 2
It is clear from this example that the matrix representation of a linear transformation depends upon which bases are used in V and in W . If V and W are
the same vector spaces, then normally (in this text always) only one basis is
used, rather than two different bases for the same vector space.
Example 4. Let L : R2 R2 be a linear transformation. Let F = {(1, 6),
(2, 3)}. Suppose the matrix representation of L with respect to F is
2
8
A=
1 4
x ) for any vector x in R2 .
Compute L(x
x) using the
Solution. Let x = (x1 , x2 ) be any vector in R2 . To compute L(x
x]F , the coordinates of x with respect to the basis F .
matrix A we need to find [x
The change of basis matrix P below gives the basis F in terms of the standard
basis
1 2
P =
6
3
120
x ]TF
Using P 1 we calculate [x
1
3 2 x1
x
x ]F = P 1 1 =
[x
x2
15 6 1 x2
1
3x1 + 2x2
=
15 6x1 + x2
x) with respect to F are
Thus, the coordinates of L(x
2
8
(3x1 + 2x2 )/15
x ]F =
A[x
1 4 (6x1 + x2 )/15
1 42x1 + 12x2
=
21x1 6x2
15
Thus
1
1
(42x1 + 12x2 )ff 1 +
(21x1 6x2 )ff 2
15
15
1
1
(42x1 + 12x2 )(1, 6) +
(21x1 6x2 )(2, 3)
=
15
15
6x2 21x1
=
{2(1, 6) (2, 3)}
15
6x2 21x1
=
(4, 9)
15
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Example 5. Let F =
. Thus F is the standard
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
2 1
x ) = Bx
x . Find
basis of M22 . Let B =
. Define L : M22 M22 by L(x
3 4
the matrix representation of L with respect to the standard basis F of M22 .
2 1 1 0
2 0
L(ff 1 ) = Bff 1 =
=
3 4 0 0
3 0
x) =
L(x
= 2ff 1 + 3ff 3
2 1 0
L(ff 2 ) = Bff 2 =
3 4 0
= 2ff 2 + 3ff 4
2 1 0
L(ff 3 ) = Bff 3 =
3 4 1
= f 1 + 4ff 3
2 1 0
L(ff 4 ) = Bff 4 =
3 4 0
= f 2 + 4ff 4
1
0 2
=
0
0
3
0
1 0
=
0
4 0
0
0 1
=
1
0 4
121
2
0
0 2
3
0
0
3
1
0
4
0
0
1
0
4
In the following pages, when we say A, an m n matrix, is a linear transformation or represents a linear transformation without specifically mentioning a
basis or vector spaces, it is to be understood that V = Rn , W = Rm , and that
the standard bases in both V and W are being used.
6
1
4
0
with respect
2. Let L : R2 R4 have matrix representation A =
2
9
8 3
to the standard bases.
a. L(ee1 ) =?, L(ee2 ) =?
b. L(3, 7) =?
c. L(x1 , x2 ) =?
x ) = L(L(x
x)),
3. Let L be a linear transformation from R2 into R2 . Define L2 (x
x ) = L(L2 (x
x )), and Ln+1 (x
x ) = L(Ln (x
x )). Suppose L(x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 +
L 3 (x
bx2 , cx1 + dx2 ).
a. Find the matrix representation A of L with respect to the standard
bases.
b. Show that the matrix representation of L2 with respect to the standard bases is A2 , and in general the matrix representation of Ln with
respect to the standard bases is An .
c. What can you say if some basis other than the standard basis is used?
4. Let V = R3 and let F = {(1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}. Suppose that the
matrix A represents a linear transformation L : R3 R3 with respect to
the basis F , where
0 1 2
0
A = 2 1
5 0
1
a. L(1, 2, 3) =?
b. L(1, 0, 0) =?
c. L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =?
122
x ) = cx
x,
5. Let V be a vector space of dimension n. Define L : V V by L(x
where c is any constant. Let F be any basis of V . What is the matrix
representation of L with respect to this basis?
6. Let L1 (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 x2 , 2x1 +3x2 ) and let L2 (x1 , x2 ) = (2x1 5x2 , 3x1
x ) = L1 (x
x) + L2 (x
x ).
x2 ). Define (L1 + L2 )(x
a. Find the matrix representations A1 and A2 of L1 and L2 , respectively,
with respect to the standard basis of R2 .
b. Show that the matrix representation of L1 + L2 is A1 + A2 .
