Lecture 13

Previously
!

Seen beta and gamma decay

Today
!

Look at alpha decay

!

See alpha decay chains

See large range of alpha decay lifetimes

!

Due to quantum tunneling

See some applications of radiation

Alpha decay: changes N and Z

Homer at Nuke
Plant

Alpha decay chain

Includes - decay
- preferentially shed ns
(recall, for large A: N > Z
but for small A: N = Z.
So as move to lower A,
need to reduce N/Z ratio)

Actually, only 4 possible

decay chains.. as a decay
changes A by 4.
i.e. writing A = 4n + m
Chains for m = 0, 1, 2, 3

(R 1/)

Massive range in alpha lifetimes

Exponential dep
on Z/Q

(E Q)

Schematic of alpha emission

Picture alpha emission as:

en

Schematic of alpha emission

V(r)

What potential does alpha feel?

rN

rN

which shows the alpha particle has a large potential b

energy release Q is large, then its energy will be above the
decay very fast. However, the maximum of the potential w

2
he alpha particle has a large potential barrier 2(Z
to overcome
decay.
If
2)e2 in its2Ze
=
V

max
1/3
large, =>
then its energy will be above the maximum
4"0ofrnthe potential
4"0 r0 Aand it
owever, the maximum of the potential will be
For the nuclei which alpha decay, Z/A1/3 15 and so this
2
2
Z decay Q values.
2(Z

2)e
2Ze
larger
than
most
observed
alpha
= 2.4 1/3 MeV 10s of MeV
Vmax

1/3
4"0Thus
rn as the
4"0Q
r0value
A
A
(the energy
release) is usually well
As you
will know,
any
QM m
t
1/3 by
ch alpha decay,only
Z/Aoccur
15 QM
and tunnelling.
so this barrier
is several
10s of
MeV,

kr
pendix
I
non-examinable
Gamow
amplitude goes as e - Deriving
, where
k =factor
2m(V0

E)/h. T
2kd
Massive
range
in
alpha
lifetimes
barrier
!
ion through
the
whole
barrier
is
proportional
to
e
kr
goes as e , where k = 2m(V0 E)/h. This means
ry small probability. The above is for a2kd
constant V0 .
h the whole barrier is proportional
to e
. Hence, a
V
tion of r and so in this case the probability for an alph
robability.
actor G
" V0 . However,
factor
G isis The above is for a constant

2an k(r)
dr getting
2G t

this case 2the

nd so in
probability
for
alpha
22 2m Z e
=e
2
2mQ
Ze
e
Z
2mQ
Ze
e
2m
Z
Z
1/2
"
1/2

d
G
=
=
=
2.0
MeV

G =factor
=
=
2.0
MeV
Gamow
G is
2
k(r)
dr
2G
h

h
QQ= e
QQ
00
e the Gamow
factor

h !4!
4!00Q
Q 2 G eis4!
4!
h
2 2m Z
2mQ
Ze
e
Z
goes as e , where k = 2m(V E)/h. This means the probability of trans1/2

G
=
=
=
2.0
MeV
.
#
#
gh
the
whole
barrier
is
proportional
to
e
.
Hence,
a
large
d
or
small
E
give
$
us
R
(equal
to
the
inverse
of
the
lifetime)
is
then
expec
h

4!
Q
4!
h

Q
Q
us
R
(equal
to
the
inverse
of
the
lifetime)
is
then
expe
0
0
2m
2
mow
factor
Gis is
probability.
The above
for a constant V . However, the Coulomb barrier is a
Gthe=probability
k(r)
V
(r)
and so in this case
for andr
alpha=
getting through is proportional
to Q dr =%

er nucleus
R (equal"
to the inverse
the lifetime)
is
then
expected
to
b
# $11of
#
#
h
h

2G
e
= eR =
2m
2mQ
2
2G,
=
ae
=
ae
,
R
=
1
=
k(r)
dr
=
V
(r)

Q
dr
=

2G
mow factor G is
=
ae
,
R
=

%
integral
is
over
the
range
of
radii
for
which hthe alpha4
e

# $
#
#
2m
2mQ
2Ze
1 dr
G = k(r) dr =
V (r) Q dr =
h
h
4! Qr where the alpha energ
nucleus radius
out to the
radius
Z
the
of theradii
for
the
alpha
energy
Z . is be
Z
sover
over the range
ofrange
radii
for which
alpha
energy
iswhich
below
the =
barrier,
i.e.
from

log
R
=
log
a

(2
log
e)G
log
a

1.7
the
log
Rthe
=alpha
log
a(2
log e)G
=the=
log
a than
1.7
. nuclea
l Q,
this
latter
radius
is(2is greater
much
log
R
=
log
a
log
e)G
log
a
.
adius
out to
the
radius
where
energy
than bigger
potential.
For 1.7
Q
Q
dius
out
to
the
radius
where
the
alpha
energy
is Q
greate
latter radius is much bigger than the nuclear radius. This integral is not trivial
can
found
most
textof the
books)
inof the
approxim
ound
in most
text
books)
butin
in the
approximation
upper
limitbut
being
hows
abe
slope
of 1.7
which
agrees
well
with
mostmuch
the measured
va
kr

2kd
0

k(r) dr

2G

(R 1/)

Massive range in alpha lifetimes

Exponential dep
= -1.7 x Z/Q

(E Q)

Practicalities
!

Problem sheets
!

PS3 last Friday, soln this wednesday

PS4 this Friday no assessed question

Past Exams
!

