Unit 1 Revision Notes

Water
Solvent substances can easily dissolve in it and be
transported around plants and animals
Dipolar The molecule has a negative and positive side;
this means it will completely surround and dissolve negative
or positive ions. (H =positively charged, O =negatively
charged)
Cohesive attracts molecules of the same type because it
is dipolar.
Monosaccharides
Single sugar units that provide a rapid source of energy as
they are readily absorbed.

Disaccharides
Two sugar units joined together in a condensation reaction,
where a water molecule is removed, creating a glycosidic
bond.
The glycosidic link can be split by a hydrolysis reaction,
where water is added to the bond.
Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose

Polysaccharides
Polymers made up from simple sugar monomers, joined by
glycosidic links into long chains.
2 main types: Starch (plants), Glycogen (animals)
Starch
Amylose
Insoluble storage molecule
Unbranched chain of glucose
Coiled structure-compact
Amylopectin
Insoluble storage molecule
Long, branched chain of glucose
Side branches-easily hydrolysed-glucose released quickly
Glycogen
main energy storage molecule in animals
multiple side branches (more than amylopectin)
very compact molecule good for storage
insoluble in water
Lipids: Triglycerides
1 molecule of glycerol, and 3 hydrophobic fatty acid tails
Insoluble in water
Joined with ester bonds by condensation reactions and spilt
up with hydrolysis

Saturated Lipids
Mainly found in animal fats
Melt at higher temperatures

No double bonds
Every carbon is saturated by at least two hydrogen atoms
Unsaturated Lipids
Mainly found in plants
Melt at lower temperatures
Double bonds between carbon atoms in tails, causing the
chain to kink
1 double bond = monounsaturated
2 or more double bonds = polyunsaturated

Amino Acids
Joined together by peptide bonds to form polypeptides,
formed via condensation reactions

Proteins
Made from long chains of amino acids
4 Structural Levels: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
Primary Structure
The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
Held together by peptide bonds
Secondary Structure
Hydrogen bonds form between the amino acids
Coils into an alpha helix or folds into beta pleated sheets
Tertiary Structure
Ionic bonds, disulfide bridges and hydrophobic/hydrophilic
interactions join to create a 3D shape
Quaternary Structure
For several different polypeptide chains, more bonds are
formed between the individual chains, causing further
alteration to the 3D shape
Types of Protein
Globular
Round and compact
Hydrophilic on outside, hydrophobic on inside
Soluble
Easily transported
Example : Haemoglobin
Fibrous
Long, insoluble polypeptide chains

 Tightly coiled to form a rope shape

Lots of very strong bonds
Example : Collagen
Enzymes
Biological catalysts of metabolic reactions
Globular proteins
Enzyme-Substrate complex
-Lowers the activation energy required
-Reduces the repulsion between substrates if they need
to be joined
-Puts a strain on bonds, making them break up more
easily
Lock and Key model
-Like a lock and key, enzymes only work with substrates
that fit in their active site
Induced Fit Model
-The substrate has to be the right shape to fit the active
site
-As the Substrate binds to the active site, the active site
changes according to the shape of the substrate
Enzymes usually only catalyse one reaction, only one
substrate will fit
Active sites shape is determined by the 3D protein structure
Enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction
-only to a certain point, where the substrate is limited
and adding more enzymes has no effect
The Circulatory System
The

Heart
Right = deoxygenated blood to lungs
Left = oxygenated blood to body
Left Ventricle thicker as has further to push blood

The Cardiac Cycle

Cycle of events that occurs as the heart contracts in one
heart beat
Diastole

Ventricles and atria relax

Semi-lunar valves close
Atrioventricular valves open
Blood flows into atria
Atrial Systole
Ventricles are relaxed, atria contract
Blood moves into ventricles
Ventricular Systole
Atria are relaxed, ventricles
Atrioventricular valves close, preventing backflow
Blood forced into aorta and pulmonary arteries contract
Blood moves into ventricles
Blood Vessels
Artery
Carry blood from the heart at high pressure
Thick walls, muscular and have elastic tissues
Endothelium is folded, allowing the artery to expand
Veins
Carry blood to heart
Wider lumen, with thinner walls and less elastic tissues
Have valves to prevent backflow as pressure is lower
Capillaries
Small one cell thick
Substances are exchanged between the cells and the
capillaries via diffusion
Capillary beds increase the surface area for exchange
increasing the speed of diffusion
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
Atherosclerosis

