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1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS..........................................................................1
1.1 compressed gas................................................................................1
1.1.1 Purpose of The Gases........................................................1
1.1.2 Gas Cylinder Identification..................................................1
1.1.3 Safety Precautions.............................................................3
1.1.4 Charging Rigs ...................................................................3
1.1.5 Cascade Charging..............................................................3
1.1.6 Before Use Checks.............................................................3
1.1.7 Aircraft Compressed Gas Charging ...................................4
1.1.8 Aircraft Gas Charging Valves.............................................4
1.1.9 Typical Gas Charging Precautions.....................................5
1.2 electric shock....................................................................................5
1.3 fire precautions.................................................................................6
1.3.1 Classification of Fires..........................................................6
1.3.2 Fire Extinguishing Agents...................................................6
1.3.3 Fire Extinguisher Identification............................................7
1.3.4 General Precautions...........................................................8
1.3.5 Procedure On discovering a fire in the Work-Place............9
1.3.6 Action to be Taken in the Event of Engine Fires.................9
1.3.7 Action to be Taken in the Event of Brake Fires...................9
1.4 the need for safety............................................................................9
1.5 working around aircraft......................................................................10
2. WORKSHOP PRACTICES........................................................................1
2.1 care & use of tools............................................................................1
2.2 use of materials.................................................................................1
2.3 dimensions........................................................................................2
2.4 ALLOWANCES & Tolerance.............................................................3
2.5 calibration of tools & equipment........................................................3
3. TOOLS......................................................................................................1
3.1 common hand tools...........................................................................1
3.1.1 Marking Out Tools..............................................................13
3.2 common power tools.........................................................................19
3.2.1 Electric Hand Drills.............................................................19
3.2.2 Pneumatic Tools.................................................................19
3.2.3 Care of Air Operated Tools & Safety Precautions...............23
3.3 precision measuring tools.................................................................24
3.3.1 Micrometers........................................................................24
3.3.2 Using Micrometers..............................................................26
3.3.3 Vernier Measuring Instruments...........................................27
LUBRICATION.......................................................................................31
3.3.4 Purpose..............................................................................31
3.3.5 Oil 31
3.3.6 Greases..............................................................................31
3.3.7 Limitation of Oils and Greases............................................31
3.3.8 Lubrication Charts..............................................................32
4. ENGINEERING DRAWING.......................................................................1
4.1 drawing types....................................................................................1
4.1.1 NOTES ON DRAWING.......................................................4
4.2 symbols.............................................................................................4
Maintenance Practices B1 by COBC
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1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Aviation engineers frequently work in potentially dangerous environments.
Virtually every aspect of aircraft maintenance can be potentially hazardous. It is
obvious that engineers must be trained to be aware of these potential dangers so
that precautions can be taken to minimise them. Each part of your training will
emphasise particular hazards associated with the subject. In this section we will
look at the particular care that should be taken when working with compressed
gasses, electricity oils and chemicals. We shall also consider the safety
precautions and procedures relevant to fire in the workplace.
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1.1.3SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The storage or transport cylinders supplied by BOC are large (approximately 6ft
long) and contain gas at a pressure of 4,000 - 6,000 pounds per square inch
(p.s.i.). Extreme care must be taken when working with gas at this pressure. If
the bottles are dropped or damaged they could explode or propel the cylinder at
high velocity like a rocket projectile. Gas at pressure as low as 100 p.s.i. can
inject into the skin and cause serious, even fatal injuries. Some gasses support
combustion and will make fires burn much more fiercely. Oxygen is particularly
dangerous as it is also capable of causing explosions when in contact with oils or
greases. Oxygen safety precautions will be dealt with in more detail in module
11.
1.1.4CHARGING RIGS
Aircraft gas cylinders contain gas at a much lower pressure and so the gas is
decanted from the larger transport cylinders. A charging trolley is often used,
this being generally a towed trolley with one, two or even four high-pressure gas
cylinders, a flexible supply hose, a supply shut-off valve, and pressure gauges
showing supply pressure and storage cylinder pressure. Some rigs are also
fitted with a pressure regulator, by means of which the supply pressure can be
limited to the maximum required by the component or system. Alternatively a
fixed charging rig may be used.
1.1.5CASCADE CHARGING
This is a procedure that should be adopted when gas charging to avoid wastage
of gas. If not used, the result could be a set of four gas bottles, each with a
substantial amount of gas at slightly lower pressure than the maximum system
pressure. In this process fully charged cylinders in a set, are not used for the
initial part of a charge. Partially exhausted cylinders are used initially and higher
pressure cylinders to complete the process. Example: A large capacity system
needs to be charged to 2,000 p.s.i. The current pressure is 500 p.s.i. There are
four gas bottles on the charging trolley have pressures of 3,500, 1,800, 1,500 and
1,000 p.s.i.. You might be tempted to connect the bottle with 3,500 p.s.i. to the
system and charge it with that one only. Cascade charging saves gas, first
charging from the 1,000 p.s.i. gas bottle, then the 1,500 p.s.i. gas bottle and so
on until the aircraft system is at 2,000 p.s.i. conserving gas for more charges.
1.1.6BEFORE USE CHECKS
Before charging with gas, ensure the following:
Is the gas the correct type? - Refer to identification markings and/or the label
on the neck.
Make sure the transport cylinders are correctly fitted and secure on the trolley
or rig.
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If Oxygen gas is being charged, there should be no oil or grease around the
charging connections or the charging rig.
Charging Panel
Charging Valves
A typical aircraft gas charging panel will comprise a charging valve and pressure
gauge. There is sometimes a temperature graph to show how the pressure varies
with temperature.
Maintenance Practices B1 by COBC
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The supply connection (charging hose) should be clean, dry and free from oil
or grease; any contamination should be wiped off with a lint-free cloth. This
is vitally important when charging oxygen.
The same care should be taken to ensure the system charging point is clean,
after removing the blanking cap.
When the required pressure is reached, the shut off valve should be closed
and the system pressure allowed to stabilise after cooling down.
The supply hose should not be disconnected unless the shut-off valve and
the charging valve on the charging rig are closed. On some rigs provision is
also made for relieving pressure from the supply hose before disconnection.
Blanking caps should always be fitted to the charging valve and the supply
hose after disconnection.
Wear the correct clothing. Personal jewellery, especially rings and metal
strapped watches should not be worn as they may get caught in machinery or
act as a conductor.
Ensure all electrical and radio equipment, power tools etc. is properly
earthed. All portable electrical equipment should be PAT (Portable Appliance
Test) tested at regular intervals by a trained and qualified PAT test person.
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Ensure that all interlocks and other safety devices are serviceable and not
tampered with or over-ridden.
If using machines that have emergency stop buttons, ensure all personnel
know their locations.
The temperature must be raised high enough for the fuel and oxygen to
combine.
Letter Designation
Class A - fires with such fuels as paper, wood or cloth (often called solid
fuel), can be extinguished with a water spray. This cools the fuel to a
temperature below that at which it can burn.
Class B - fires are best put out with an extinguisher that excludes the oxygen
from the burning fuel. Dry powder agents break down in the presence of heat
to produce carbon dioxide that displaces the oxygen. Carbon Dioxide
extinguishers displace the oxygen directly. Foam is also used, which
blankets the fire and excludes the oxygen. Water should not be used
because the burning fuel will float on top of the water.
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Class C - fires should be treated carefully because of the risk of contact with
high voltages. Water should definitely not be used as it will conduct
electricity. Dry powder would be effective, but it is not the best choice as it
leaves a sticky residue that makes cleanup difficult. Carbon dioxide is very
effective when sprayed via a non-metallic horn. The best extinguishers are
halogenated hydrocarbons or halons.
Class D - fires should never have water sprayed on them as it intensifies the
fire and may cause an explosion. Dry powder is the best choice for
extinguishing metal fires.
Red
Black
Foam
Cream
Dry Powder
Blue
Fire extinguishers used in workshops and hangars should now be coloured Red.
It is however, unlikely that everyone will be using the new colour cylinders for a
long time, so be aware of the old codes. Note the fire extinguishers pictured
above use the colour coding.
1.3.3.1 Water Gas Fire Extinguishers
These contain water, anti-freeze and a carbon dioxide bottle. When the carbon
dioxide gas is released, the water is ejected through a nozzle so that the
temperature of the fire is lowered.
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All flammable liquids such as paint, dope, hydraulic fluid etc. should be stored
in an approved store outside the hangar.
Supervisors should ensure that all reasonable fire safety precautions are
taken and all fire apparatus is serviceable.
When fuel tanks are empty there is probably a greater risk of fire than when
they are full.
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Attempt to extinguish the fire with the nearest suitable fire appliance. Do not
attempt this if your actions will endanger your own life or your chance of
escape.
Ensure fire brigade is called. Give location of fire i.e. Building and position in
building, also type of fire, Fuel or Electrical etc.
Always have a fire extinguisher of the correct type available prior to starting
the engine. A CO2 extinguisher should be close to hand for each engine
start.
A safety person should be available, conversant with the operation of the fire
appliance and aircraft procedures.
In the event of a fire, the fuel supply and ignition should be turned off before
attempting to extinguish the flames.
If possible see if the fire stops after fuel and ignition is cut. If not, apply
extinguisher agent via the fire access panels, do not run engines with
cowlings open or removed.
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This list could be extended considerably. The safety aspect of working around
aircraft should be emphasised at all times. Engineers tend to become overconfident as experience increases. They should be alert at all times to the
possible dangers. Anyone who has been in the aviation maintenance business
for a reasonable time will be able to recount at least one instance of a serious
injury or fatality due to a safety related incident. Ask your lecturer!
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2. WORKSHOP PRACTICES
2.1 CARE & USE OF TOOLS
In order to perform his duties competently and speedily, the Licensed Aircraft
Maintenance Engineer needs to provide himself with an adequate tool kit,
maintain it properly and add to it as he progresses from one aircraft to another in
the pursuance of his career. It is obvious, therefore, that knowledge of tools is an
essential part of his overall field of learning. In this topic we shall consider some
aspects of the provision and safe keeping of both personal tools and some
special tools. The provision of special tools is usually undertaken by the
organisation for whom the engineer works, but their proper use and safe keeping
is very much the responsibility of those who use them.
The care of tools, their correct usage and safe keeping is an aspect of the
engineers work which must be approached with the same degree of responsibility
as all other facets of his work. Worn tools, e.g. spanners with spread jaws,
screwdrivers with incorrectly ground blades etc. will damage the equipment on
which they are being used, as well as risking injury to the user. To minimise the
risk of loose articles being left on aircraft, many engineering organisations now
use 'Shadow Boards' for tool storage. A black wooden board carries painted
silhouettes of all the tools attached by spring clips to that particular board. At the
end of a particular period, a brief glance will show which tools are still in use of
have not been returned to their storage. This method has contributed very
effectively to a reduction in the number of accidents due to loose tools left in
aircraft.
Despite some organisations using shadow boards, many only use them for
specialist tools therefore in many companies the mechanic / technician will be
expected to supply and control his own personal tool kit.
These and many more will be discussed during the rest of the course. It is most
important for you to realise that many of the materials need special care to avoid
both damage and injury. The maintenance or repair manuals will always specify
the recommended material for a specific task. Sometimes an alternative will be
identified, but if not so identified the recommended material must be used. Each
of the materials will normally be identified by a part number or identification code.
This code number may be a manufacturers code or an internationally standard
code. For example many aircraft sheet metal skins are made from an aluminium
alloy called durallumin. This may be coded 2017, 2117 or 2024, each being a
slightly different specification.
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2.3 DIMENSIONS
One of the main tasks an engineer has to perform is to identify if the aircraft
conforms to its design specifications. Much of the maintenance work involves
carrying out some form of inspection. This will often involve measuring to check if
dimensions are correct.
An engineer will be required to take measurements in a variety of different
circumstances, using a variety of measuring devices. The following list gives
some of the situations where a measurement may be made:
Checking the up and down movement of a control surface this may involve
measurement of an angle or a dimension
The scale of the rule shown is in millimetres, with the smallest sub-division
representing 5mm. The line A is between 30mm and 35mm. You should not
estimate the value of A as 33mm (or 34mm). Its value can only be accurately
stated as 30mm. If you need to measure more accurately, you need to use a
more accurate measuring device such as a vernier caliper.
Another way of giving a false indication of the accuracy of a measurement or
dimension is to specify too many decimal places in your measurement. For
example, if you measure a dimension of 4inches with a rule calibrated in eights
of an inch, you might be tempted to state the dimension as 4.125 as this is the
decimal value. This implies that you have measured to an accuracy of 0.001
rather than .
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Torque wrenches
Cable tensiometers
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3. TOOLS
3.1 COMMON HAND TOOLS
A good aircraft engineer will most probably have a very extensive (and
expensive) tool kit. Initially the toolkit will be small and the engineer will need to
be selective about the number of tools bought and their quality. The engineer will
need to be familiar with many different types of tools. Other than a basic
knowledge pf the different types of tool and their use, it is necessary to describe
or classify tools. By this we mean how to identify the different types of a tool.
For example there are many different types of screwdriver. They differ both in the
type of screws they are used on and in the size of the screwdriver. Most tools are
available in a variety of sizes and types. At the very least the engineer will need
to be able to describe the tools when it comes to buying them.
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Screwdrivers. Classified by length and type of blade e.g. 10" common, 8"
Phillips, the blade being made of alloy steel with a wooden or plastic handle. In a
good quality tool the blade will be cold rolled to produce great strength and
resistance to twist, and the tip drop forged and finally ground to the correct
profile. Variations of the common or 'standard' screwdriver include Phillips,
Posidrive and Reed & Prince, these being the type with a cruciform configuration
blade (commonly termed 'Cross Point'). It is important to select the correct type
of cross point driver for the particular screw in use, for although they may look
alike at the first glance, the angles and shape of the cruciform slot are different.
In the case of the common screwdriver, for use on normal slotted screws, the
working tip of the blade should be ground flat to prevent slipping in the slot and
the tip should bottom in the slot. Further variations of screwdriver include
Ratchet, Pump-action, Changeable-tip (Snap-On) and stubby, this latter type
being used in the restricted spaces frequently found in aircraft maintenance work.
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Pliers. Classified by type of jaw and overall length e.g. 6" Fine Nose, 8" Slide
Cutting, etc. Made of steel, forged to impart strength to their relatively light and
slender form, with the jaws and side cutting section hardened. Care should be
taken to use only a pair of pliers capable of coping with the job in hand, since the
jaws can easily be twisted or damaged by mishandling. Specialised pliers
include those for wire stripping, removal and fitting of circlips and wire locking.
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Hammers. Classified by weight and type of head. The head is made of medium
carbon steel with the working faces hardened and tempered, whilst the eye for
attachment of the handle is left soft. After long service a hammer may tend to
become unsafe due to small jagged pieces breaking off the edge of the striking
faces. When this happens, the head should be discarded and a new one fitted,
ensuring that the steel retaining wedge is secured in position. The head normally
has one flat striking face and one of a variety of shapes. The non flat face is
called a pein. Hence when we classify a hammer we call it a ball pein, cross
pein or straight pein hammer. The flat surface is normally used for normal
striking or hitting work such as bending a bar of metal or using a drift, whilst the
peins are used for specialised forming operations. When the use of a hammer is
necessary on finished surfaces, a soft hammer is used, the head consisting of a
detachable plug of rawhide, nylon or similar material. Lead or copper heads are
in use for similar reasons.