7. Let L1 and L2 be two linear transformations mapping R2 into R2 . Let F
be any basis of R2 . Let A1 and A2 be the matrix representations of L1
and L2 , with respect to the basis F , respectively. Show that the matrix
representation of L1 + L2 with respect to F is A1 + A2 .
8. Let L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x2 + x3 , 6x1 x2 + 3x3 , 2x1 + 3x2 7x3 , 2x1 + 6x3 ).
a. Compute L[eek ] for k = 1, 2, 3.
b. Find the matrix representation A, of L, with respect to the standard
bases in R3 and R4 .
x ] for any vector x in R3 .
c. Compute A[x
9. Define L : R4 R2 by L(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (x2 + 2x3 + 3x4 , 2x1 6x4 ).
a. Compute L(eek ) for k = 1, 2, 3, 4.
b. Find the matrix representation A, of L, with respect to the standard
bases in R4 and R2 .
x ] for any vector x in R4 .
c. Compute A[x
10. Let L be a linear transformation from R3 to R2 . Let F = {(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1),
(1, 1, 0)} = {ff 1 , f 2 , f 3 }. Let G = {(1, 2), (2, 3)} = {gg 1 , g 2 }. Suppose
that
2
0 4
the matrix representation of L with respect to these bases is
.
1 2 1
a. For k = 1, 2, 3, [L(ff k )]G =?
b. Compute L(ff k ) for k = 1, 2, 3.
c. Find the matrix representation of L using the standard basis S in R3
and the basis G in R2 .
d. Find the matrix representation of L using the standard basis S in
both R3 and R2 .
11. Let L : R2 R2 . Let F = {ff 1 , f 2 } be a basis of R2 . Suppose that
2 0
A=
0 3
is the matrix representation of L with respect to the basis F . What is
L(ff k ) for k = 1, 2?
123
12. Let L be the linear transformation that rotates the plane through an angle
of degrees. Let A be the matrix representation of L. Then as we saw in
Section 3.1
cos sin
A=
sin
cos
Find the matrix representations of L2 , L3 , . . . , Ln . (Hint: What is L2
geometrically?)
13. Let L1 and L2 be two linear transformations from R2 to R2 . Define the
x ) = L1 (L2 (x
x )).
composition of L1 with L2 by L1 L2 (x
a. Show that the composition of two linear transformations is also a
linear transformation.
b. If A1 and A2 are the matrix representations of L1 and L2 with respect
to the same basis, respectively, show that the matrix representation
of the composition L1 L2 is given by the matrix product A1 A2 .
14. Find the matrix representations for each of the following linear transformations with respect to the standard basis of the vector space in question:
a. L : Pn Pn1 by L(pp) = p , i.e., L(pp) is the derivative of the
polynomial p .
b. L : Pn Pn by L(pp) = p .
2
2
X
X
(jaj sin jx + jbj cos jx)
aj cos jx + bj sin jx =
L
j=1
j=1
124
0
0
3.3
For any linear transformation L, mapping V into W , there are two important
subspaces associated with L. The first is a subspace of V called the kernel of L;
the second is a subspace of W called the range of L. In this section we define
these two subspaces and describe their relation to the solution set of a system
of equations.
Definition 3.2. Let L : V W . The kernel of L is the set of vectors x
x) = 0 . Letting ker(L) represent the kernel of L, we have
in V for which L(x
x : L(x
x) = 0 }.
ker(L) = {x
2 6 4
Example 1. Let A =
be the matrix representation of L. Find the
1 1 2
kernel K of this linear transformation.
125
This example demonstrates that the kernel is just the solution set of a homogeneous system of linear equations. We note that K has dimension equal to
1 and that (2, 0, 1) is a basis of K.
Definition 3.3. Let L be a linear transformation mapping V into W . The
x) = w , for some vector x
range of L is the set of vectors w in W such that L(x
w : w = L(x
x) for some x in V }.
in V . Thus, Rg(L) = range(L) = {w
Example 2. Find the range of the linear transformation in Example 1.