 The disease process that leads to Coronary Heart Disease

and strokes
Blocks or increases the arteries chance of being blocked by
thrombosis (blood clot)
This can result in a myocardial infarction or stroke, in which
the heart and brain become starved of oxygen
Atherosclerosis Stages
Endothelium cells become damaged due to high blood
pressure or smoking
Damage causes an inflammatory response white blood
cells move into the artery wall, and the blood cholesterol
accumulates ; atheroma (fatty deposit) builds up
Calcium salts and fibrous tissue form a plaque at the site,
narrowing the artery and reducing its elasticity
Plaque makes it difficult for the heart to pump blood,
resulting in raised blood pressure
Positive feedback system results as blood pressure
increases, so does damage to the endothelium
Thrombosis Stages
Protein called thromoboplastin is releases from the damaged
vessel
Triggers conversion of prothrombin (protein) into thrombin
(enzyme)
Thrombin then catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen into
fibrin (solid insoluble fibres)
Fibrin fibres tangle to form a mesh in which platelets and red
blood cells get trapped, forming a clot
Lipoproteins and Cholesterol
High Density Lipoproteins (HDLs)
Mainly protein
Transport cholesterol from body tissues to lover where it is
excreted
Reduce blood cholesterol level when too high

Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs)

Mainly fatty
Transport cholesterol from the liver to the blood, where it
circulates until needed by cells
Increases blood cholesterol when too low
Lifestyle Risk Factors for CVD
Diet
High level of saturated fats and blood cholesterol increases
risk
High Blood Pressure
Increases risk of damage to the walls and thus
atherosclerosis and thrombosis
Smoking
Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen in cells, can lead to
heart attack or stroke
Nicotine makes platelets sticky increasing chance of
thrombosis
Exercise
Inactivity increases blood pressure, which increases risk of
endothelium damage
Risk Factors of CVD Beyond Control
Genetics
Particular alleles make some people more susceptible to high
blood pressure or high cholesterol levels
Age
Risk of developing CVD increases with age
Gender

 Men are three times more likely to suffer from CVD than premenopausal women
There is no difference between men and women postmenopause
Reducing the Risk Factor
Diet
Reduce intake of saturated fats
Smoking
Quitting smoking
Exercise
Doing exercise regularly
Treating CVD : Drug Therapies
Antihypertensives (beta blockers)
Reduce high blood pressure, less chance of cell damage
Advantages
Can be combined to work more effectively
Can be monitored at to demonstrate effect
Disadvantages
Adverse side effects. Example : dizziness, depression and
drowsiness
Plant Statins
Reduce cholesterol in the blood and atheroma formation
Advantages
Reduce risk of suffering from CVD
Disadvantages
Can reduce the absorption of vitamins from the gut
Hard to obtain enough to reduce cholesterol levels

Anticoagulants (Warafin and Heparin)

Reduce blood clotting
Advantages
Prevent any new clots forming
Disadvantages
Can damage the foetus if taken during pregnancy
Platelet Inhibitory Drugs (Aspirin)
Prevent platelets from forming clots
Advantages
Can be used to treat people who already suffer from CVD
Disadvantages
Side effects. Example : Rash, diarrhoea, and nausea
Cell Membranes
Fluid Mosaic Model
Phospholipid molecules form a bi-layer
The phosphate heads are hydrophilic, align on the outside
The hydrophobic tails align on the inside
Diffusion
Passive (requires no ATP energy)
Net movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration
Moves down the concentration gradient
This is too slow for multicellular organisms as the distance to
cover is far larger, they use a different transport medium
Gas Exchange Surfaces
Adapted for efficient diffusion by
large surface area to volume ratio