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Files. Probably the most frequently used tool in the fitting trade, files are
classified according to their length, section, type and cut of teeth. The length
does not include the tang. Files are made of forged high carbon steel, the tang
on which the handle is fitted being reduced in hardness so that it is less brittle
than the working part. The teeth of the file may be single or double cut, whilst the
grade or tooth spacing may be classed as rough, bastard, second-cut, smooth or
dead smooth. These terms describe the number of teeth or 'cuts' to the inch and
this will vary with the length of the file. Representative figures for a 12" flat file
will be:
Bastard
21 cuts / inch
Second Cut
26 cuts / inch
Smooth
40 cuts / inch
Dead Smooth
72 cuts / inch
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Flat. Parallel for most of it's length, tapering in both width and thickness at
the end. Double cut on both faces, single cut on both edges.
Hand. Parallel in width throughout it's length, but tapers in thickness at the
end. Double cut on both faces, single cut on one edge, the other edge is left
un-cut and is known as the 'Safe Edge'. This is used for filing in corners
where one side is left untouched.
Half Round. Double cut on flat face, single cut on curved face. N.B. Curved
face is not a full half circle in section. Used in the formation of filed radii.
Triangle or Three Square. May be single or doubled cut on all faces. Used
for work on awkward corners.
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Never use a file as a lever, since due to it's brittle nature it may break with
jagged pieces flying off (into eyes!).
When filing soft metal (Aluminium, Copper), the teeth end to clog. The file
should be frequently cleaned by using a file card consisting of short wire
bristles on a fabric backing.
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Chisels. The engineers chisel is called a 'Cold Chisel' because they are
specially hardened and tempered for cutting cold metals. Consider the
requirements of a chisel. Firstly it must be harder than the metal it is cutting, and
yet it must be tough and not brittle if it is to withstand repeated hammer blows.
For these reasons they are made from high carbon steels or alloy steels heat
treated to induce the properties that give them a satisfactory working life.
Classified by length and section of working blade. The most common types are
flat, cross-cut, round nose and diamond-point. The angle of the cutting edge
varies with the properties of the metal to be cut, e.g. a larger angle for tough and
hard materials, say 65 - 70 for steels, while for cutting softer materials like
aluminium a fairly sharp angle is needed, say 30.
Typical uses for various shapes of chisels are:
Flat. General fitting work, chipping away large areas prior to filing, removal of
rivet heads during repairs.
Cross cut. For cutting grooves, key-ways on shafts and to divide up flat
surfaces into strips prior to cutting with flat chisel.
Diamond Point. For cutting a hole in a plate, forming sharp corners, or for
moving the centre of a drilled hole which has started to run off-centre.
Scrapers. Used for final surfacing work to correct slight warping and distortion
and for blending out damage due to corrosion etc., common types can be flat and
half round. These can be locally produced by grinding a flat file with a slightly
curved cutting edge and finished to a high degree of sharpness with an oil stone.
Used in conjunction with marking fluid (e.g. engineers blue) and bearing in mind
that the surface to be worked on must be very nearly true initially, a scraper can
be a most useful addition to the aircraft engineers tool box. For instance, the
high spot of a bearing can be removed and the correct fit of the shaft can be
obtained by scraping first the lower half, testing the fit with marking fluid with the
shaft in position, then repeating the operation on the top half.
Hacksaws. Classified by frame size and type (fixed, adjustable, tubular etc.).
The blade is tensioned by either tightening a wing nut or the handle itself.
Lengths vary from approximately 8" - 14", frequently 10" and the blade will be
made from carbon or alloy steel. Hacksaws may also be fitted with a round blade
for cutting in all directions (useful for cutting out damaged structure in sheet
metal). Usually the blade teeth only will be hardened, but the blade may be
hardened throughout. Number of teeth vary, 18 T.P.I. (teeth per inch) being
satisfactory for general cutting use, while 30 T.P.I would be preferable for cutting
thin sheet or tubing and 14 T.P.I. is suitable for cutting solid brass or copper. The
main cause of accidents to operators using hacksaws is blade breakage,
resulting in hands coming sharply into contact with the work. Breakage is usually
due to either insufficient tightening of the blade, excessive downward pressure or
excessive twisting of the blade on the forward stroke. Special care is necessary
when cutting thin sheet or tube, only a slightly downward pressure is required.
Note: The blade is designed to cut only on the forward stroke, with the blade
installed correctly, i.e. teeth forward.
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Spanners. These are available in a wide range of shapes and sizes and are
intended for tightening or slackening a nut on a screw thread. Their length is
related to the size of the nut for which they are designed and any misuse (e.g.
extending the length with a tube) will certainly result in damage to both thread
and spanner. Similarly, a hammer blow imparted to the end of the spanner to
move a stubborn nut will also reduce the working life of the spanner. Properly
maintained and used, with a light smear of oil to protect their surface finish,
spanners will last for many years, and the practical engineer can never have too
many of them. Generally made from Vanadium Steel, heat treated to provide
hard, long lasting jaws combined with an extremely tough, resilient handle, the
traditional double ended (i.e. open jaw) type of spanner is the most common.
The jaws are usually set at 15, 30 or 60 to the shank, so that for a relatively
small handle movement a useful turning moment is attained at the nut simply by
turning the spanner even when working space is limited.
The size of the spanner is clearly marked at or near the jaw and will be
expressed as a B.A. number or a Whitworth, A.F. or Metric size. Spanners
intended for Unified threads have their size marked on the jaw expressed as a
figure correct to two decimal places, but the decimal point is omitted e.g. 50
would be 1/2" across the flats, 25 would represent 1/4" etc.
Socket Spanners. These are produced in two parts, i.e. the socket, placed
over the nut or bolt head and the handle which is attached to the socket,
usually by a square driving shaft. A wide variety of handles are available,
such as 'T' handle, ratchet, screwdriver grip and speed-handle (rather like a
car wheel brace). The square drive, usually 1/4", or 3/8" or 1/2" square
incorporates a spring loaded ball which engages in a groove in the socket.
This should ensure that the socket lifts off the nut when the operator wishes
to reposition the socket on the nut, and prevents the socket becoming
detached, possible in an awkward position. Refinements to the basic socket
and handle include extension rods to fit between the socket and handle,
universal drive joints, flexible rods, posidrive bit adapters, crows foot
attachments and converter adapters enabling one to use handles with small
square drives to connect to sockets with large drives or vice-versa. Note:
Care should be taken not to over torque a socket when using a handle with a
large square drive with a socket with a small square drive. Socket sets are
available in all current size ranges and the practical engineer will be well
advised to equip himself with the best quality, most comprehensive set he
can afford. Cheap tools of inferior material have very limited life and may
damage the component on which it is being used.
Allen Keys. Certain screws or bolts have a hexagonal recess in their heads.
An 'Allen Key' is used to tighten or slacken the screws. The basic tool is of
hexagonal cross section (to suit the recess) and is cranked through 90 to
form an 'L' shape. They are made of hardened and tempered steel, tough
enough to withstand fracture and abrasion / wear. Allen keys are also made
in straight lengths to fit into socket bits. Allen keys are classified by their
dimension across their hexagon flats.
Maintenance Practices (CE) by COBC
Page 11-69
Issue 1 - 4 April 2000
Special Spanners. Included in this category are 'C' spanners, Torque Spanners,
Peg Spanners etc. 'C' spanners are used on round nuts, pipe connections etc.
where the nut has a series of notches around it's periphery. The spanner usually
has a curved articulated arm with a hook on the end. This hook is intended to
engage into one of the notches on the nut. Peg spanners are similar except that
a peg (or two) engages on a hole in the edge or face of the nut.
Page 11-69
Dividers
Fitters Square
Dividers. Dividers are used to set out distances and to scribe arcs and circles.
Their legs are made of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered, with a spring
steel spring. Dividers are classified by the length of the legs. The points should
be kept keen and of equal length, by stoning on the outside. Grinding, unless
done very carefully will change the temper of the points and render them soft.
When the dividers are not in use, the points should be protected by sticking them
into a cork.
Fitters Squares. Fitters Squares are used for setting out lines at right angles to
an edge or surface, and for checking right angular work for truth. Squares are
made of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered and are classified by the
length of the blade. The square is made to very fine limits and this initial
accuracy must be preserved by careful handling and keeping it in the box
provided when not in use.
Maintenance Practices (CE) by COBC
Issue 1 - 4 April 2000
Page 11-69
The blade and stock have their opposing edges ground truly parallel with the
limbs set at exactly 90 to each other. This accuracy must be checked from time
to time. This can be done by checking the square for truth against a master
square or against a V - block. An alternate test (see diagram to the right) is to
place the stock against a flat surface, using the outside edge of the blade as a
guide. The square is then turned over and the outside of the blade checked
against the line. The test should be repeated using the inside edge of the blade.
Combination Set. A combination set (see diagram below) is virtually three tools
in one, consisting of a blade or rule and three 'heads'; the blade is made from
high carbon steel, hardened and tempered, while the heads are of close-grained
cast iron. The blade is graduated in inch and metric scales, and a central groove
along it's entire length accommodates a clamping screw fitted to each of the
heads, thus enabling a head to be secured at any desired position along the
blade.
Square Head. This head is provided with two working faces, one at 90 and
the other at 45 to the blade, thus enabling the tool to be used both as a
square and as a mitre. A spirit level is incorporated into the head and a
scriber is provided.
Centre Head. This is used in conjunction with the blade to locate the centre
of a round bar or the centre line of a tube.
Protractor Head. Used in conjunction with the blade for checking or setting
up any angle up to 180. A spirit level is often incorporated.
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Inside & Outside. These are used in conjunction with a rule or other
measuring instrument for measuring distances between or over surfaces, or
for comparing dimensions. Inside calipers are used for measuring inside
dimensions and outside for external dimensions. To set the calipers, set
nearly to size by hand and then tap one leg (not at the point) to make the final
adjustment. When calipers are used for comparison purposes, the results
obtained largely depend on the sense of feel of the user.
Odd Leg Calipers. This tool is really half caliper and half dividers. It may be
used for scribing lines parallel to an edge or for scribing arcs on cylindrical
bars to aid in finding the centre. These tools are often referred to as 'jenny
calipers'.
Marking Off (Surface) Table. Used to support work for marking out and to form
a base for measurements. Made from close grained cast iron, strongly ribbed for
rigidity. The working surface is accurately machined to give a true, flat surface
and square edges. After use, the working surface should be protected with oil
and the protective cover replaced. No work other than marking or measurement
should be carried out on the table.
Surface Plate This may be used in place of the marking out table for relatively
small work. It is much smaller than the table and the finish is at least equal to
that found on a good table. Surface plates are usually portable and used on a
work-bench. To test a flat surface for accuracy, the plate is smeared with
engineers blue and the surface to be tested rubbed on the plate. The amount of
marking transferred will indicate its flatness.
Vee Blocks These are used on a marking table or surface plate to support round
work. They are made of cast iron or case hardened mild steel, are supplied in
identical pairs, each unit of a pair being stamped with the same identification
number. All surfaces are accurately machines and the Vee angle is exactly 90.
Vee blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of the work which can be
held. The clearance slot at the base of the Vee allows objects to be set firmly.
Scribing Blocks (see diagram below). A scribing block is used to mark out lines
parallel to a true surface, such as the working surface of a marking off table or a
surface plate. The accurately machines base is made of cast iron, or casehardened mild steel, the scriber is of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered
and the pillar angle, scriber height and angle are all adjustable. A fine
adjustment is provided for the pillar and dowels in the base can be pushed down
so that lines can be scribed parallel to the edge of the surface table or plate.
Scribing blocks are classified by the height of the pillar.
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Key-Seat Rules These are sometimes termed 'box squares', and are used for
marking lines parallel to the axis on the surface of tubes and round bars. These
rules are usually graduated and are classified by their length.
Feeler Gauges 'Feelers' are used to measure small clearances or gaps; they
consist of a series of thin flexible steel blades in graduated thickness varying in
most cases from 1.5 to 15 or 25 thousandths of an inch. The blades are secured
in a protective metal scabbard by a fulcrum pin and all blades not in actual use
should be withdrawn into the scabbard to prevent accidental distortion. Feeler
gauges are classified by the length of the blades. When not in use, the blades
should be lightly smeared with oil to prevent rusting.
Centre Punches A centre punch is used to make a small indentation for locating
the cutting edge of a drill at the start of a drilling operation. Centre punches are
made of high carbon steel, the point being hardened and tempered. A sharp
point should be maintained by careful grinding and should have an angle of 90
for general work or 60 for light work, such as marking out. Automatic centre
punches are available which are spring loaded and simply require pushing down
to give an indentation. The depth being determined by the spring setting.
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Open out the legs of 'Odd Leg' calipers until they are set at rather less than the
radius of the bar. Scribe four short arcs on the end of the bar shown in the
diagram (see diagram to the right). The centre of the bar is then in the centre of
the small figure. The position may be estimated by eye and centre popped.
Marking-Out - Summary
Only boundary lines and cutting lines should be scribed on Light Alloy sheet.
Scribed lines on this type of material may give rise to cracks. Any lines other
than cutting lines should be marked with a soft graphite pencil (all traces
should be removed afterwards) or a wax crayon (not black - it may contain
graphite).
The points of scribers and dividers must be kept clean to produce very fine
scribing lines. Thick lines lead to inaccuracies.
Scribing lines must be clear and distinct; prior to marking out, it may be
advantageous to apply chalk or white wash to the surface. Bright steel
surfaces should be coated with copper sulphate or engineers blue.
When the scriber is used in a scribing block, it must be clamped rigidly and
scribing should be done firmly so that there is no necessity to retrace lines.
The scriber point should be set as close as possible to the pillar, thus
reducing the tendency of the point to whip.
Always trail the point when using the scriber so that it does not dig in to the
material.
An accuracy of 0.010" is often accepted for marking out although more accuracy
may be obtained using a vernier height gauge.
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Electric Drill
Drill Stand
3.2.2PNEUMATIC TOOLS
These are used mainly in structural repair work.
Air Operated (Windy) Drills (see diagrams below). These are available in either
straight or pistol grip form. They will, depending on size, accept drills up to 8mm
diameter. Angled and off-set drills are provisioned for drilling holes in restricted
positions. These drills require a separate collet for each size of drill.
Maintenance Practices (CE) by COBC
Issue 1 - 4 April 2000
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Rotary Saw. Used primarily for cutting sheets of metal both on and off aircraft.
It may also be used for cutting plywood and plastic. The tool illustrated can cut
steel and alloy of thickness 0.8mm and 2mm respectively.