ALL PS contain past exam Qs, or equiv material,

e.g. PS1 Qs: 1, 3, 4, 5
PS2 Qs: 1, 2, 3
PS3 Qs: 1, 2, 3, 4

Your Exam: 40% A, 60% NPP (~40%PP, 20% NP)

!

An expression for the energy loss can be derived by con

6.1.1.
Energy
Loss
Charged
Particles
!
electrons
at rest.
Thebyincident
charged
particle
then pl
Energy loss by charged particles
electromagnetically with the electrons.
Particle with charge Zi, !
velocity =v/c!

gas of electrons!

Fig. 6.1: A charged particle moving through a gas of ele

Energy lost by charged particle per unit length traversed

given by dE/dx:

The energy lost by a charged particle per unit traversed pa

dE
Z 1

dx
A me

of medium

1
2
Zi 2

$ 1
ln &
% (1

of incident
particle

Nuclear Physics: Chap.6!

Eqn. 6.1!

1!

Energy loss by Fig.

charged
6.1: A chargedparticles
particle moving through a ga

Energy lost by charged particle

unit
length
traversed
The energyper
lost by
a charged
particle
per unit trav
given by dE/dx:
dE
Z 1
1
2

Zi 2
dx A m

e
of medium

of incident
particle

22
Recall: E ~ mv2 = mcwhere
and
the energy of theincident particle
E is
(e.g. <I> = 76 eV for C and <I> =737 eV for Pb)
2
dE/dx 1/ m/E
The important
of Eqn.
i.e. for a given E, dE/dx larger
forfeatures
larger
m, 6.1 are:
e.g. m/me ~7500.
dE
2
i) dx Zi
i.e. the square of the charge

1
dE
Highly relativistic electrons
lose most
energy
via
energy
lost
to
electrons
>> energ
m
e
dx
Bremsstralung. This radiation
(photons)
is emitted

when charged particles are

or decelerated
dE accelerated
1
2
for a given K.E. a heavier particle l
e.g. by the nuclear electric
dx field.


ii) Compton scattering
(Fig. 6.5b)
This is elastic scattering of the photon with an atomic-e

Absorption of rays in matter

h
f i =
(1 cos )
Photoelectric Effect
mec
Since the Compton effect involves interaction bet
Incoming
magnitude is dependent on the number
of
orbital
elect
photon
Outgoing
of the absorber.
electron

Z
Prob. of Compton scattering E .
Compton ScatteringNote that Compton effectdoes not lead to the destructi
2
Incoming photon
outgoing photon
iii) pair production (Fig. 6.5c)
1
2) can be converted int
Energetic photons (E > 2 mscattered
c
e
electron
present close to nuclei. The nucleus recoils to conserve
Pair Production

Prob. of pair production Z2 (E - 1.02)

Energetic photon (E > 1.02 MeV) convertd to e+e- pair

In intense electric field of nucleus.

Ionization

1.0
Bremsstrahlung

0.5

10

100

Electron Energy (MeV)

Absorption Coefficient / (g/cm2)

Fractional Energy Loss/Unit Length

Energy loss by electrons & photons

10

K absorption edge

Pair
production

0.1
Photoelectric

Compton

0.1

10

Photon Energy (MeV)

Interactions of neutrons with matter

n-p elastic scattering
n

Neutron capture
n

NA

*
A +1

Inelastic scattering
n

n
N*

NA-3

Radiation Units: Activity &

Absorbed dose

Activity
Measures strength of the ionising
radiation.
Unit, the becquerel (Bq):
1 Bq = 1 disintegration/second
Absorbed dose

Measures total energy absorbed per unit

mass.
Unit, the gray (Gy): 1 Gy = 1 J/kg.

Radiation Units: Equivalent dose

Measures biological effect of absorbed dose

Obtained by multiplying the latter by the
quality factor, Q, which describes how much
biological damage the specific type of
radiation causes.
Q = 1 for & rays, but
Q = 20 for -particles.

Unit sievert (Sv), 1 Sv = = Q x dose[Gy].

Amount of damage also dep on dose rate
and part of body exposed.

Characteristics of various types of

radiation

(=Q)

Typical energies ~ MeV

to acceptable levels can be obtained from a comparison with typical d

ment (Table
I).
Secondly,
the
ALARP
principle
(As
Low
As
Reasona
Typical Radiation Dose Rates from
be applied, for example, in the design and execution of this experiment.

Common Sources

Table I: Typical Radiation Dose Rates from Common Sources

Source
Cosmic rays
Natural backgrounds (U, Th, Ra)
40
14
Within body ( K, C)
Global fallout
Nuclear power
Single medical x-ray per year
Seven hours flying per year

mSv/year
0.26
1.65
0.30
<0.01
<0.01
0.37
0.05

Positron Emission Tomography

Schematic of PET
e+e- ->

crystals + photodetectors

object

coincidence
Annihilation
events
event

annihilationphoton trajectories

Pathway of an Innovation
1928: Dirac s description of electrons consistent with
Einstein s special relativity and quantum mechanics
Predicted the existence of anti-particles (e.g positron
basis of PET) and explained spin (basis of MRI)
1932: Operation of first cyclotron , the anti-electron
(positron) discovered
Radionuclides (e.g. fluorine18 (half-life ~110min) used
in PET scanning are produced by cyclotrons in hospitals.
PET cameras today use APDs (and Si PMs) and heavy
scintillating crystals and starting to be combined with
MRI scanner.
The scientific basis for all medical imaging
(functional & physiological) are steeped in
nuclear/particle physics

Accelerators developed in labs used in

hospitals
Around 9000 of the
17000 accelerators
operating in the World
today are used for
medicine.

Courtesy of IBA!

Example: Hadron Therapy