Solution. Since A : R3 R2 , the range of A consists of those w in R2 such that
x = w has a solution. The augmented matrix of the associated system is
Ax
2 6 4 w1
1 1 2 w2
It is clear that this system has a solution regardless of the values of w1 and w2 ,
e.g., x1 = (6w2 w1 )/4, x2 = (2w2 w1 )/4, and x3 = 0. Thus, Rg(L) = R2 .
Theorem 3.2. Let L : V W be a linear transformation. Then
a. ker(L) is a subspace of V .
b. Rg(L) is a subspace of W .
Proof. Since L(00) = 0 , we know that both the kernel and the range are nonempty.
Thus, to show that these two sets are subspaces we may use Theorem 2.6. Hence,
x + y ) = L(x
x) + L(yy ) =
suppose that x and y are in K = ker(L). Then L(x
0 + 0 = 0 . Thus, K is closed under vector addition. Now let a be any
x) = aL(x
x) = a00 = 0 , and we see that K is also closed
scalar; then L(ax
under scalar multiplication. This shows that K is a subspace. To see that
Rg(L) is a subspace, suppose that u and v are any two vectors in Rg(L). Then
x) = u and L(yy ) = v . Then
there are two vectors x and y in V such that L(x
x + y ) = L(x
x) + L(yy ) = u + v and Rg(L) is closed under addition. Similarly
L(x
u = aL(x
x) = L(ax
x). Since Rg(L) is closed under
if a is any constant, then au
vector addition and scalar multiplication, it is a subspace of W .
Consider a system of m linear equations in n unknowns
a11 x1 + + a1n xn = b1
..........................
am1 x1 + + amn xn = bm
(3.4)
126
x] = Ax
x, where
Let L be the linear transformation from Rn to Rm defined by L[x
A is the coefficient matrix [ajk ] of (3.4). Then the kernel of L is just the solution
set of the homogeneous system associated with (3.4). For x is in ker(L) if and
x) = 0 , but L(x
x) = 0 if and only if Ax
x = 0 . That is, x is in ker(L) if
only if L(x
and only if x is a solution of (3.4) with bj = 0 for j = 1, 2, . . . , m. The range
of L consists of those vectors b in Rm such that there is an x in Rn for which
x) = b , i.e., Ax
x = b . That is, b is in the range of L if and only if (3.4) has a
L(x
solution.
Example 3. Consider the following system of equations:
x1 + 2x2 +
3x4 = b1
2x1 + 3x2 + 7x3 + 8x4 = b2
4x1 2x2 + 6x3
= b3
(3.5)
Find the kernel and range of the coefficient matrix of the above system of equations. Then determine the dimensions of these two subspaces.
Solution. The coefficient matrix A equals
1
2 0
2
3 7
4 2 6
and is row equivalent to the matrix
1 0
0 1
0 0
3
8
0
2 1
1 2
0 0
1
2 0 3 b1
2
3 7 8 b2
4 2 6 0 b3
is row equivalent to
1 2
0 1
0 0
0 3
1 2
0 0
b1
127
(3.6)
128
Solution. To see that L is not one-to-one we observe that the vector (1, 2, 1)
is in ker(L); that is, L(1, 2, 1) = (0, 0) = L(0, 0, 0), but (1, 2, 1) 6= (0, 0, 0).
Hence, L is not one-to-one. To see that L is onto we have to show that Rg(L) =
R2 . Thus, let (w1 , w2 ) be any vector in R2 . Our task is to find x = (x1 , x2 , x3 )
x) = (w1 , w2 ). Equivalently we need to solve the following system
such that L(x
of equations:
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = w1
x2 + 2x3 = w2
A solution to this system is x1 = w1 2w2 , x2 = w2 , and x3 = 0.
1 1
1
1
1 0
1
1 1
a. 1 0 1
b. 0
c.
d.
1 1
1
0 1
1
1 0 1
129
1 2
0
a. 1 2
b. 1 0
c.
1
0 1
1 2
1
a. 1 2
b. 1 0
c.
2
0 1
5. For each of the matrices below determine the dimensions of their range
and kernel. Then determine if the linear transformations represented by
these matrices are onto and/or one-to-one.