Pneumatic Shears This tool is designed to cut sheet material up to 14 SWG in
mild steel or 12 SWG in light alloy. Cutting is achieved by the action of a
reciprocating shear blade against a stationary anvil blade. Stellite tipped blades
are available for cutting stainless steel or titanium alloy.
Pneumatic Riveting Hammers. Many types are available to suit a variety of
solid rivet sizes. They all operate on a similar principle as shown in the diagram
below. The air pressure supply controlled by the throttle button or lever, causes
the piston to oscillate rapidly backwards and forwards in the barrel. The piston
delivers blows to the rivet via the interchangeable snap. An adjustable air
regulating screw varies the maximum rate and power of the gun. A typical rate is
1,500 blows per minute.
Pneumatic Blind Riveters. These are designed for easy forming of various
types of blind rivets. There is usually a special riveter for each type of rivet.
Sometimes the riveter is air operated, but many incorporate a hydraulic
intensifier. Many types exist, so only a selection is shown below.
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Mandrel Cropping Tool. The air operated cropping tool is used to cut off the
protruding mandrel stems of Avdel rivets after they have been set. The tool
incorporates two cutting jaws which sever the rivet mandrel when the control
button is pressed. The cut mandrel will still need to be milled down with the
milling tool, to give a clean finish.
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Rivet Miller. This air operated tool is used mainly for milling down protruding
Avdel rivet mandrels. It usually has telescopic legs and a micrometer adjustment
to that the depth of cut can be accurately set.
Keep your hands, hair and clothing clear of the moving parts of tools.
Note. Most accidents occur due to inexperienced operators fooling around with
power tools.
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0.231
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4
2
19
1
4
Total reading
=
=
=
=
=
0.4000
0.0500
0.0190
0.0005
0.0004
0.4699
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The main scale of an imperial micrometer is one inch long, and so external
micrometers are available in a variety of sizes. The standard size is 0-1, but 12, 2-3 and so on are available to measure larger external sizes. As explained
previously, accurate extension pieces are available for the internal micrometers.
Before using an external micrometer, the zero reading should be checked. This is
done with the O - 1 instrument by closing it right up and checking the 0 on the
thimble is in line with the axis. A machined distance piece is inserted in the larger
sizes to check for their zero. Accuracy depends on cleanliness; both of the
instrument and the component you are measuring. Micrometers may be fitted
with a ratchet so that a uniform result may be obtained.
Adjustment of the zero setting may be achieved by moving the barrel within the
frame with a C spanner, or by adjusting the anvil. Compensation for wear of the
thread is often available by having a tapered thread on the barrel screw thread
that can be adjusted for tightness.
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Refer to the diagram below and follow the steps to determine the reading of the
metric vernier caliper.
30.50
0.28
30.78 mm
On the top scale, 1 is divided into 10 parts and each part is further divided into
four parts. Each division has a length of of 1/10 = 1/40 = 0.025. On the lower
sliding scale there are 25 divisions and this gives us our accuracy of 0.025/25 =
0.001
In the example shown an upper scale reading coinciding with the 0
on the sliding scale is
3.075
0.011
3.086
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Vernier Protractor
This is used to take angular measurements and consists of a solid base or stock,
with an adjustable straight edge attachment which can be set at an angle relative
to the base. Angular movement of the straight-edge rotates a disc on which is
mounted a circular protractor scale graduated in degrees. This scale is read in
conjunction with a vernier scale which gives an overall accuracy of 5 minutes or
5.
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LUBRICATION
The lubrication of an aircraft and its component parts, is one of the most
important aspects of aircraft servicing. It must be carried out regularly, and to
prescribed schedules, in order to reduce friction between moving parts and to
minimise the risk of component failure.
3.3.4PURPOSE
When two parts are moving in relation to each other, particularly when they are
heavily loaded, the friction between them will generated heat. A lubricant applied
between the two surfaces will provide more than one function. It will:
There are many, and varied lubrication tasks, ranging from a simple access panel
hinge requiring lubrication with light oil, to a wheel bearing on which a high
melting point grease is used. A wide range of lubricants is needed to satisfy the
requirements of modern aircraft. The lubricant will normally be oil or grease, but
there are many specialised forms of oils or greases.
3.3.5OIL
There are three main types of oil :
Mineral Oil
Synthetic Oil May be mineral or vegetable based, but does not fit into
specifications for the other types.
3.3.6GREASES
These normally consist of a petroleum base oil thickened with gelling agents and
modified by filling agents. Typical gelling agents are Sodium or lithium which are
used in high temperature greases, Aluminium gives a grease adhesive properties
and Calcium give water resistance. Typical applications for grease would be
wheel bearings, Engine and flying control joints, universal joints and screw
threads. Grease may be used instead of oil for the following reasons:
Longer lasting.
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Viscosity
This is the term used to determine the thickness of the oil or its resistance to
flow. A thin oil will have a low number and a thick oil, a high number. Aeroshell 80
for example is thinner than Aeroshell 100.
Temperature Effect
An increase in temperature will reduce the viscosity of an oil. A thick or high
viscosity oil may protect heavily loaded parts when it is warm and circulating.
When cold, the oil may not flow and oil starvation may cause premature failure.
Oil Additives
These are substances which are added in small quantities to improve the
properties of the oil. The oil may contain one or more additives such as:
Detergents They enable the oil to hold sludge in suspension and give a
cleaner system.
Extreme Pressure (E.P.) Used in heavily loaded gear trains e.g. helicopter
gearboxes.
Methods of Application
There are a number of different methods of lubricating aircraft components.
Lubrication may be carried out before assembly of a component, or during
maintenance. It is essential that the correct lubricant and the correct method of
application is used for every lubrication task. The basic methods used are:
Oil Can Lubricating oil is commonly applied by the use of an oil can. Some
parts have oil-ways machined into them, whilst others rely on application of
oil directly to the moving parts.
Pre-packing Many bearings and similar parts are lubricated with grease
and sealed during manufacture. The lubricant packed into the bearing is
sufficient for its working life, and no further lubrication should be required.
Hand Lubrication may be carried out by smearing oil or grease directly onto
the bearing surfaces by hand.
3.3.8LUBRICATION CHARTS
These are often used in the Maintenance Manual to indicate aircraft parts
requiring lubrication. As can be seen in the following diagrams, symbols used on
the chart may indicate the frequency lubrication is required, the type of lubricant
required and the method of application. Alternative lubricant specification code
numbers are often given. Alternatives are sometimes given in handbooks
published by the major oil suppliers such as Shell, Mobil etc. The diagrams on
the following pages illustrate the use of charts in aircraft Maintenance Manuals.
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4. ENGINEERING DRAWING
The incorporation of a repair scheme or modification on an aircraft usually
demands that the engineer responsible should work to requirements laid down in
engineering drawing, or, even more frequently, in a series of drawings. The
drawing can therefore be said to contain information which the drawing office and
stress engineers wish to impart in other that the work done on the aircraft shall be
carried out correctly and without possibility of misrepresentation.
A good engineering drawing should therefore convey its message clearly, simply
and without ambiguity. Dimensions must be easy to read and the scale used
must be clearly indicated. Limits and fits, materials specification, surface finish
etc. must be quoted for each item, where necessary, to which the drawing refers.
The production of engineering drawings is a highly specialised task with many
conventions that must be clearly understood if the drawings are to be interpreted
correctly. In this respect it should be appreciated that these notes are intended
as a guide to the interpretation of drawings and not to their production.
Authority for the Drawing
Civil aircraft manufactured in the UK are constructed of parts and components
manufactured in compliance with approved drawings. To ensure correctness and
suitability of design, approved drawings and associated documents must be
produced by a Design Organisation approved by the CAA in accordance with
Section A of BCAR.
Section A further describes that all calculations on which the airworthiness of the
aircraft depends, must be independently checked, thus the design drawing itself
is subject to a system of inspection as are the parts produced to its requirements.
The approved Inspection Organisation or the Certifying Engineer should ensure
that the drawings are approved and that the parts are correct to these drawings
and associated documents. Any deviation from the drawings and their
associated documents must be covered by a suitable concession procedure as
given in CAP 562.
Most approved design organisations now work in accordance with BS308:1984
which standardises the abbreviations, symbols and conventions used in
engineering drawing, and these notes have been written in conformity with that
standard.
Drawing Pencils & pens
Drawings are made using pencils or specialised pens. The 2H grade pencil is
generally used for thin line work, dimensions, centre lines, hidden detail etc. the
H grade is used for thick line work, visible outlines etc. The HB grade is used for
lettering, numerals and sketching. H grades of lead are hard. B grades soft.
Specialist pens are available in thickness of 0.7mm (thick lines) and 0.3mm (thin
lines).
Detail
Sub-assembly
Main assembly
Installation
General arrangement
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Each set of drawings generally contains a schedule of parts involved. Thus, the
complete set of drawings and any associated documents (referred in the
drawings) present a complete record of information required to manufacture and
assembly every part of an aircraft. Such drawings also form part of the complete
inspection record.
Where a component consists of a number of items fitted together, it may often be
impractical to draw all the items on one sheet of paper. Several sheets may have
to be used to show all the items concerned and three main types of drawings will
be found on those sheets.
Detail Drawing. This type of drawing shows one item or detail only. This
type of drawing shows all the information necessary for the item to be
manufactured. It will contain information such as material specification, heat
treatment, surface finish and all dimensional information required. There may
also be cross-references to other drawings or documents necessary in the
manufacture process.
Assembly Drawing. This type of drawing shows two or more items or details
fitted together to form an assembly. It will not contain dimensions or other
details of the individual items. It will contain instructions necessary to
assemble the items. These instructions may include special treatments
required. The assembly drawing will refer to the individual parts by part
number or drawing number.
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4.1.1NOTES ON DRAWING
Relationship Between Drawings. As a complete component often requires
several detail and assembly drawings for its production, it is necessary to ensure
that all drawings are connected by a system of cross-referencing. This ensures
that the drawings for all the details which comprise an assembly, and for all the
assemblies which comprise the GA, can be obtained by direct reference to the
drawings.
Information of the GA. Each GA must have its own individual drawing number
for identification purposes, and also a title. A schedule of the assemblies that
make up the GA must be provided, either on the GA itself or on a separate sheet
which must be identified by cross reference with the GA.
It is common practice to number the assemblies consecutively on the schedule,
and to repeat the numbers on the GA "double balloons" which are connected by
"leader lines" to the assemblies concerned. Detail parts have their reference
numbers in "single balloons". Double and single balloons are used in the
previous diagram "General Assembly of Lever and Bracket".
Information on the Assembly Drawing. Each assembly drawing, just like the
GA, must have its own individual drawing number and also a title. A schedule of
the details which comprise the assembly must be provided, either on the
assembly drawing itself or on a cross-referenced separate sheet.
It is again common practice to number each detail consecutively in the schedule,
and to repeat the numbers on the assembly drawing in single balloons which are
connect to the details concerned by leader lines. This is shown in the previous
diagram "Assembly of Bracket and Bush" and "Assembly of Lever and Spindle".
The assembly drawing must also carry a cross reference to the GA of the
complete component.
Information of the Detail Drawing. As a detail in a single item which cannot be
further subdivided, a schedule is not necessary on a detail drawing. The
information of the drawing will include its own individual drawing number, title and
a cross reference to the assembly drawing on which the detail appears.
Part Number. In some cases the drawing number of a detail, assembly or GA, is
used as a part number for the item concerned. If the part number is different
from the drawing number, it must be quoted on the appropriate drawing.
The Approval of a Drawing. The regulations prescribe that all design work
carried out on an aircraft must be produced by an approved design organisation.
During the design stage of a modification or repair scheme the work will,
therefore, be checked, stresses calculated and final approval given by a
responsible person, usually the Chief Draughtsman. It is therefore vital to ensure
that all drawings are checked for approval before they are used to carry out work
on an aircraft. This approval is stipulated on all drawings used in this section.
4.2 SYMBOLS
The advantages of using symbols are:
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4.2.1WELDING SYMBOLS
These are used on a drawing to mark and identify the position and type of a weld.
All welding terms and symbols are contained in BS499. The following notes
highlight the methods used to represent the difference types of welding joint.
The Welding Sign. The features of a welding sign are:
A welding symbol which indicates the types and position of the weld.
The side to which the arrow points is termed the 'arrow side'.
The side opposite the arrow side is termed the 'outer side'.
The weld symbol indicates the type of weld and it is importance to note
whether it is placed above or below the reference line.
If the weld symbol is suspended from the reference line, the weld is made on
the arrow side of the joint.
If the weld symbol is placed on top of the reference line the weld is made on
the other side.
If the weld symbol is on both sides of the reference line then the welds are
made on both sides of the joint.
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4.2.2SURFACE FINISH
A controlled surface texture is necessary on many aircraft components not only
on mating surfaces, but also on exterior surfaces. Structural parts made from
high tensile steel and high strength alloys, require the smoothest possible finish
to improve resistance to fatigue failure and corrosion.
Surface texture is defined as those irregularities, with regular or irregular spacing,
which tends to form a pattern on the surface. Although a surface may appear
smooth, when magnified it can be seen to form a series of peaks and valleys.
The method which has been adopted internationally as the standard means of
grading surface texture is known as the arithmetical mean deviation and is
termed the Ra parameter. RA represents the average roughness of the surface
over a given sampling length.
The RA value may be determined by electrical probes or by graphical
assessment.
Ra ( m) =
where Vm = vertical magnification of scale
The surface texture required is expressed in m (micro metres) using one of the
following symbols (this is not a comprehensive list and is only provided as an
example).
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4.2.3STANDARD CONVENTIONS
The following are a selection of the various types of lines in current use:
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ABBREVIATIONS
In addition to symbols, abbreviations are frequently used in Engineering
Drawings, a few of the most common and their meanings are as follows:
Term
Abbreviation
or symbol
Term
Abbreviation
or symbol
Across flats
A/F
Number
NO.
Assembly
ASSY
Pattern number
PATT NO.
Centres
CRS
PCD
Centre line
L or CL
Pneumatic
PNEU
Chamfered
CHAM
RAD
Cheese head
CH HD
Countersunk
CSK
Required
REQD
Countersunk head
CSK HD
Right hand
RH
Counterbore
C'BORE
Round head
RD HD
Cylinder or cylindrical
CYL
Screwed
SCR
DIA
Sheet
SH
Sketch
SK
Drawing
DRG
Specification
SPEC
External
EXT
SPHERE
Figure
FIG
SPHERE R
Hexagon
HEX
Spotface
S'FACE
Hexagon head
HEX HD
SQ
Hydraulic
HYD
Insulated or insulation
INSUL
Standard
STD
Internal
INT
Undercut
U'CUT
Left hand
LH
Volume
VOL
Long
LG
Weight
WT
Material
MATL
Maximum
MAX
Minimum
MIN
4.3 DIMENSIONS
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The figures used to denote each dimension will normally appear, in millimetres or
inches, beside the appropriate dimension or leader line. All figures are
positioned so that they can be read from the bottom on the right-hand side of the
drawing. Some examples of how dimensions should be shown are given below:
61.50mm
Half a millimetre
0.5mm
12 300mm
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5" or 5.75"
2'-0" or 2'-0.5
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4.4
TOLERANCE
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illustrates the symbol for squareness, the tolerance and the datum to which true
position relates.