thin short diffusion pathways

organism maintains steep concentration gradient of gases
across the surface
Lungs
large surface area
diffuses out the alveoli through epithelial cells
good blood supply from capillaries exchanging carbon
dioxide for new oxygen
Alveoli
provide large surface area for gas exchange
Features of Alveoli for efficient gas exchange
large surface area to absorb oxygen
moist surface to allow oxygen to dissolve (phospholipid
known as lung surfactant which coats the alveoli and
prevents them from collapse)
thin lining to allow easy diffusion o gases
Features of Capillaries for efficient gas exchange
dense network to carry CO2 and O2
large surface area to transport gases
Factors affecting the Rate of Diffusion
larger the Surface Area the faster the particles will exchange
the more concentrated the particles on one side of the
membrane the faster they will move to the other less
concentrated side
Ficks Law
Rate of Diffusion = Surface area x concentration difference
Thickness of exchange membrane or barrier
Osmosis
passive (requires no ATP energy)

 the net movement of water molecules from an area of their

high concentration to an area of their low concentration
through a partially permeable membrane
Hypertonic = higher water potential
Hypotonic = lower water potential
Isotonic = no net movement
Facilitated Diffusion
some large molecules and charged atoms use carrier and
channel proteins to diffuse across a membrane
moves particles down a concentration gradient
passive (no ATP required)
carrier proteins molecule attaches to protein, which then
changes shape and releases the molecule on the opposite
side of the membrane
channel proteins form pores in the membrane, allowing
molecules to diffuse through them
Active Transport
uses ATP energy to move molecules and ions across cell
membranes across a concentration gradient
ATP is produced during cellular respiration
a molecule attaches to a carrier protein, causing it to
change shape, moving the molecule across the membrane,
releasing it on the other side
Endocytosis
used for larger molecules
cell takes in substances
cell surrounds a substance with its cell membrane
membrane pinches off to form a vesicle, containing the
ingested substance, and moving it into the cell

Exocytosis
used for larger molecules

 cells secretes substance

vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their content
outside the cell
Genetics
DNA

and RNA
Polynucleotides mononucleotides joined together
The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and ribose in RNA
The mononucleotides are joined through condensation
reactions
DNA is made of two polynucleotide strands, RNA has one

Complimentary Base Pairing

In DNA
Adenine pairs with Thymine
Cytosine pairs with Guanine
In RNA
Adenine pairs with Uracil
Cytosine pairs with Guanine
The strands join together by hydrogen bonding
Purine
Adenine
Guanine
Pyrimidine
Cytosine
Thymine / Uracil
DNAs Semi-Conservative Replication

 The DNA helix unzips, using the enzyme DNA topoisomerase

forming two single strands that acts as a template as the
helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the bases
Free mononucleotides join to each template by
complimentary base pairing
The mononucleotides are joined by DNA polymerase
Hydrogen bonds form between the bases on the original and
new strand
Each molecule contains one strand of DNA and one new
strand

Evidence: Semi Conservative Model

Experiment conducted by Meselson and Stahl
One test tube contained light nitrogen and one contained
heavy nitrogen
When spun in a centrifuge, they appeared respectively at the
top and bottom
The heavy nitrogen bacteria was then replicated in the light
nitrogen broth
The DNA when spun in a centrifuge again settled in the
middle, suggesting that the new DNA had one original strand
and one new strand
DNA
Proteins are made from amino acids
A gene is a sequence of bases that codes for the sequence
of amino acids
A codon (three bases) codes for each amino acid
Other codons tell the cell when to start and stop the
production of proteins
The strands run in opposite directions to each other they are
said to be anti-parallel
Protein Synthesis: Transcription