1
2 1
3
1 0 1
1 1
1 1
0 0
1
0
1
a.
b. 0
1 0
0
1
0
1
0
0 0
1
1
1
0
0
xj : j = 1, . . . , n} be a
7. Let L : V W be a linear transformation. Let {x
xj ) : j = 1, . . . , n} is a spanning set for
basis of V . Show that the set {L(x
Rg(L).
8. Let L : Rn Rm be a linear transformation.
a. Show that if n > m, then L must have a nontrivial kernel, i.e.,
dim(ker(L)) > 0.
b. If n m does L have to be one-to-one?
9. Let L : Rn Rm be a linear transformation.
a. If n < m, show that L cannot be onto.
b. If n m, must L be onto?
130
1 2 5
.
2 3 1
131
3.4
Rank of a Matrix
In the last section we proved a theorem that said the dimensions of the kernel, range, and domain of a linear transformation are related by the equation
dim(V ) = dim(ker) + dim(Rg). We have also seen that the kernel is just the
solution set for a system of homogeneous equations. In this section we show
that the dimension of the range of L is the same as the maximum number of
linearly independent rows or columns in a matrix representation of L. Since
this number is easy to calculate, we have an efficient method for computing the
dimension of Rg(L) and hence an efficient method of determining the size of the
solution set of a system of linear equations.
Definition 3.6. Let A = [ajk ] be an m n matrix. Each row of A can be
thought of as a vector in Rn and each column of A can be considered a vector
in Rm . The row space of A is that subspace of Rn spanned by the row vectors
of A, and the column space of A is that subspace of Rm spanned by the column
vectors of A.
Definition 3.7. Let A = [ajk ] be an m n matrix. The row rank of A is the
dimension of the row space of A and the column rank of A is the dimension of
the column space of A.
2 1
1. The row space of A is that subspace of
Example 1. Let A = 1
0
4
R2 spanned by the set {(2, 1), (1,1), (0,4)}. Clearly this set spans a subspace of R2 of dimension 2. Hence the row space of A is R2 , and the row
rank is 2. The column space of A is that subspace of R3 spanned by the set
{(2, 1, 0), (1, 1, 4)}. Since this set is linearly independent the column space
has dimension 2. Thus the column rank is 2.
The fact that the row rank of A was equal to its column rank was no accident,
as the following theorem shows.
Theorem 3.5. Let A = [aik ] be an m n matrix. Then the column rank and
the row rank of A are equal.
Proof. Suppose the column rank of A is p. Then 0 p n. If p = 0, every
column of A is the zero vector in Rm , and hence every row of A is the zero
vector in Rn . Thus the row space is the zero vector and we have row rank equal
to 0 also. Now assume that p > 0. Let {zz j : j = 1, . . . , p} be a basis for the
column space of A, where
z j = (z1j , z2j , . . . , zmj )
Then if C k is the kth column of A, i.e., C k = (a1k , a2k , . . . , amk )T , there are
constants bjk , 1 j p, such that
Ck =
p
X
j=1
bjk z Tj
132
p
X
bjk zij
1 k n, 1 i m
j=1
p
p
p
X
X
X
bjn zij
bj2 zij , . . . ,
bj1 zij ,
=
j=1
p
X
j=1
j=1
j=1
Thus, the p row vectors (bj1 , . . . , bjn ), 1 j p, form a spanning set for the
row space of A. Hence, row rank p. This shows that the row rank of any
matrix must be less than or equal to its column rank. Since the row rank of AT
is the column rank of A, and the column rank of AT is the row rank of A, we
also have that the column rank is less than or equal to the row rank. Hence the
row and column ranks are equal.
Definition 3.8. The rank of a matrix is the common value of its row and
column rank.
Example 2. Compute the rank of the following matrix:
1 0 1 0
A = 2 1 1 1
0 2 3 2
1 0
1 0
B = 0 1 1 1
0 0
5 0
This last matrix has rank equal to 3. Since the rows of B were obtained from
linear combinations of the rows of A and we can also obtain the rows of A from
linear combinations of the rows of B, the row spaces of A and B must be the
same. Hence, A and B have the same row rank and thus the same rank, namely,
3.
In the preceding example we computed the row rank of A by first finding the
row rank of a matrix that was row equivalent to A and then used the fact that
their row ranks were equal. We formalize this in the next theorem.
Theorem 3.6. If A and B are two matrices that are row or column equivalent,
then the rank of A is equal to the rank of B.