4.5 PROJECTIONS
4.5.1ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
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The symbol used on drawings to indicate first angle projection is derived from
views of a circular taper as shown the diagram below. The symbol shows a from
view and left view of the circular taper in first-angle projection.
Third Angle Projection. In this projection the layout of the drawing is usually
rather different from that of the First Angle Projection.
It is a characteristic of the Third Angle Projection that each view shows what
would be seen by looking on the near side of an adjacent view.
The First Angle Projection is the traditional method of representation in this
country, but it is being replaced gradually by the Third Angle Projection, this
latter system being preferred by draughtsmen. Both projections are
commonly encountered and the drawing must clearly indicate which
projection is used.
In a Third Angle Projection an object is positioned in the space of the third
angle quadrant, between two principle planes. The planes are imagined to be
transparent and the projected views of the object are viewed through the
planes as shown in the diagram below. The symbol used to indicate third
angle projection on drawings is derived as for the first angle projection but the
views are positioned differently as shown in the diagram below.
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4.5.2PICTORIAL PROJECTIONS
Isometric Projection. A simple item such as a plain shear pin could quite
easily be drawn on a single sheet of drawing paper, as with the bracket in the
diagram below. In this case the bracket is drawn in pictorial fashion in a
method called Isometric Projection.
This method is quite acceptable for simple parts and is often used to give an
engineer an idea of what an item looks like. Like other similar projections, this
projection is not normally suitable for production purposes. It uses as its
basis, a flat surface represented in the diagram above by the outline OABC,
which is tilted so that its sides OA and OC form an angle of 30 with the
horizontal. The item to be drawn is shown placed on the flat surface and is
reproduced without perspective.
Dimensions are difficult to show on an Isometric Projection unless the item is
an extremely simple one, and this is one of the reasons for the limited
suitability of the projection for production purposes.
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Once the alteration to a drawing has been approved, it is carried out and then
recorded by the drawing office in a list on the drawing itself. The nature of the
alteration is shown together with the date. Each alteration is numbered or
lettered consecutively, the number or letter being known as the Issue Number of
the drawing. It is most important to ensure that the drawing in use bears the
correct issue number and date. In this respect it should be noted that a
modification or repair may call for work to be carried out to a drawing with an
issue number prior to the latest one. Generally speaking however, the drawing in
use should normally be to the latest issue number. If you are not sure if the
drawing is the correct issue and date, you should refer to the design authority
that issued the drawing. A typical alteration is shown in the diagram below. If a
drawing amendment affects interchangeability of the item, the part number is
changed.
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The ATA 100 Specification `breaks' an aircraft down into its major
systems, such as air conditioning, electrical power, and landing gear
etc. and then allocates these systems chapter numbers. Thus, Air
conditioning is Chapter 21; Electrical Power, Chapter 24, the Landing
Gear, Chapter 32. The various systems chapters are arranged
alphabetically, there being no natural order or precedence or
importance. A feature of the Specification is that where
applicable the various Chapter Numbers are the same in all the
manuals.
For example information on Landing gear is found in Chapter 32 in
the Maintenance Manual, Wiring Diagram Manual, Overhaul Manual
and in the Illustrated Parts Catalogue. Should it be necessary to issue
a Service Bulletin referring to the landing gear, the bulletin would carry
the prefix `32'. Fuselage structure data, covered in Chapter 53, is
found under Chapter 53 in the Maintenance Manual, Illustrated Parts
Catalogue and in the Structural Repair Manual.
Most systems are too complex to be covered in one go, and Some
sub-systems may be sufficiently complex to require further
sub-division. Thus, `Main gear' could be broken down into `Main leg',
`Side stay assembly' and `Fairings', these being allocated reference
numbers such as 32-10-11, 32-10-21 and 32-10-31 respectively.
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Air Conditioning
00 General
10 Compression
20 Distribution
30 Pressurisation Control
40 Heating
50 Cooling
60 Temperature Control
70 Moisture / Air Contaminate
Control
22 Auto Flight
00 General
10 Autopilot
20 Speed-Attitude Correction
30 Auto Throttle
40 System Monitor
23 Communications
00 General
10 High Frequency (HF)
20 VHF/UHF
30 Passenger Address &
Entertainment
40 Interphone
50 Audio Integrating
60 Static Discharge
70 Audio & Video Monitoring
24 Electrical Power
00 General
10 Generator Drive
20 AC Generation
30 DC Generation
40 External Power
50 Electrical Load Distribution
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35 Oxygen
00 General
10 Airfoil
20 Air Intake
30 Pilot & Static
40 Windows & Windshields
50 Antennas & Radomes
60 Propellers / Rotors
70 Water Lines
80 Detection
31 Indicating / Recording
Systems
00 General
10 Unassigned
20 Unassigned
30 Recorders
40 Central Computers
50 Central Warning System
32 Landing Gear
00 General
10 Main gear
20 Nose Gear / Tail Gear
30 Extension & Retraction, Level
Switch
40 Wheels & Brakes
50 Steering
60 Position, Warning & Ground
Safety Switch
70 Supplementary Gear / Skis /
Floats
33 Lights
00 General
10 Flight Compartment &
Annunciator Panels
20 Passenger Compartments
30 Cargo & Service
Compartments
40 Exterior Lighting
50 Emergency Lighting
34 Navigation
00 General
10 Flight Environment Data
20 Attitude & Direction
30 Landing & Taxing Aids
40 Independent Position
Determining
50 Dependent Position
Determining
60 Position Computing
00 General
10 Crew
20 Passenger
30 Portable
36 Pneumatic
00 General
10 Distribution
20 Indicating
37 Vacuum / Pressure
00 General
10 Distribution
20 Indicating
38 Water / Waste
00 General
10 Portable
20 Wash
30 Waste Disposal
40 Air Supply
39 Electrical / Electronic Panels
& Multipurpose Components
00 General
10 Instrument & Control Panels
20 Electrical & Electronic
Equipment Racks
30 Electrical & Electronic Junction
Boxes
40 Multipurpose Electronic
Components
50 Integrated Circuits
60 Printed Circuit Card
Assemblies
49 Airborne Auxiliary Power
00 General
10 Power Plant
20 Engine
30 Engine Fuel & Control
40 Ignition / Starting
50 Air
60 Engine Controls
70 Indicating
80 Exhaust
90 O1
51 Structures
00 General
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52 Doors
61 Propellers
00 General
10 Passenger / Crew
20 Emergency Exit
30 Cargo
40 Service
50 Fixed Interior
60 Entrance Stairs
70 Door Warning
80 Landing Gear
53 Fuselage
00 General
10 Main frame
20 Auxiliary Structure
30 Pates / Skin
40 Attach Fittings
50 Aerodynamic Fairings
54 Nacelles / Pylons
00 General
10 Main Frame
20 Auxiliary Structure
30 Pates / Skin
40 Attach Fittings
50 Fillets / Fairings
55 Stabilisers
00 General
10 Horizontal Stabilisers /
Stabilator
20 Elevator / Elevon
30 Vertical Stabiliser
40 Rudder / Ruddervator
50 Attach Fittings
56 Windows
00 General
10 Flight Compartment
20 Cabin
30 Door
40 Inspection & Observation
57 Wings
00 General
10 Main Frame
20 Auxiliary Structure
30 Plates / Skin
40 Attach Fittings
50 Flight Surfaces
00 General
10 Propeller Assembly
20 Controlling
30 Braking
40 Indicating
65 Rotors
00 General
10 Main Rotor
20 Anti-torque Rotor Assembly
30 Accessory Driving
40 Controlling
50 Braking
60 Indicating
71 Powerplant
00 General
10 Cowling
20 Mounts
30 Fire seals & Shrouds
40 Attach Fittings
50 Electrical Harness
60 Engine Air Intakes
70 Engine Drains
72 (T) Turbine / Turboprop
00 General
10 Reduction Gear & Shaft
section
20 Air Intake Section
30 Compressor Section
40 Combustion Section
50 Turbine Section
60 Accessory Drives
70 By-pass Section
72 (R) Engine Reciprocating
00 General
10 Front section
20 Power Section
30 Cylinder Section
40 Supercharger Section
50 Lubrication
73 Engine Fuel & Control
00 General
10 Distribution
20 Controlling / Governing
30 Indicating
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74 Ignition
79 Engine Oil
00 General
10 Electrical Power Supply
20 Distribution
30 Switching
75 Bleed Air
00 General
10 Engine Anti-Icing
20 Accessory Cooling
30 Compressor Control
40 Indicating
76 Engine Controls
00 General
10 Power Control
20 Emergency Shutdown
77 Engine Indicating
00 General
10 Power
20 Temperature
30 Analyser
78 Engine Exhaust
00 General
10 Collector / Nozzle
20 Noise Suppressor
30 Thrust Reverser
40 Supplementary Air
00 General
10 Storage (Dry Sump)
20 Distribution
30 Indicating
80 Starting
00 General
10 Cranking
81 Turbines (Reciprocating Eng.)
00 General
10 Power Recovery
20 Turbo-Supercharger
82 Water Injection
00 General
10 Storage
20 Distribution
30 Dumping & Pumping
40 Indicating
83 Remote Gear Boxes (Eng. Dr.)
00 General
10 Drive Shaft Section
20 Gearbox Section
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Intentionally Blank
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If the shaft must rotate in the hole the shaft must always be smaller than the
hole.
If the shaft has to drive a gear wheel and the wheel is held onto the shaft by
friction, the shaft must always be slightly larger than the hole (and the shaft
will be hammered into the hole)
Page 11-69
5.2.3TRANSITION FIT
In many cases it is not important
that the shaft is a clearance fit or
an interference fit. The shaft and
hole sizes may vary so that
sometimes the shaft is slightly
smaller than the hole and
sometimes slightly larger. A solid
rivet may sometimes fit easily into
a hole and sometimes it has to be
driven in. This type of fit is called a
transition fit. If the shaft size is
between 24.98 and 25.02mm and
the hole size is given the same
tolerance, sometimes the shaft is
the biggest and sometimes the hole.
Page 11-69
Page 11-69
6.4 DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are in common use:
Note:It is important to consider whether a value is +ve or -ve when moments are
calculated and the following conventions are used:
Distances horizontal
Dry Operating Mass - This is the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a
specific type of operation excluding all usable fuel and traffic load. This mass
includes crew and crew baggage, catering and removable passenger service
equipment and potable water and lavatory chemicals. Note: This is a new
term as specified in JAR OPS. The terms 'Basic Weight' and Variable
Weight has previously been used, and both of these combined would be the
same as Dry Operating Mass.
Traffic Load - This includes the total mass of passengers, baggage and
cargo, including any non-revenue load.
Centre of Gravity Balance Limits. - For normal operation of the aircraft the
Centre of Gravity should be between the Forward and Aft limits as specified
by the manufacturer. If the C of G is outside these limits, the aircraft
performance will be affected and the aircraft may be unsafe.
A Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule shall be provided for each aircraft
where the MTWA Maximum Total Weight Authorised) exceeds 2730 kg.
For aircraft not exceeding 2730 kg MTWA, either a Weight and Centre of
Gravity Schedule shall be provided or alternatively a Load and Distribution
Schedule which complies with BCAR Section A, Chapter A5-1, para 6.1.
For new aircraft which exceed 2730 kg, but do not exceed 5700 kg, the
information contained in Parts B and C of the Schedule may be given as part
of the Weight and Balance Report.
A Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule must provide the following. Each
Schedule must be identified by the aircraft registration marks or the
constructors serial number. The date of issue must be on the Schedule and
signed by an authorised representative of the CAA, and if applicable a
statement shall be included indicating that the Schedule supersedes all
earlier issues. It is also necessary to refer to the date or reference number
(or both) of the Weight and Balance Report, or other acceptable information
on which the Schedule is based.
Operators must also revise the Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule when it is
known that the weight and C of G has changed in excess of a maximum figure
agreed by the CAA. If the aircraft has not been re-weighed, the revised Weight
and Centre of Gravity Schedule must state that it has been calculated on the
basis of the last Weight and Balance Report and the known weight and C of G
changes. A record of the calculations should be retained for future reference.
A copy of the Schedule is retained by the operator and a further copy sent to the
CAA Airworthiness Division which shall include any related list of Basic
Equipment. For aircraft of MTWA not exceeding 5700 Kg, a copy of the Weight
and C of G Schedule must be included in the Flight Manual. If a Flight Manual is
not a requirement, the Schedule must be displayed or retained in a stowage in
the aircraft. A similar arrangement is often used in larger aircraft.
Aircraft must be weighed to determine the Basic Weight and the C of G position
when all the manufacturing processes have been completed. Aircraft, with
MTWA exceeding 5700 kg (12500 lb) must be re-weighed within two years of the
date of manufacture, after this, a check weighing must be carried out at intervals
not exceeding 5 years and at times laid down by the CAA. Aircraft below MTWA
5700 kg must be re-weighed as required by the CAA.
In making decisions on weighing, the CAA considers the history of the aircraft, it's
flying performance, and the probable effect on the weight after a major overhaul,
or major modification, repair or replacement.
Certain types of aircraft may be weighed on a sampling basis (i.e. a
representative aircraft, as weighed would be acceptable for others of the same
standard) by agreement with the CAA.
An alternative to the periodic check weighing is for the operator to establish a
fleet mean weight (i.e. Basic Weight) and fleet mean Centre of Gravity position.
The initial fleet mean weight is based on the mean weights of all the aircraft of
the same type in the fleet. The figure may be revised annually by sample
weighing.
When an aircraft is weighed, the equipment and other items of load, such as fluid
in the tanks must be recorded. This recorded load should not differ significantly
from the Basic Equipment List associated with the Weight and Centre of Gravity
Schedule. In circumstances where there is a significant difference between the
Basic Weight of the aircraft and the operating weight (i.e. Basic Weight plus the
Variable Load) not accountable to structural changes brought about by
modifications/repairs, the CAA may require the actual weights of the Variable
Load items be ascertained.
All records of weighing, including calculations involved, must be available to the
CAA. Records are retained by the aircraft manufacturer, overhauler or operator,
and when the aircraft is weighed again, the previous records must not be
destroyed, but retained with the aircraft records.
Operators must retain all known weight and C.G. changes that occur after the
aircraft has been weighed.
Before issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness for a prototype, prototype (modified)
or series aircraft, MWTA exceeding 5700 kg, a Weight and Balance Report must
be prepared by a CAA Approved Organisation. This Report is intended to record
the essential data to enable a particular aircraft to be correctly loaded, and to
include sufficient information for the operator to produce loading instructions in
accordance with the provisions of the A.N.O. The report applies to the aircraft in
the condition in which it is delivered from the constructor to the operator. The
Weight and Balance Report must include the following items:
A copy of the Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule, including the Basic
Equipment List of this is separate from Part A of the Schedule.
A diagram and a description of the datum points used for weighing and
loading, and an explanation of the relationship of these points to fuselage
frame numbering systems and, where applicable, to the Standard Mean
Chord (SMC) or Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC).