 In the nucleus, hydrogen bonds between DNA strands

unzips, catalysed by RNA polymerase
Free RNA nucleotides line up alongside the DNA template
with complimentary base pairing
The mRNA moves out of the nucleus through the nuclear
pores and attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm
Protein Synthesis: Translation
In the ribosome, the mRNA codes for amino acids
The tRNA then collects these amino acids from the
cytoplasm and attaches itself to the mRNA via
complimentary base pairing
This continues across the strand of mRNA, with the amino
acids joining together with peptide bonds
The process continues until a stop codon is read
The protein then is released from the ribosome
Genetic Disorders
Mutations
Some mutations in the base sequence of DNA or in DNA
replication can cause genetic disorders
The order of DNA bases in a gene determines which protein
are created; a mutation could change the 3D shape of a
protein so it does not work properly
The genetic disorders can be inherited
Cystic Fibrosis
Caused by recessive allele
Causes the production of thick, sticky mucus
Caused by a mutation in the CFTR protein - the protein that
transports chloride ions out of cells and into mucus, making
it more watery
Mutant CFTR is much less efficient, meaning CF sufferers
mucus is abnormally thick and sticky

 This causes problems in the respiratory, digestive and

reproductive systems
CF and the Respiratory System
Cilia are unable to move the mucus from the lungs to the
throat as it is too thick, blocking the airways
This reduces gas exchange, causing breathing difficulties
The mucus also contains many microorganisms which cannot
be removed, increasing the risk of lung infections
CF and the Digestive System
Mucus can block the tube that connects the pancreas to the
small intestine - preventing digestive enzymes from
absorbing nutrients
Mucus can cause cysts in the pancreas, inhibiting the
production of enzymes, reducing the ability to digest food
and absorb nutrients
CF and the Reproductive System
Men
Tubes in the testicles can be absent or blocked, meaning any
sperm produced cannot be released
Women
Thickened cervical mucus prevents, or severely reduces, the
sperms chances of reaching the egg
Testing for CF : Genetic Screening
Can confirm a diagnosis
Can identify carriers of the genetic disorder
Can test embryos
Can enable pre-implantation diagnosis when carrying out IVF
Amniocentesis
Removing 20cm3 of the amniotic fluid which surrounds the
fetus using a needle and syringe
Done at the 16th week of pregnancy

 Fetal epithelial cells and blood cells can be recovered from

the fluid after spinning it in a centrifuge
2-3 weeks later number of genetic defects can be
determined
Chorionic Villus Sampling
A small sample of embryonic tissue is taken from the
developing placenta
Taken at 8-10 weeks
Testing for CF: Ethics
Could lead to far higher incidence of abortion
The testing itself can cause miscarriage and is not always
accurate
Religious standing. For example : Catholics would consider
the embryo a human, thus, aborting the child is a sin
Genetic Disorders
Albinism
Inherited, caused by recessive allele
Sufferers lack skin, hair and eye pigmentation
Thalassaemia
Inherited blood disorder, caused by a recessive allele
The sufferers blood do not contain efficient levels of oxygen

Experiments
Daphnia
Make up a range of different concentrations of caffeine
Transfer one daphnia into the dimple on a cavity slide
Place the slide under a microscope, focusing it on the heart
Place a small drop of caffeine solution onto the daphnia
Count the heart beat for 15 seconds, and times this value by
4 for bpm
Keep all other factors. Example : temperature and volume of
solution, constant
Repeat the experiment using other solutions
Compare the results to see how caffeine affects heart rate
Vitamin C
Make at least 6 different Vitamin C solutions of known
concentrations
Measure out a set volume of DCPIP into a test tube
Titrate one of the Vitamin C solutions into the DCPIP drop by
drop
When the solutions turns colourless, record the volume of
Vitamin C solution that was added
Repeat the experiment twice more with the same solution
and take an average of the readings
Keep all the other variables constant. Example: Temperature
Repeat the above procedure with each solution
Use the results to create a calibration curve
Next, test the unknown solution in the same way; when you
know how many drops it took to turn the solution colourless,
read the calibration curve to determine the solutions
concentrations
Beetroot
Cut five equal sized pieces of beetroot and rinse them to
remove any pigment

 Place the pieces on blotting paper before transferring them

to five different test tubes
Add 5cm3 of water to each test tube
Place the test tubes in water baths at different temperatures
(from 100 C to 500C) for 10 minutes
Remove the pieces of beetroot from the tubes, using a
colorimeter, measure the absorbance level of the liquid
The higher the absorbance, the more pigment released, so
the higher the membrane permeability