133
Remembering that ker(L) is just the solution space of the homogeneous system
x = 0 , we have our promised algorithm for computing the size of the solution
Ax
space.
What can be said about nonhomogeneous equations? Essentially the same
thing, as the following theorem indicates.
x 0 = b . Then the solution space of Ax
x =b
Theorem 3.7. Suppose x 0 satisfies Ax
x = b is equal to x 0 plus some
equals x 0 + ker(A); that is, every solution of Ax
vector in the kernel. Note that this is just Theorem 1.10 restated.
x = b . Then
Proof. Suppose Ax
x Ax
x 0 = A(x
x x0)
0 = b b = Ax
x0 is in the kernel of A, and x = x 0 + (x
x x
x0 ). Conversely if x = x0 +zz
Thus x x
z
for some in the kernel, then
x = A(x
x 0 + z ) = Ax
x0 + Azz = b + 0 = b
Ax
Example 3. Describe the solution set of the following system of equations:
2x1
+ 4x3 + 5x4 = 8
x1 + 2x2
+ 5x4 = 4
x1 + 6x2 + 3x3 + 10x4 = 11
134
1
1
is row equivalent to the matrix
which equals
0 4 5
2 0 5
6 3 10
1 0
0 1
0 0
0
1
5
2
5
4
135
for this linear transformation using the natural basis {1, t, t2 , . . . , tm } in Pm and
the standard basis {ee1 , . . . , e n } in Rn .
L(1) = (1, 1, . . . , 1)
L(t) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
L(tk ) = (xk1 , . . . , xkn )
k = 1, 2, . . . , m
1 x1 x21 . . . xm
1
1 x2 x22 . . . xm
2
A=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 xn x2n . . . xm
n
If all the xj s are different, it can be shown that the rank of A is the smaller
of the two numbers m + 1 and n. Thus, if we wish to always be able to solve
L(pp) = (y1 , . . . , yn ) we need rank A = n. Clearly, the smallest value of m that
works is m = n 1; i.e., A is a square matrix. Another way of stating this
is that for any n distinct numbers x1 , . . . , xn the linear transformation L maps
Pn1 (polynomials of degree n 1 or less) onto Rn in a one-to-one fashion.
Example 4. Given the three points (1, 6), (2,0), and (3,6), we know from the
above discussion that there is a polynomial p (t), of degree 3 1 = 2, such that
p (1) = 6, p (2) = 0, and p (3) = 6. Find this polynomial.
Solution. The transformation L : P2 R3 defined by the abscissas of these
three points satisfies
L(11 ) = (1, 1, 1)
L(tt) = (1, 2, 3)
L(tt2 ) = (1, 4, 9)
1 1 1
A = 1 2 4
1 3 9
This matrix has rank equal to 3. We wish to find p (t) such that L(pp) = (6, 0, 6).
In terms of the coefficients aj of p (t) = a0 + a1 t + a2 t2 , we want a solution to
the equation
a0
6
A a1 = 0
a2
6
136
(3,6)
p(t) = 12 + 6t
(2,0)
(1,6)
Figure 3.4
1 1
1
1
1 0
1
1 1
a. 1 0 1
b. 0
c.
d.
1 1
1
0 1
1
1 0 1
1
a. 1 2
b. 1
0
2
7
0
c.
5
1
1
2 1
3
1 0 1
1 1
1 1
0 0
0
1
0
1
b.
a.
1 0
0
1
0
1
0
0 0
1
1
1
0
0
137
4. For each matrix below, determine the dimensions of the range and kernel.
Then decide if the linear transformation it represents is onto and/or oneto-one.
1 2
7
a. 1 2
b. 1 0
c.
5
0 1
5. For each matrix below determine the dimensions of the range and kernel.
Then decide if the linear transformation it represents is onto and/or oneto-one.
2
3 5
7
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
5 0
4
0 5
1
b.
a.
5
2 1
0
1
2 3
4
1 1
1
1
1 0
0
6. Compute the row rank and column rank of each of the following matrices:
1
2 1
3 6 4 1
4
1
6 0 3
5 6
a.
b. 2 8 4 3
c.