In the example shown, the reference datum is at the left of the beam. A mass of
200 lbs. is 10" from the datum and another mass of 400 lbs. is 80" from the
datum. The mass of the beam is 500lbs and the length of the beam is 100". To
find the position of the Centre of Gravity.
Item
Mass (Lbs)
Arm (Inches)
Mass 1
200
10
2,000
Mass 2
400
80
32,000
Beam
500
50
25,000
Total
1,100
The aircraft should be in the condition described in the Weight and Centre of
Gravity Schedule with fuel and engine oil partially or completely drained in
accordance with the manufacturers requirements and equipment positioned
as required.
The aircraft should be placed into 'Rigging Position' so that consistent results
are obtained.
Some light aircraft with tail wheels, have a negative load on the tail when in
rigging position as a result of the C.G. being forward of the main wheel
centres. In such cases, it may be possible to use a jack at the nose. If not, a
spring balance may be anchored to the ground and attached to the tail wheel.
The reaction thus obtained will be a negative reaction and its value deducted
from the aircraft weight and treated as a minus quantity when calculating
C.G. position. The weight of the rope and spring balance must also be added
to the spring balance reading.
When electrical weighing cells are being used, they should be switched on
30 minutes before weighing to enable the circuits to stabilise.
Thus
= 7.82 in
Weight (lb)
Arm (in)
1995
(+) 100 =
2005
(+) 100 =
Nose wheel
220
(-) 50 =
(-) 11 000
Totals
4220
TM = 389 000 lb in
TW = 4220 lb
So C.G. = (+) 92.18 in
92.18 in
100
100 = 16.6 %
Percentage (S.M.C.)
When equipment has been added, the weight must be added to the original
Basic Weight; if the arm of the new equipment is +ve i.e. aft of the C.G.
Reference datum, then the moment must be added to the original moment. If
the arm is -ve i.e. forward of the C.G. Datum, then the moment must be
subtracted.
When equipment has been removed, the weight must be deducted from the
original weight. If the arm is positive the moment must be deducted from the
original moment and vice versa.
The new C.G. position is calculated by dividing the new total moment by the
new Basic Weight.
C.G. Reference Datum is at Fuselage Station 100 i.e. 100" aft of fuselage
station zero.
Example 1:
Arm (in)
14,800
+ 25
370 000
28
+ 30
840
- 55
220
24
- 85
2 040
368 580
Transmitter
Controller
Scanner
With the New Basic Weight and Moment, The C.G. can be calculated as follows:
C.G. = TM = 368,580
TW
= 24.81"
14,856
Centre of Gravity :
Example 2:
14,856 lb.
24.81" aft of the Reference Datum
Weight (lb)
Original Aircraft
Arm (in)
14,800
+ 25
370 000
Item removed
- 145
- 35
5 075
Item replaced
+ 145
+ 70
10 150
385 225
= 26.03
Weight (lb)
Basic Weight
Arm (in)
Moment
(lb in/100)
CG
(SMC)
29.2
100 000
210
21000.00
Pilot
165
100
16.50
Navigator
165
100
16.50
Engineer
165
120
19.50
Steward
165
300
49.50
Crew Baggage
100
110
11.00
450
170
76.50
600
280
168.00
Drinking Water
250
130
32.50
Life-raft
300
410
123.00
Emergency Transmitter
30
120
3.60
200
400
80.00
Operating Weight
102 590
211
21 596.60
5 775
160
924.00
270
3697.65
Variable Load
100 Tourist
30.0
Disposable Load
Passengers 1st class (35)
Tourist (83)
Cargo
13 695
No 1 hold
500
100
50.00
No 2 hold
450
200
90.00
No 3 hold
500
280
140.00
No 4 hold
400
350
140.00
215
26638.55
150
1500.00
123910
10000
Nos 1 and 3
10000
200
2000.00
Reserve tanks
5000
240
1200.00
148910
210
31338.55
33.3
29.2
6.13 DOCUMENTATION
The route of the proposed move should be free from obstructions such as
servicing platforms, passenger steps, vehicles and any other servicing
equipment. Consideration should also be given to foreign objects along the
route, that may be picked up by tyres and cause damage (F.O.D.)
Moving aircraft is a team effort and members of the moving team should be
fully conversant with their assigned tasks. They should be adequately briefed
as to their individual responsibilities by the person in charge (I/C) the move.
This applies equally to re-positioning a light aircraft in the hangar or moving a
747 around Heathrow.
Clearance from Air Traffic Control may be required for the move.
7.1.1MOVING METHODS
Normal moving methods of moving aircraft on the ground are:
By hand by pushing and steering arm.
By tractor, using a towing arm or bridle and steering arm.
Taxiing.
Towing speed should be kept to a safe level at all times (walking pace is a
safe limit)
A steering limit is often imposed so that the radius of turns is kept within
specified limits. This will minimise tyre scrubbing and reduce the twisting
loads on the undercarriage. It is usual to tow the aircraft forwards in a
straight line after executing a turn, to relieve stresses built up in the turn. The
steering limit is often shown by marks painted on the fixed part of the nose
leg, but may sometimes be overcome by disconnection of a pin joining the
torque links
Personnel (suitably briefed) should be positioned at the wing tips and tail
when manoeuvring in confined spaces, so obstructions may be avoided. One
person shall be supervising the aircraft movement (not the tractor driver) and
should be positioned so that all members of the team may be observed.
Particular care should be given when towing swept wing aircraft to 'wing tip
growth'. This is the tendency of the swept wing to 'grow' in a turn.
Large multi-engine aircraft will usually be towed with special purpose tug and
a suitable towing arm fitted with a shear pin, designed to shear if a
pre-determined towing load is exceeded.
Marshall's should identify themselves to the pilot by raising their hands and
waving them in a circular motion. Identification may also be assisted if the
marshaller wears distinctive coloured garments. Typically, a marshaller may
wear a yellow or 'Day-glow' waistcoat or white overalls. Once the attention of
the pilot is gained, the marshaller should direct the pilot with a series of clear
standard signals.
Marshall's should position themselves forward of the aircraft and in line with
the port wing-tip, within the pilot's vision.
It is safer for the marshaller to be positioned well forward of the aircraft and
allow the aircraft to taxi on to him/her. A marshaller walking backwards would
be unaware of what is going on behind.
If the area has obstructions, wing tip safety personnel should indicate
clearance by use of standard signals.
When marshalling at night with wands, always carry a spare wand. If one
wand fails, the other should be switched off and the pilot should stop until the
unserviceable wand is replaced and marshalling recommences.
Stop Engines (Cut engines) - Either arm and hand level with shoulder,
hand moving across throat, palm downward. The hand is moved sideways
with the arm remaining bent.
Move Forward - Arms a little apart held out in front at shoulder height and
repeatedly moved upwards and backwards (beckoning)
Turn Left (Pilot's Left) - Point right arm downwards. Left arm moved
repeatedly upwards and backwards, speed of movement indicating rate of
turn.
Turn Right - Point left arm downwards. Right arm moved repeatedly
upwards and backwards etc.
STOP - Arms crossed above the head with palms facing forward. Urgent
stop would be indicated by repeated crossing and uncrossing.
Brakes On - By day, arms above head with palms forward and fingers
raised. Then fist closed again with palms towards aircraft.
These jacks are used to raise an aircraft for various servicing operations. Their
method of operation and hydraulic mechanism is similar to the pillar jack. They
consist of a hydraulic unit supported by a number of legs in the configurations
shown. Because of the problems involved in raising an aircraft and to avoid
injury to personnel or damage to the aircraft, care should be taken to use the
correct type of jack as stated in the maintenance manual. Each jack should be
used with the correct adapter head.
The tripod jack comprises a hydraulic unit with three equally spaced legs. The
jack is designed for a vertical lift only and not for a lift involving lateral; movement
of the jack, such as raising one side of the aircraft for a wheel change. The
resulting side thrust may cause any one of the following:
Serious damage to the ram due to the bending load
Distortion of the Jack legs
Damage to the aircraft due to jack head slipping out of the jacking pad
Shearing of the jacking pad fastener
The serviceable tyre may be dragged sideways
To change a single wheel, a pillar jack may be used, two tripod jacks may be
used to raise the complete aircraft or a bipod jack may be used. The bipod
arrangement overcomes the limitations of the tripod jack for an 'arc' lift. On this
type of jack, two fixed legs provide the support and a third trailing leg follows the
lift and steadies the load during the lift. The maximum angle of arc should not be
more than 6 degrees.
The quadruped jack is used more commonly as it possesses the advantages of
both types of jack. Two legs are fixed and two adjustable. This jack may be
used as a bipod jack by removing adjustable leg, or an adjustable stable jack with
the extra leg added. All four legs may be locked solid by slight adjustment of
both adjustable legs. Transportation wheels are often permanently attached to
large jacks or as detachable units on other jacks. These facilitate easy
movement of the jacks that would otherwise need to be dragged around the
hanger. Alternatively, jacks can be dismantled for transportation.
Uses of other jacks on aircraft are shown in the diagram below.
The jacks should always be positioned correctly and the load raised and
lowered gradually.
Keep jacks clean and free from corrosion. Lubricate moving parts regularly
and exercise the jack if not used frequently.
Jack replenishment is usually through the air valve up to the level of the
bottom of the air valve. Low oil level is indicated by inability to lift to
maximum height. Over filling is indicated by leakage of oil when the jack is
fully extended.
7.2.5JACKING PROCEDURE
The following procedure will generally ensure satisfactory jacking of most aircraft,
but account should be taken of any additional precautions specified in the
manual. One person should co-ordinate the operation and one person should
man each jacking point. On larger aircraft a levelling station will also need to be
manned and all members of the team may need to be in radio or telephone
communication with the co-ordinator.
1. Check that the aircraft weight, fuel state and centre of gravity are within the
specified limits.
2. Head the aircraft into wind if it is in the open, chock the main wheels fore and
aft and release the brakes.
3. Ensure that there is adequate clearance above every part of the aircraft and
that there is clearance for lifting cranes or other equipment that may be
required.
4. Connect earth cable to the earth point on the aircraft.
5. Install the undercarriage ground locks
6. Fit jacking pads to the jacking points and adapters to the jacks as required.
Fit load cells if needed.
7. Position the jacks at each jacking point and check the jacks are adjusted
correctly i.e. release valve closed, jack body vertical and weight evenly
distributed about the legs when the adapters are located centrally in the
jacking pads and the weight of the aircraft is just being taken by the jacks.
8. Remove the chocks and slowly raise the aircraft as evenly as possible.
Whilst jacking, the locking collars should be wound down keeping them close
to the body of the jack. When the aircraft is raised to the correct height, the
locking collar should be tightened down.
9. Place supports under the wings and fuselage as indicated in the
Maintenance manual.
10. A pillar (bottle) jack and an adapter are often used for raising a single
undercarriage for changing a single wheel. Alternatively a trolley jack or
stirrup jack may be used. The remaining wheels should be chocked to
prevent aircraft movement, and it may be specified that a tail support is
located when raising a nose undercarriage. The jack should be raised only
enough to lift the unserviceable wheel clear of the ground.
7.2.6LOWERING AIRCRAFT
Before lowering the aircraft to the ground, equipment, work stands etc. should be
moved clear of the aircraft to prevent inadvertent damage. The wheels should be
rotated by hand to ensure the brakes are off. The jacks should be lowered
together by opening their release valves, and, the locking collars (if used)
unscrewed whilst the jacks are lowered, and kept within 2" of the jack body. The
jacks should be fully lowered after the aircraft is resting on it's wheels and the
release valves closed.
Safety Note - On no account should the top of the jacks be handled until the
jack is clear of the aircraft. It is common for the aircraft shock absorbers to stick
and suddenly collapse resulting in damage to equipment or serious injury to parts
that might be between the aircraft and jack. After the aircraft is lowered and the
jacks removed, the jacking pads and adapters should be removed and the
chocks placed in position. Any fuses or circuit breakers should be re-set in their
correct position.
7.2.7TRESTLES
These are provided to support to aircraft structures (main planes, fuselages etc.)
and may also be used to support the complete aircraft. Various types are
available including plain wooden trestles that are purpose built and not
adjustable. Trestles should only be used at designated strong parts of the
structure. It will normally be shown in the Maintenance Manual where they
should be positioned. Lines are often painted on the aircraft to show where the
trestle beam is positioned.
Universal Trestle - This trestle is made up from lengths of angle iron, bolts and
nuts, and has two jacking heads. By using different lengths of angle iron, trestles
of various sizes can be produced. The wooden beam across the jacking heads
may be replaced by a wooden former, cut to the curvature of the component it
supports. Padding is normally attached to the former to prevent damage to the
aircraft finish. The two jacking heads, which are hand operated screw jacks,
enable the beam to be adjusted to suit the angle of the component.
Note: Although the trestles have 'jacking heads', they should only be used for
supporting a load, not for attempting to raise parts of the aircraft. Damage may
be caused to the aircraft if attempts are made to to do any more than support the
structure.
Tail Trestle - This trestle is not suitable for heavy loads and must only be used
for supporting a load vertically. Adjustment in height may be made by rotating
the windlass type nut. As in the universal trestle, the beam may be replaced by a
shaped former to suit the contours of the aircraft.
Slinging - Slings may be required for lifting various parts of an aircraft during
maintenance, repair, dismantling and assembly. Sometimes a complete aircraft
may need to be lifted for transportation or to clear a runway quickly.
The use of the correct equipment for lifting aircraft parts will minimise the risk of
damage to the aircraft and personnel. A list of special equipment is usually in the
front of the maintenance manual. This list will usually include special slings to be
used on the aircraft and any other special equipment or tools required.
Slings may be of the three-point type as used for lifting-main planes; other types,
used for lifting engines, fuselages or other large items may be fitted with spreader
bars or struts. Before removing a main plane, the opposite main plane must be
supported with trestles. To attach a sling, some aircraft have special slinging
points with threaded holes in the airframe which are used to fit the eye or forkend bolts of the sling. These holes are normally sealed when not in use with
removable plugs. As an alternative to screw in fittings, some slings are used in
conjunction with strong straps that pass under the component to be lifted.
7.2.8LIFTING TACKLE
Wire rope, chain or fibre rope may be used for lifting purposes. Before use, the
tackle should be inspected to ensure that it is serviceable, of the correct type
and, when used, that the Safe Working Load (S.W.L.) is not exceeded. The
S.W.L. may be stated on a brass tally attached to the lifting sling. This brass tally
should never be removed from the sling.
Wire Rope is used in cranes, hoists, gantries and various slings. Before use, the
wire rope should be inspected for wear, corrosion, broken wires etc. The splices
and their attachments should also be inspected for serviceability. In use, care
should be taken that the rope does not kink under load. Before multiple leg wire
rope slings are used, they should be laid out on the floor to ensure shackles are
correctly fitted and the fittings are not twisted. Knotting of ropes to shorten them
is prohibited.