8 1 2
2 1 1 0
4 1 0 0
6
1 0
7. Consider the following system of linear equations:
2x1
6x3 = 6
x2 + x3 = 1
138
b. (2,0), (1, 4)
139
15. Let V = C[0, 1], the vector space of real-valued continuous functions defined on [0,1]. Define the mapping L by
L[ff ] =
f (0)
+f
2
f (1)
1
1
+
2
2
2
Thus, if f (1) = sin t, we have L[ff ] = [(sin 0)/2 + sin 12 + (sin 1)/2]( 21 ).
This formula is just the trapezoid rule for the approximate evaluation of
integrals over the interval [0,1] using the points 0, 21 , and 1.
a. Show that L is a linear transformation, after deciding of course what
W should be. Characterize the range and kernel of L.
1
b. Let L1 [ff ] = L[ff ] 0 f (t)dt. Show that L1 is also a linear transformation. How would you describe its kernel?
16. For each of the following matrices A compute the rank of A, AT , AAT ,
and AT A. You should get rank AT A equals rank A and rank AAT equals
rank AT . Hence all four numbers are equal.
1 0 2
1 2
a. 1 1 2
b.
c.
0 1 3
3
2
17. Let A be any m n matrix. How are the row space of A and the range of
AT related?
18. Let x1 , x2 , and x3 be three different numbers.
1 x1
a. Show rank
= 2.
1 x2
1 x1 x21
b. Show rank 1 x2 x22 = 3.
1 x3 x23
Hint: The matrix in a is row equivalent to
1
0
x1
.
x2 x1
19. Define L : P2 R3 by L[pp] = (pp(x1 ), p (x2 ), p (x3 )), where the xj s are all
different. Show that L is one-to-one and onto.
20. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be n pairwise distinct numbers. Let
1 x1 x21 . . . x1n1
1 x2 x2 . . . xn1
2
2
A=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 xn x2n . . . xnn1
Show that rank A = n.
140
3.5
n
X
k=1
n
X
akj f k
(3.7)
bkj g k
(3.8)
k=1
x]TG = P [x
x]TF , that is
Let P = [pjk ] be the change of basis matrix that satisfies [x
n
X
pkj g k
(3.9)
n
X
qkj f k
(3.10)
fj =
k=1
k=1
We refer the reader to Theorem 2.11 and the material preceding it. Computing
L[ff j ], we have
" n
#
n
X
X
L[ff j ] = L
pkj L[gg k ]
pkj g k =
k=1
k=1
=
=
n
X
k=1
n
X
pkj
m=1
n
X
bskg s
s=1
n
n X
X
k=1 s=1
n X
n
X
k=1 s=1
pkj bsk
n
X
m=1
qmsf m
141
n X
n
X
(3.11)
k=1 s=1
for m and j varying from 1 through n. However, the right-hand side of (3.11)
is the m, j entry of the matrix P 1 BP . Thus we have
A = P 1 BP
and B = P AP 1
(3.12)
A better way to remember how the matrix representations A and B are related
is to utilize formulas (3.3), that is,
x)]TF = A[x
x]TF
[L(x
x]TG
x)]TG = B[x
[L(x
Thus,
x )]TG = P [L(x
x)]TF = P (A[x
x ]TF )
[L(x
x]TG ) = (P AP 1 )[x
x ]TG
= (P A)(P 1 [x
Hence, we must have B = P AP 1 . The reader is referred to problem 11 in
Section 2.6 for a justification of this last step.
Example 1. Let L be a linear transformation from R2 to R2 defined by
L(x1 , x2 ) = (2x1 +x2 , 3x1 2x2 ). Verify formulas (3.12) for F = {(1, 1), (1, 2)}
and G = {(1, 1), (2, 0)}.