Chains are used in cranes, and various types of sling. Before use, they must be
inspected for cracks, flaws, distortion, excessive wear and 'socketing'. This latter
defect is the name given to the grooves produced in the ends of links when the
links wear against each other; any reduction in diameter in excess of a given
figure (usually 10%) will render the chain unserviceable.
Fibre rope slings may be used for lifting lighter components such as propellers.
These slings use natural fibres such as sisal or hemp or nylon fibres. They must
be inspected for frayed strands, pulled splices, excessive wear and deterioration.
The slings when not in use, should be hung on pegs in a sheltered position free
from dampness. Immediately before use, the rope should be opened up by
slightly untwisting the strands to ensure they are not damaged or mildewed
internally: a damaged or mildewed rope sling should not be used, it must be
destroyed. In addition to before-use checks on the rope, all loaded components
such as pulley blocks, shackles, pins, spreader bars, hooks etc. are to be
inspected for excessive wear, cracks and flaws. Moving parts must be lubricated
periodically.
Wire rope slings are normally treated against corrosion by immersion in oil and
the surplus oil wiped off, but this treatment must not be applied to slings used for
oxygen cylinders: they must always be free from oil or grease.
Except under exceptional circumstances, slings should not be made up locally.
Lifting tackle must be inspected for serviceability before use and only slings fitted
with inspection tallies should be used. Natural fibre or nylon rope slings usually
have a specific life and must be destroyed by cutting into short lengths at the end
of their life or when found defective.
7.2.8.1 Precautions When Using Lifting Tackle
Do not tow the hoist, other than by hand, when a load is suspended from the
lifting hook.
Do not allow the load to swing, especially when it is being hand towed.
Do not use a crane or hoist if the lifting rope shows sign of fraying.
Between flights it is usually sufficient to apply the parking brakes, lock the
control surfaces and chock the wheels, but in a strong wind light aircraft
should be headed into the wind. Light aircraft without wheel brakes should
be headed into wind and their wheels checked front and rear.
Tie ropes, cables, or chains to the wing tie-down fittings located at the upper
end of each wing strut. Secure the opposite ends of the ropes, cables or
chains to ground anchors. Secure a tie down rope (no chains or cables) to
the exposed portion of the engine mount and secure opposite end to a
ground anchor.
Secure the middle of a rope to the tail tie-down ring. Pull each end of the
rope at a 45 degree angle and secure to a tie-down point either side of tail.
Secure a control lock on pilot control column. If control lock is not available,
tie the pilot control back with a front seat belt. These aircraft are equipped
with a spring-loaded steering system that affords protection against normal
wind gusts. However, if extremely high winds are anticipated, additional
external locks may be installed.
These may only require picketing in very strong wind conditions. The maximum
wind-speed will normally be stated in the Maintenance Manual (including gusting
winds). The aircraft should be headed into wind and the parking brakes applied.
Cables or chains should be attached from the aircraft picketing points to prepared
anchorage's. In some cases the picketing cables are special components and
include a tension meter that is used to apply a pre-load to the cable.
7.3.2.2 Helicopters
In addition to the above requirements, the rotor blades should be tethered
whenever possible, since even light gusting winds can cause damage to the
blades if free to flap. The collective pitch lever should normally be locked in the
fully fine position and the rotor brake applied. Rotor head and blade covers
should also be fitted if the-helicopter is parked over night. If high winds are
expected, they should be parked in a hangar and/or the rotor blades should be
folded. On many helicopters the blades are tethered by aligning one blade along
the tail cone, locking the collective pitch lever in fine pitch, and applying the tip
covers to each blade, pulling them against the stops. Each blade may then be
lashed to it's respective picketing point.
After taxing through snow or slush, ice may accumulate on landing gear,
forward facing surfaces and under-surfaces.
The formation of ice on aircraft structures will have many adverse effects. These
will be described in the systems module. They will, if allowed to remain:
Decrease aerofoil lift
Increase aerofoil drag
Increase weight
Decrease engine thrust
Freezing of moisture in control hinges
Freezing of micro-switches, affecting systems such as the landing gear
retraction
Ingestion of ice into the engine
Ground de-icing must not only remove ice deposits before take-off but must
prevent them from reforming until the aircraft's own ice protection system
becomes effective. This may not occur until the aircraft is established on the
climb-out.
Complete protection against ground icing can only be provided by keeping the
aircraft in a heated hangar until required for flight but this is often impossible and
usually impracticable. Removal of snow and ice prior to take-off and a
knowledge of methods of ground de-icing is essential. There have been many
aircraft accidents and incidents attributed to poor ground de-icing procedures.
7.4.2DE-ICING AND ANTI-ICING
It is important to point out at this point the difference between the two terms. Deicing involves removal of ice, snow or frost already accumulated on the aircraft.
Anti-icing is concerned with prevention of its formation. If icing conditions are
anticipated, an attempt should be made to protect the aircraft.
7.4.3METHODS OF DE-ICING
Ground de-icing may be accomplished by mechanical methods (brush or rubber
squeegee) or by using Freezing Point Depressant (FPD) compounds, the two
methods often used in conjunction with one another. There are two main types
of FPD compounds:
Type 1 (unthickened) - These fluids have a high glycol content but have a
low viscosity. They provide good de-icing performance but only limited
protection against re-freezing.
In very severe conditions one application of cold fluid may not be sufficient to
remove all deposits. Brushing, followed by a second or third application may
be necessary
As the ice and snow melts the de-icing fluid becomes diluted, becomes less
effective and may freeze again quite quickly. This may be dangerous if
diluted fluid is allowed to run into control surface and landing gear
mechanisms.
High pressure sprays may cause damage to pitot-static probes and other
sensing devices
High pressure sprays may cause erosion of the aircraft skin. Consult the
appropriate Maintenance Manual for manufacturers recommended maximum
impingement pressure.
7.4.5ANTI-ICING
When used for anti-icing the FPD fluid should be sprayed on to the aircraft cold
and undiluted either before the onset of icing or after hot de-icing has been
carried out. The fluid film will prevent ice and snow from sticking to the aircraft
skin and, given time, will melt any fresh precipitation. The time for which the fluid
remains effective, known as the 'hold over' time, is given in the table on the
following page.
Notes:
Under extreme cold conditions it may be necessary to heat the fluid (60C
max) to give it sprayability.
Stations using Kilfrost will normally provide a mix of 5-/50 or 60/40. It may be
difficult to get stronger mixes at short notice unless the temperature
conditions at the stations involved are below limits for that mix.
Above 0
Frost
Freezing
fog
Steady
Snow
Freezing
Rain
*
*
*
*
*
0 to 7
*
*
*
*
-8 to
-10
*
*
-11 to
-14
*
*
-15 to
-25
*
*
*
Anti-Icing
De-Icing
Type I Fluids
(See note 2)
100% Cold
(See Note 1)
75/25 (hot)
60/40 (hot)
50/50 (hot)
8 hrs
5 hrs
4 hrs
3 hr
45 min
3 hrs
2 hrs
1 hr
1 hr
30 min
1 hr
45 min
35 min
30 min
15 min
20 min
10 min
7 min
5 min
5 min
8 hr
5 hr
4 hr
3 hr
30 mins
1 hr
1 hr
50 min
45 min
15 mins
45 min
30 min
20 min
15 min
15 mins
20 min
10 min
5 min
3 min
3 mins
8 hr
5 hr
4 hr
30 mins
1 hr
1 hr
50 min
15 mins
45 min
30 min
20 min
15 mins
8 hr
5 hr
30 mins
1 hr
1 hr
15 mins
45 min
30 min
15 mins
8 hr
30 mins
1 hr
15 mins
45 min
15 min
7.4.6DE-ICING PASTE
One some aircraft not equipped with aerofoil or propeller de-icing systems, the
use of a de-icing paste may be specified. The paste is spread evenly by hand
over wing, tail and propeller leading edges and provides a chemically active
surface on which ice may form but not produce a bond. Any ice which forms is
blown away by the airstream.
The paste should be re-applied before each flight in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
Note: Paste does not constitute an approved method of de-icing otherwise
unprotected aircraft for intended flights into known or forecast icing conditions.
7.4.7INSPECTION AFTER DE-ICING OPERATIONS
The following inspection should be carried out on completion of a de-icing
operation:
1. External surfaces for signs of residual snow or ice particularly in the vicinity of
control surface gaps and hinges.
2. All protrusions and vents for signs of damage.
3. Control surfaces for full and free movement by hand. Where this is not
possible the pilot's controls should be used bearing in mind that power
operated controls exert large forces and could cause damage if any part of
the control surface is frozen.
4. Landing gear mechanisms, doors, bays and wheel brakes for snow and ice
deposits.
5. Up-locks and micro-switches for correct operation.
6. Check that tyres are not frozen to the ground. They should be freed by the
application of hot air to the ice (not the tyre) and the aircraft moves to a dry
area.
7. Engine air intakes for ice and snow deposits.
8. Freedom of rotation of gas turbine engines by hand. Restriction may indicate
icing in the compressor region and the engine should be blown through with
hot air immediately before starting until the rotating parts are free.
9. Shock absorber struts and hydraulic jacks for leaks caused by contraction of
seals and metal parts.
10. Tyre pressures and shock absorber pressure and extension.
11. Entry in Tech. Log.
7.5 STORAGE
The previous section dealt with parking of aircraft for various lengths of time in
adverse weather conditions. If an aircraft is de-activated for an extended time it
will need to be protected against corrosion, deterioration and environmental
conditions during storage. The following notes are based on the storage
procedures applicable to BA 146 aircraft that have been de-activated for periods
in excess of 30 days up to a maximum of 2 years. It is not intended for the
information given to be complete, just to give the reader an idea of some of the
activities performed.
A list of equipment and materials is normally given. This will normally include:
Hydraulic fluid and lubricating oils, grease
Specialised water displacing fluids (WD 40) & corrosion preventative
compounds
Aircraft covers and blanks
Plastic sheeting and adhesive tape
Generally there would be an initial procedure, this being repeated a specified
intervals as shown in the table below. If no repeat interval is given, the item is
only done initially.
ITEM
Repeat
Intervals (days)
Landing Gear
Clean and dry main and landing gear bays
Check landing gear for hydraulic leakage
30
60
15
Flight Controls
Fully extend flaps
Open and tag flap valves and airbrake circuit breakers
Fully extend lift spoilers and install safety sleeves to all spoiler
jacks
Depressurise hydraulic system
Lubricate the flight controls
Protect flap carriages, upper surfaces of flap tracks with grease
30
Power Plants
Carry out special long term storage procedure for engines
Note: Renewal of engine long term storage is preceded by engine
run
Oxygen System
Check test date of oxygen cylinders
Disconnect distribution lines from oxygen cylinders, blank off
pipelines and cylinder outlet connection
Check cylinder pressure is above 50 p.s.i.
Remove crew masks for storage
180
ITEM
Repeat
Intervals (days)
Water Waste
Drain potable water system
Purge potable water system with dry air or nitrogen
Fuel System
Refuel aircraft with fuel treated with an approved biocidal agent
After 24 hours, drain water from fuel tanks
Air Conditioning System
Install blanks in the ECS ram air inlet, exhaust, APU intake, APU
oil cooler, front and rear discharge valves
Hydraulic System
Check system for leaks
Replenish system
Coat all unpainted hydraulic pipe-work with preservative ompound
Aircraft Exterior
Wash aircraft
Coat all unpainted metal surfaces with preservative compound
Aircraft Interior
Remove passenger seats and carpets for bay storage
Remove, service and store all galley portable equipment
Remove, check and store windshield wiper arms complete with
blades
Remove rain repellent canisters
Electrical/Electronic System
Remove and service batteries
Remove for bay service, all rack mounted electronic equipment
Apply power to and function installed electronic equipment
Pressure Refuelling - In this method fuel may be pumped into the aircraft
via a pressure refuelling coupling at very high rates. The refuelling pressure
may be up to 50 p.s.i. and the refuel rate may be in the order of 1,000 gallons
per minute. The aircraft may also be de-fuelled via the same coupling by
applying suction to the hose. Maximum de-fuel pressure is normally in the
region of -11 p.s.i.
Whenever possible aircraft should be fuelled in the open, and not in a hangar.
This will minimise the fire risk due to high concentrations of inflammable
vapours.
Fire appliances should be readily available when all fuelling operations are
taking place. Carbon dioxide or foam extinguishers are recommended, but if
any increased fire risk is anticipated, fire-fighting vehicles should be standing
by. There is a danger area around an aircraft being fuelled which extends a
specified distance from the fuelling point. No sources of ignition or sparks
should be within this danger area and no electrical power should be switched
on or off during the operation.
It is vital that the correct type and grade of fuel be used for the fuelling
operation. Use of a turbine fuel in a piston aircraft will certainly cause an
engine failure, possibly at a crucial flight stage. The correct type and grade of
fuel should always be stated in the maintenance manual and marked
adjacent to the filler point(s).
Care should also be exercised to avoid contamination of the fuel system with
water or other sources of contamination. The fuel supply should be regularly
checked for water contamination and a sample of fuel drained off after
refuelling so that a water check may be carried out. It will sometimes be
necessary to filter the fuel during over-wing refuelling, particularly in dusty
climates.
Note: Piston aircraft fuel tanks are best kept full, thereby minimising the
formation of condensation in the fuel tanks.
Note: Points i - iii should all be done before fuelling operations commence.
7.6.3CHECKING FUEL CONTENTS
This is normally carried out using the aircraft fuel gauges, which may be
calibrated in gallons (Imperial or US), pounds or kilograms. If a double check is
required, or no fuel gauge is fitted, the contents may be ascertained on the
ground by using dip sticks fitted into the top of the tanks or by drip- sticks or drop
sticks which are fitted in the bottom of some aircraft tanks. The aircraft fuel
gauges will normally be positioned in the flight deck, but they may sometimes be
duplicated at a fuelling panel adjacent to the pressure refuel coupling.
Measurement of Fuel by weight. The specific gravity (S.G.) of fuel will vary
with temperature and so the weight of a certain quantity of fuel will also vary. For
example, ten gallons of fuel with an S.G. of 0.8 will have a weight of 80 lbf. and
ten gallons of fuel S.G. 0.78 will weigh 78 lbf. It is crucial for balance purposes
that the weight of fuel is known and so modern gauges may be calibrated in units
of weight rather than in gallons. When fuelling aircraft, it is essential that the
engineer is aware of the S.G. of the fuel so that the necessary weight calculation
may be carried out. The crew may ask for a fuel quantity in pounds or kilograms
and the fuel bowser will be delivering fuel in gallons.
7.6.4TYPICAL AIRCRAFT FUELLING INFORMATION (BAE 146)
7.6.4.1 General
Fuel is contained in three integral fuel tanks, one in each wing and one in the
fuselage centre section. A refuel/defuel station situated in the underside of the
right wing leading edge, consists of a standard fuel coupling, an off load valve for
defuelling and transfer between tanks, and a refuel control panel.
7.6.4.2 Refuelling
Pressure refuelling is governed from the control panel; automatically by using the
load pre-select, or manually by use of the tank refuelling valve override switches.
In the event of refuel cut-off failure the system is vented to atmosphere via a
NACA duct located in each wing tip.
Overwing gravity refuelling points are provided for each tank.
Magnetic fuel level indicators enable direct tank fuel level reading, to be taken
from the wing tanks only.
7.6.4.3 Defuelling
Selection of the off load valve to the open position connect, the main fuel feed
line to the refuel gallery. Fuel is then off loaded by selection of the appropriate
common feed and cross-feed valves, and use of the fuel feed pumps. The centre
tank is offloaded by selecting fuel transfer to the wings with the relevant wing fuel
pumps selected ON.
7.6.4.4 Fuel transfer
Selection of the offload valve to the open position enables fuel to be transferred
between tanks by use of the appropriate common feed, refuel and crossfeed
valves, and operation of the fuel feed pumps.
Selection of the TRANSFER switch to either AUTO or OPEN, will allow fuel to be
transferred from the centre tank to the wing tanks. A squat switch inhibits the use
of AUTO TRANSFER on the ground.
American
Canadian
IATA
D.Eng.R.D.2482
D.Eng.R.D.2494
D.Eng.R.D.2498
Additives
CAN 2-3.23-M81
CAN2-3.23-M81
Kerosene Type
The following additives are suitable for the system. They may be used singly or in
combination, at the approved concentrations.
ANTl-CORROSION
BlOClDAL
BIOBOR JF
ANTI-STATIC
SHELL ASA.3
DUPONT STADIS 450
Imp. Gal.
US gal.
litres
Lb
kg
Wing Left
1015
1219
4614
8120
3683
Centre
550
661
2500
4400
1996
Wing Right
1015
1219
4614
8120
3683
2580
3099
11728
20640
9362
Total
NOTE:
1. These quantities refer to an aircraft fuelled to override cut-off. When gravity
filled, the quantity in each wing tank reduces to 1005 Imp gal. (1027 US gal.,
4569 litres, 8040 lb, 3647 kg.) but the centre tank quantity remains the same.
2. The above mass values of capacity are derived from the volumetric capacity
assuming a Specific Gravity of 0.8. For other values of SG correct the above
mass values as follows where SG refers to the actual value for the fuel
loaded into the aircraft:
Actual mass = SG x mass at 0.8 SG/0.8
7.6.4.7 Limitations
Maximum refuel pressure :
US gal/min
Litres/min
Lb/min
Kg/min
Individual Wing
120
144
545
960
435
Centre tank
60
72
273
480
218
Both Wings
225
270
1023
All tanks
275
330
1250
1800
2200
816
998
Do not refuel the centre tank unless the required load exceeds the capacity of the
wing tanks.
There are no tank imbalance limitations during normal refuel or defuel operations.
For refuel/defuel limitations with the aircraft on jacks, refer to 07-00-00.
7.6.4.8 Refuellinq/defuelling
WARNING:
1. ENSURE LANDING GEAR GROUND LOCKING PINS AND CHOCKS ARE
IN POSITION.
2. NO SMOKING OR NAKED FLAME WITHIN 30 FEET (9.14 METRES).
3. BEFORE CONNECTING TANKER HOSE TO AIRCRAFT, MAKE CERTAIN
THAT AIRCRAFT AND TANKER ARE CONNECTED TO AN APPROVED
GROUND AND THAT THE TANKER IS BONDED TO THE AIRCRAFT.
4. IN THE EVENT OF FUEL SPILLAGE OR FIRE, STOP REFULLLING, SHUT
DOWN REFUEL FACILITY AND ELECTRICAL POWER, AND OPERATE
THE APU CUT-OFF SITUATED AT THE REFUEL CONTROL PANEL.
CAUTION :
1. USE ONLY APPROVED FUELS.
2. MAKE CERTA N THAT ADEQUATE FIRE FIGHTING FACILITIES ARE
AVAILABLE.
3. COMPLY WITH LOCAL SAFETY REGULATIONS.
4. BEFORE PRESSURE REFUELLING OR DEFUELLING, ENSURE THAT
BLANKS HAVE BEEN REMOVED FROM NACA DUCTS ANO THE VENT
PIPES IN THE SURGE TANKS.
7.6.4.9 Equipment and materials
HC130H0028-000
Referenced Procedure
12-10-24
8. For absolute maximum fuel load, set valve switches to PRE-SELECT and
adjust LOAD PRE-SELECT to its maximum, continue refuelling to pre-select
cut-off. Set valve switches to override, check valve indicators show OPEN,
continue refuelling until high level tank switches operate and fuel flow stops.
Check that tank FULL indicators come on.
9. Check all VALVE indicators show SHUT, and that fuel quantity indicators
show required load.
10. At flight deck centre instrument panel, check fuel quantity indicators are
reading correct load.
11. Set refuel switches to SHUT and MASTER switch to OFF.
12. Disconnect refuel hose banding and uncouple hose from aircraft. Disconnect
tanker bonding.
13. Install blanking cap to aircraft coupling. Close and secure refuel panel door.
7.6.4.13 Unserviceability of refuel valve actuator
In the event of an actuator failure, the refuel valve can be operated manually by a
lever behind the actuator, accessible after removing panel 621AB or 621BB.
Before using this method a signal must be arranged so that the valve can be shut
on instruction from an operator monitoring tank contents.
The associated tank refuel VALVE indicator must be serviceable during this
manual operation.
7.6.4.14 Overwing refuel
NOTE :
For loads other than full, wings must be filled first and then remainder in
centre tank.
1. Drain all water from tanks using water drain tool. CAUTION : INVESTIGATE
ANY CONTlMlNATION OF THE DRAINED SAMPLE (OTHER THAN
WATER).
2. Open refuel panel and select MASTER switch ON. Check fuel contents.
3. Bond refuelling tanker to aircraft bonding point in right-hand main landing
gear bay.
4. Bond refuelling hose nozzle to aircraft.
5. Remove fuel tank cap by raising handle and turning counter-clockwise To
OPEN.
6. Insert nozzle and refuel to required level. Check correct load by use of tank
contents indicators on refuel panel.
7. Remove nozzle and install tank cap with arrow (FWD) pointing forward.
Rotate handle clockwise to register with CLOSE.
8. Lock filler cap by pushing handle down to lie flush in its recess.
9. Disconnect nozzle bonding,
10. Disconnect bonding from tanker.
11. At flight deck centre instrument panel, check fuel quantity indicators show
correct fuel load.
12. At fuel control panel, select MASTER switch OFF. Close and secure control
panel door.
6. Withdraw probe slowly until it locks on float. Jerk down to break magnetic
link. Push probe up gently, resting on finger or thumb, until it jumps up and
locks to magnet.
7. Take reading using underside of wing skin as reading level.
8. Push probe up and use a screwdriver to push fully in and secure by rotating
through 90 degrees.
9. On certain aircraft it is necessary to convert MLI reading to kgs using
calibration table applicable to indicated aircraft attitude and specific MLI
used.
10. On other aircraft convert MLI reading to Ibs using calibration table applicable
to indicated aircraft attitude and specific MLI used.
11. On ALL aircraft switch off appropriate fuel pumps and de-energize aircraft
busbars (12-10-24).
200V
400Hz
3 Phase
AC power
Direct Current
28.5 V 800 amps continuous or 2,000 amps intermittent
or
Auxiliary Power Units (Aux. Unit) - Some aircraft are equipped with an
internal auxiliary power unit, which consists of a gas turbine engine driving an
AC generator which may be used as a source of emergency power, or a
source of ground power.
4. Switch on the external supply and the battery master switch and carry out the
servicing operations for which the external power was required.
5. To disconnect the external supply, switch off the battery master switch,
switch off the external supply, disconnect the power plug, and if the aircraft
electrical system is to be used (e.g. after engine starting), switch the battery
master switch on again.
7.7.1.3 Connection of Ground Power to Large Aircraft
Most large aircraft are fitted with multi-pin sockets by which external DC and AC
power may be supplied to the aircraft. The external power set is capable of
supplying DC power at various voltages and AC power at a specific voltage,
frequency and phase rotation. Aircraft electrical systems vary considerably and
the checks necessary before and after connection of electrical power will vary
between aircraft. The following procedure is applicable in most cases:
1. Check that the external supply is compatible with the aircraft system (i.e. it
has the same voltage, frequency and phase rotation as the aircraft system),
and is switched off.
2. Check that the external plug and socket are clean, dry and undamaged.
3. Connect the external plug/socket, ensuring that it is fully mated and secure,
and switch on the external power supply.
4. Check the voltage and frequency of the external supply on the aircraft
electrical system instruments, and perform the operations specified in the
relevant Maintenance Manual to engage the external supply with the aircraft
system.
5. To disconnect the electrical supply, switch off the supply at the power source
and remove the power plug from the aircraft socket.
7.7.2HYDRAULIC
7.7.3PNEUMATIC
7.7.4EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ON AIRCRAFT
HANDLING & OPERATION
8.1.2CORROSION REMOVAL
General the corrosion removal treatment includes the following main steps:
1. Cleaning and removal of protective coat on the corroded area
2. Remove as much of the corrosion products as possible
3. Neutralise the remaining residue
4. Check if damage is within limits
5. Restore protective surface films
6. Apply temporary or permanent coatings or paint finishes.
Cleaning and Paint Removal. If corrosive attack has not progressed beyond
the point requiring structural repair, it is essential that the complete suspect area
be cleaned of all grease, dirt or preservatives. This will aid in determining the
extent of corrosive spread. The selection of cleaning materials will depend on
the type of matter to be removed. Dry cleaning solvent (trichloethane Genclean) may be used for oil, grease or soft compounds. Heavy duty removal
of thick or dried compounds may need solvent emulsion type cleaners.
General purpose, water removable stripper is recommended for most paint
stripping. Adequate ventilation should be provided and synthetic rubber surfaces
such as tyres, fabric and acrylics should be protected. Care should also be taken
to ensure that the correct specification paint remover is used. If the wrong
remover is used, certain materials may be damaged. Redux Bonded structures
are particularly susceptible to damage. Remover may also soften pressurisation
sealant and plastic materials such as perspex. If the remover is solvent based,
the vapour from the solvent will cause damage. Rubber gloves, acid repellent
aprons and goggles should be worn by personnel carrying out paint removal
operations.
3. Remove the products of corrosion using scrapers (taking care not to remove
metal) or abrasive paper (wet and dry) or wire wool.
4. Neutralise any residual with the appropriate chemical cleaner and then wash
off with water. Many chemical cleaners exist. Deoxidine 202 is a phosphoric
acid cleaner used on Aluminium Alloys. It should not be used on Magnesium
Alloys. Chromic acid is recommended for Magnesium Alloys.
5. Apply protective treatment. This may be Alochrom 1200 or Alodine for
Aluminium Alloys or Chromic Acid treatment for Magnesium Alloys.
6. Restore surface finish.
8.1.9PERMANENT ANTI-CORROSION TREATMENTS
These are intended to remain intact throughout the life of the component, as
distinct from coatings that may be renewed as a routine servicing operation. They
give better adhesion for paint and most resist corrosive attack better than the
metal to which they are applied.
Electro-Plating. Falls into two categories:
Coatings less noble than the basic metal. The coating is anodic to the base
metal and so if base metal is exposed, the coating will corrode in preference
to the base metal. Commonly called sacrificial protection. Examples are
Cadmium plating or zinc on steel.
Coatings more noble e.g. nickel or chromium on steel. These nobler metals
do not corrode easily in air or water and are resistant to acid attack. If the
basic metal is exposed, it will corrode locally by electrolytic action. The attack
may result in pitting corrosion of the base metal or the corrosion may spread
beneath the coating.
Sprayed Metal Coatings. Most metal coatings can be applied by spraying, but
only aluminium and zinc are used on aircraft. Aluminium sprayed on steel is
frequently used for high temperature areas. The process (Aluminizing) produces
a film about 0.004" which prevents oxidation of the underlying metal. A supply of
oxygen and acetylene is piped to a spray gun and ignited as in a welding torch.
A wire of aluminium is fed through the spray gun, melted by the flame and thrown
against the surface being metallised by the compressed air.
Cladding. Hot rolling of pure aluminium onto duralumin produces Alclad that has
good corrosion resistance and the high strength of the alloy. If the cladding
becomes damaged, exposing the core, the material will corrode easily. Most
aircraft skin is made from Alclad.
Surface Conversion Coatings (Artificial Passivation). These are produced by
chemical action. The treatment changes the immediate surface layer into a film
of metal oxide which has better corrosion resistance than the metal. Among
those widely used on aircraft are:
Other surface conversion coatings are produced for special purposes, notably the
phosphating of steel. There are numerous proprietary processes, each known by
it's trade name e.g. Parkerising, Walterising.
Aluminium and Alloys. Light grey in colour, light in weight. Not affected by
Nitric acid, Acetic acid or Ammonia. Attacked by Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric
acid and Alkalis.
20% Caustic Soda solution forms a clear solution with aluminium and a grey
or black precipitate with Aluminium Alloy.
Heating ferrous particles in near boiling nitric acid until chemical action ceases
produces:
The basic Non Destructive Testing (NDT) methods available and principles of
each method
8.2.2BASIC METHODS
Refer to CAP 562 Section 4. Read this, as it contains all the information required
by the CAA.
Oil and chalk method. This method has been superseded by the penetrant
method, but the CAA may still ask if you are aware of it, particularly the
Bristol Modified method.
Penetrant dye method. You must know this in detail, particularly the
reasons why you might get poor results from this method and the different
types of penetrant. How many of you have done a dye penetrant test? Read
CAP 562 concerning the use of dye penetrant for testing for leaks (including
the test for pressurised vessels).
Fibrescope. These devices are similar to the borescope, but rely on fibre
optic cable rather than a rigid tube and lenses/mirrors. The image is viewed
through a bunch of fibre optic strands. The object is illuminated by light
transmitted through another bunch of fibre optic strands. These devices may
be extremely thin and may be flexible so that they can be guided through the
aircraft structure. The image may be viewed through an eyepiece, or on a TV
screen via a video camera.
Borescopes and fibrescopes are most often used to inspect the inside of gas
turbine engines, but can be used for many inspections such as; loose article
checks, fuel leaks etc.
After immersion, allow the parts to stand to allow surplus oil to drain.
Transfer to hot degreasing tank (70C - 80C) containing Teepol 5%, Cresylic
acid 5% and water 90% for 3 to 5 minutes.
When dry, coat parts with French Chalk and then remove surplus chalk with
air pressure at 25 - 30 psi.
8.2.5PENETRANT TESTING
Important points are as follows:
Type of Defect / Materials. Penetrant testing may be used to detect surface
defects in any non-porous materials, including metals, plastics & ceramics. It may
also be used to detect porosity in materials that should not be porous.
The basic principle of penetrant flaw detection is that a liquid dye is applied to the
surface of the material and it migrates into the crack. Excess penetrant is then
removed from the surface and a developer applied. This developer draws out the
penetrant dye and is subsequently stained. The stained area indicates a defect.