Solution. Writing the vectors in F as linear combinations of the vectors in G,
we have
(1, 1) = (1, 1) + 0(2, 0)
3
(1, 2) = 2(1, 1) +
(2, 0)
2
Thus,
1 2
P =
0 23
"
1
0
4
3
32
To determine A, we compute
2
7
(1, 1) (1, 2)
3
3
7
7
L(1, 2) = (0, 7) = (1, 1) (1, 2)
3
3
L(1, 1) = (3, 1) =
Thus,
A=
"
7
3
23
37
37
142
To determine B, we compute
L(1, 1) = (3, 1) = (1, 1) (2, 0)
L(2, 0) = (4, 6) = 6(1, 1) (2, 0)
Thus,
1 6
B=
1 1
Computing P 1 BP we have
"
4
1
3
2
0 3
#
" 7
1 6 1 2
3
=
1 1
0 23
23
#
37
=A
37
0 0
2
1
3 1
0 1
A=
1 0 1
6
0 1 1
0
P 1
1
0 0
0
1 0
=
1 1 1
1
0 1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1 1
0
1
0
0
P =
1 1 1
2
0
1
1 1
Using (3.12), where B is the matrix representation of L with respect to the basis
143
1
1
1 1
0
0
3
1
0
0
=
1 1 1
2 1
0
1
1 1
0
4 2
2 1
2 1 1 3
=
5 0 3
3
7 0
5 2
0
2
1
0
0 1
1 1
1 1
0 0
0
1
1 0
6 1 1 1
0
1
0 1
1
0
1
0
(3.13)
The reader should look at problem 9 at the end of this section for one method of
proving this result.
144
0 1 2
0
A = 2 1
5 0
1
145
8. Let F = {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)} and G = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}.
Let L(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 + x2 + x3 , x2 + x3 , x3 ). Verify (3.12) for the above
bases and linear transformation L.
9. Prove Theorem 3.8. Hint: Use problem 11 in Section 2.6 and
(3.3).
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
10. Let F1 =
,
,
,
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 1
1 1
Let F2 =
,
,
,
1 1
1 1
0 1
1 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0
Let G1 =
,
,
,
,
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1
Let G2 =
,
,
,
,
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
0 1 1
1 0
1 1 1
1 1 0
formula
0
,
0
1
,
1
Suppose that
2
0 3
1
0
1
0
1
4
1 A1 =
3
1
5
2 2
0
1
2
3
Find the other three matrix representations.
0
0
1
4
11. Suppose A and B are similar n n matrices, i.e., there is a matrix P such
that A = P BP 1 .
a. How are ker(A) and ker(B) related?
b. How are Rg(A) and Rg(B) related?
12. Let L : P2 P2 be a linear transformation. Let F = {t2 +t1, t2 +2, t6}.
Suppose the matrix representation of L with respect to F is
14 2 18
18
A = 23 11
11
2
15
Find the matrix representation of L with respect to the standard basis of
P2 .
146
Supplementary Problems
1. Define and give examples of each of the following:
a. Linear transformation
b. Range and kernel of a linear transformation
c. Rank of a matrix
d. Column (row) rank
2
6
2. Let A = 1 2 be the matrix representation of a linear transformation
3
5
from Rk to RP .
a. k =?p =?
b. Determine the dimensions of ker(A) and Rg(A).
3. For each of
the kernel:
3 1
a. 1 0
1 1
the following matrices determine the rank and find a basis for
2
1
1
1 2
b. 4 3
1 0
0 6
1 0
0 1
4
c. 6
2
2 4
3 6
1 2
6
9
1
Rank(AB) minimum{rank(A),rank(B)}
Hint: Rank (A) equals dim(Rg(A)).
5. Define L : R2 R2 by L(x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + x2 , x2 ). Show that L maps
the straight line y = mx onto the straight line y = [m/(m + 1)]x. What
happens to the line y = x?
6. Describe, geometrically, the following linear transformations, and in each
case determine the kernel and range:
a. L(x1 , x2 ) = (x1 x2 , x1 + x2 )
147
148
x : L[x
x] = x} is an invariant
b. For any constant , show W = {x
subspace.
2 1 0
14. Let A = 2 3 0 be the matrix representation of a linear transfor0 0 4
mation L with respect to the standard basis. Show that S[ee1 ] is not an
invariant subspace but that S[ee1 , e2 ] and S[ee3 ] are invariant subspaces; cf.
problem 13.
x1 , . . . , x n } be a basis for a vector space V . Let L be a linear
15. Let F = {x
x 1 , . . . , xk ] and S[x
xk+1 , . . . , xn ]
transformation from V into V for which S[x
are both invariant subspaces of L. Let A be the matrix representation of
L with respect to the basis F . Show that
B1 0
A=
0 B2
where B1 is a kk matrix and B2 is an (nk)(nk) matrix. Conversely,
suppose that A has the above form. Show that the above two subspaces
must be invariant.