Penetrants are available in many different forms. The most popular are termed
colour contrast for viewing in natural light or fluorescent dyes for viewing in ultra
violet light. They may be applied by brushing, spraying or dipping. Some
penetrants are also available in a thixotropic (gel, but becomes liquid on
application) form. Mention should also be made of the post-emulsifier types of
penetrant. An emulsifier is a blending of wetting agents which allows excess
penetrant to be removed with water. Some penetrants contain an emulsifier and
with others, the emulsifier is applied as a separate stage. Most penetrant 'Field
Kit's' use an oil based penetrant which uses a solvent for cleaning instead of
water. The solvent is usually Trichloroethane based.
Basic Process. The dye penetrant process can be broken down into:
Ultra Sound. This describes sound at a pitch too high to be detected by the
human ear. The frequencies used in ultra-sonic testing are normally within the
range 500 KHz to 10 MHz. The speed of sound through a particular material
varies and so a different frequency is used depending on the material. The
sound waves used in ultra sonic testing are produced and detect by means of a
transducer, i.e. a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
and vice versa. A piezo-electric crystal is made to vibrate when stimulated by
electrical energy from a pulse generator. This vibration causes ultra-sonic waves
to be transmitted through the material to which the piezo-electric transmitter is
applied. The waves may be reflected back from surfaces (or defects), the
reflected waves are received by another piezo-electric crystal converting the
sound waves into a signal, displayed on a screen.
The previous diagram shows that the system may utilise a separate transmitter
and receiver or have a combined transceiver. If the depth of the component is
uniform, a defect will easily show up by variations in the position of the reflected
pulse. Since the sound waves will be reflected at air interfaces a good acoustic
contact is required between the transmitting probe and the component. This
contact is improved by the use of a liquid (couplant) applied between the probe
and the material. This couplant liquid may be glycerine, silicon grease,
petroleum jelly or a medium viscosity oil.
8.2.7EDDY CURRENT TESTING
This method of examination may be used on electrically conductive materials and
has the advantage that very little preparation of the surface is required and the
component may not need to be removed. Small battery portable sets may be
used in inaccessible parts of aircraft.
The basic principle is that a probe, consisting of a small coil supplied with AC
current is held in contact with (or close proximity to) the component. The
alternating magnetic field itself produces an alternating magnetic field which
opposes and modifies the original field. In aircraft work, eddy current testing is
usually of the comparative type, i.e. checking against a known defect. Eddy
current probes are often used to check for defects inside holes (see diagram
below) and specially shaped probes may be used to check items such as wheel
flanges and bead areas.
1.
2.
3.
Checking Heat Damaged Skin. The conductivity of aluminium alloy skin will
increase with exposure to elevated temperatures up to approximately 500C
and the material will be below strength. Above this temperature, obvious
signs of heat damage such as melted or charred metal will become apparent.
Eddy current tests will show the extent of the area in which the material is
below strength. A conductivity meter and a surface probe should be used for
this test. The meter should be zeroed on material of similar thickness to the
affected area. The conductivity around the affected area should then be
checked, noting any deflections and marking the skin accordingly. By this
means a line may be drawn around the affected area.
If the direction of defects is not known, then both methods may need to be used.
Good lighting is required in order to examine the defects and the component
must be de-magnetised after testing. This is done by passing the component
through a de-magnetising coil supplied with alternating current. Good lighting is
also required for the examination of possible defects.
Corrosion. This will show up as a fuzzy image, but the presence of paint
and jointing compound will make it difficult to detect. Inter-granular corrosion
may not be detected until it has reached an advanced state and affects the
metal surface. A corrosion pit, where there is a change in thickness is more
readily detected.
Cracks. Stress cracks often run along a line of rivets, but the edge of jointing
compounds used during the wet assembly of riveted joints often gives a false
indication. Radiographs may show indications of cracks, found to be cracks
in tank sealant. It is sometimes possible to open up tension cracks before
inspection by applying a tension load by jacking.
The nature of the item being inspected i.e. the material it is made from. It may
be metallic, plastic, rubber or any other type of material.
The time available for the inspection. This is often dictated by circumstances.
If you are told to go out and inspect a tyre for wear, you should be able to
check it in a few minutes. A major aircraft inspection on a large aircraft,
however, is normally planned to take many days.
Was the system working perfectly before you noticed the fault?
The Boeing 757 and 767 also introduced the engine indicating and crew alerting
system (EICAS) this forms part of the "glass cockpit", as it is popularly known.
This is a maintenance significant system, with data displays for engines, APU,
electrical, hydraulic, and environmental control systems. In addition, dispatch
critical maintenance data are displayed in the form of status messages as part of
the caution and warning function.
8.4.4FAULT ISOLATION MANUAL/TROUBLE SHOOTING MANUAL
These are provided by the manufacturers to help identify, isolate and remove
failures found in flight and on the ground. In the case of the Boeing Fault Isolation
Manual (FIM) the manual is used in conjunction with the Fault Reporting Manual
(FRM) that gives an eight-digit fault code. A flowchart is then used to diagnose
the fault and to repair the failure.
9. ABNORMAL EVENTS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Most modern aircraft are designed to withstand the normal flight and landing
loads expected during flight. These will include the normal manoeuvres the
aircraft is expected to make. The designer will build in a safety factor to
compensate for loads slightly larger than normal. Sometimes extreme
circumstances occur which cause stresses outside the normal design limits.
If the design limits are exceeded, damage may occur to the aircraft. If it is known
or suspected that the aircraft has been subjected to excessive loads, then an
inspection should be carried out to ascertain the nature of any damage that may
have occurred. The manufacturer will normally have anticipated the nature of
some of these occurrences and detailed special checks for these Abnormal
Occurrences.
Burst Tyre
Tail strike
Mercury spillage
Strike damage where the discharge enters the aircraft. These will normally be
on the extremities of the aircraft, the wing tips, nose cone and tail cone and
on the leading edge of the wings and tailplane. The damage will usually be in
the form of small circular holes, usually in clusters and accompanied by
burning or discoloration.
Static discharge damage at the wing tips, trailing edges and antenna. The
damage will be in the form of local pitting and burning. Bonding strips and
static wicks may also disintegrate due to the high charges.
9.4.2INSPECTION
The maintenance schedule or maintenance manual should specify the
inspections applicable to the aircraft. The areas specified in paragraph 9.4.1
should be examined for signs of strike or discharge damage. Bonding straps and
static discharge wicks should be checked for damage. Damaged bonding straps
on control surfaces may lead to tracking across control surface bearings, this in
turn may cause burning, break up or seizure due to welding of the bearings. This
type of damage may result in resistance to movement of the controls. This can be
checked by carrying out a functional check of the controls. Additional checks may
include:
If the landing gear was extended, some damage may have occurred to the
lower parts of the gear. Examine for signs of discharge.
Correct crimping
9.5.2BASIC PROTECTION
The aircraft has all the necessary and known lightning strike protection
measures. Most of the external parts of the aircraft are metal structure with
sufficient thickness to be resistant to a lightning strike. This metal assembly is its
basic protection. The thickness of the metal surface is sufficient to protect the
internal spaces from a lightning strike. The metal skin also gives protection from
the entrance of electromagnetic energy into the electrical wires of the aircraft.
The metal skin does not prevent all electromagnetic energy from going into the
electrical wiring; however, it does keep the energy to a satisfactory level. If
lightning strikes the aircraft, you must fully examine all of the aircraft to find the
areas of the lightning strike entrance and exit points When you look at the areas
of entrance and exit, examine this structure carefully to find all of the damage that
has occurred
9.5.3STRIKE AREAS
Lightning strike entrance and exit points are usually found in Zone 1 (See
following diagram), but also can occur in zones 2 and 3. You can usually find
signs of a lightning strike in Zone 1. However, lightning strikes can occur to any
part of the aircraft, including the fuselage, wing skin trailing edge panels. wingbody fairing, antennas, vertical stabiliser, horizontal stabiliser, and along the wing
trailing edge in Zone 2.
9.5.4SIGNS OF DAMAGE
In metal structures, strike damage usually shows as pits, burn marks or small
circular holes. These holes can be grouped in one location or divided around a
large area. Burned or discoloured skin also shows lightning strike damage
In composite (non-metallic) structures, solid laminate or honeycomb damage
shows as discoloured paint it also shows as burned, punctured, or de-laminated
skin plies. Damage you can not see can also be there. This damage can extend
around the area you can see. Signs of arcing and burning can also occur around
the attachments to the supporting structure
Aircraft components made of ferromagnetic material may become strongly
magnetised when subjected to large currents. Large current flowing from the
lightning strike in the aircraft structure can cause this magnetisation.
9.5.5EXTERNALCOMPONENTS
A lightning strike usually attaches to the aircraft in Zone 1 and goes out a
different Zone 1 area. Frequently a lightning strike can enter the nose radome
and go out of the aircraft at one of the horizontal stabiliser trailing edges. The
external components most likely to be hit are listed below:
A. Nose Radome
B. Nacelles
C. Wing Tips
D. Horizontal Stabiliser Tips
E. Elevators
9.5.6ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
Lightning strikes can cause problems to the electrical power systems and the
external light wiring The electrical system is designed to be resistant to lightning
strikes. But, a strike of unusually high intensity can possibly damage the electrical
system components below:
A. Fuel valves
B. Generators
C. Power Feeders
D. Electrical Distribution Systems
E. Static Discharge Wicks
NOTE: lf inaccuracies in the standby compass are reported after a lightning strike
then a check swing will be necessary.
Frequently, a lightning strike is referred to as a static discharge. This is incorrect
and may cause you to think that me static discharge wicks, found on the external
surfaces of the aircraft prevent lightning strikes. These static discharge wicks are
for bleeding off static charge only; they have no lightning protection function. As
the aircraft flies through the air, it can pick up a static charge from the air (or
dust/water particles in the air). This static charge can become large enough to
bleed off the aircraft on its own. If the charge does not bleed off the aircraft on its
own, it will usually result in noise on the VHF or HF radios. The static discharge
wicks help to bleed the static charge off in a way that prevents radio noise
The static discharge wicks are frequently hit by lightning. Some personnel think
static dischargers are for lightning protection. The dischargers have the capacity
to carry only a few micro-Amps of current from the collected static energy. The
approximate 200,000 Amps from a lightning strike will cause damage to the
discharge wick or make it fully unserviceable
9.5.7EXAMINATION OF EXTERNAL SURFACE
Examine the Zone 1 surface areas for signs of lightning strike damage. Do the
examinations that follow:
A. Examine the external surfaces carefully to find the entrance and exit
points of lightning strike.
B. Make sure to look in the areas where one surface stops and another
surface starts.
C. Examine the internal and external surfaces of the nose radome for
burns, punctures, and pinholes in the composite honeycomb sandwich
structure.
D. Examine the metallic structure for holes or pits, burned or discoloured
skin and rivets.
E. Examine the external surfaces of the composite components for
discoloured paint, burned, punctured, or de-laminated skin plies.
F. You need to use instrumental NDI methods or tap tests to find
composite structure damage you cannot see.
Note: Damage, such as de-lamination can extend to the areas around the
damage area you can see. De-lamination can be detected by instrumental
NDI methods or by a tap test. For a tap test, use a solid metal disc and tap
the area adjacent to the damaged area lightly. If there is de-lamination, you
will hear a sound that is different to the sound of a solid bonded area.
G. Examine the flight control surfaces for signs of strike damage. If the
control surfaces show signs of damage, examine the surface hinges,
bearings and bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
H. If the ailerons show signs of a lightning strike, examine the surface
hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
I. If the speed brakes show signs of a lightning strike, examine the
surface hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
J. If the trailing edge flaps show signs of a lightning strike, examine the
surface hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
K. If the leading edge flaps/slats show signs of a lightning strike, examine
the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of
damage.
L. Examine the nose radome for pin holes, punctures and chipped paint.
Also ensure bonding straps are correctly attached. Examine the
lightning diverter strips and repair or replace them if damaged. If there
is radome damage, examine the WXR antenna and wave-guide for
damage.
9.5.8FUNCTIONAL TESTS
Functional tests will need to be carried out as follows:
A. Ensure the navigation lamps, rotary lights and landing lights operate.
B. If the above control examinations show signs of damage: Do an
operational test of the rudder if there are signs of lightning strike
damage to the rudder or vertical stabiliser.
C. Do an operational test of the elevator if there are signs of lightning
strike damage to the elevator or horizontal stabiliser.
D. Do an operational test of the ailerons if there are signs of lightning
strike damage to the ailerons.
E. Do an operational test of the speed brakes if there are signs of lightning
strike damage to the speed brake system.
F. Do an operational test of the trailing edge flaps if there are signs of
lightning strike damage to the trailing edge flaps.
G. Do an operational test of the leading edge flap/slats if there are signs of
lightning strike damage to the trailing edge flap/slats.
H. If there are signs of strike damage to the landing gear doors, disengage
the main gear door locks and manually move the doors to ensure they
move smoothly. Visually examine the door linkage, hinges, bearings
and bonding jumpers for strike damage. Ensure the proximity switch
indication unit gives the correct indication.
9.5.9EXAMINATION OF INTERNAL COMPONENTS
If a lightning strike has caused a system malfunction, do a full examination of the
system.
A. Do a check of the stand-bye compass system if the flight crew reported
a very large compass deviation.
B. Make sure the fuel quantity system is accurate. This can be achieved
by a BITE test.
operational test of the pitot system if there are signs of damage to the
probes. Do a test of the static system if there are signs of damage near
the static ports.
D. Do an operational check of any of the following systems that did not
operate following the strike, or if the flight crew reported a problem, or if
there was any damage found near the system antenna.
i. HF communications system
ii. VHF communications system
iii. ILS navigation system
iv. Marker beacon system
v. Radio altimeter system
vi. Weather radar system
vii. VOR system
viii. ATC system
ix. DME system
x. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) system
If one or more of the previous systems have problems with their operational
checks, examine and do a test of the coaxial cables and connectors.
Assuming the packaging is sound, it should be opened and the items removed
and inspected for damage. With the package there should be a packing or
delivery note and some type of Authorised Release Document. The Authorised
Release Document is the proof of conformation of design for the item and may be
a JAA Approved Certificate (JAA Form 1) or FAA Form 8130 or some other form
of certification. For the benefit of this exercise we shall assume an Approved
Certificate is used. Check the items to the packing note and the certificate
ensuring that all is in order. Also check the items received conforms to the
Purchase Order. The correct part number has been supplied; that if an overhaul
was ordered, an overhaul has been carried out and not just a repair. If a specific
test or calibration was requested, check it has been done and the necessary
certification is as required.
The cleared consignment should now be 'Booked into' the Stores. A record is
kept of the sequence in which items are received, the Approved Certificate
number, date of receipt, name of supplier, description, any shelf life
limitations and the signature of the authorised person responsible for receipt
of the goods. If this is done, the component history can be traced in the
event that the item fails in service.
This 'Booking In' procedure may take any form provided it satisfies the CAA
requirements. One method used in the Goods Received Note system
(GRN) GRN's are printed in pads, generally in triplicate. Another commonly
used method is a computerised database of stores items. The Stores data
may be directly linked with other parts of the maintenance organisation, such
as Purchasing and Technical Records.
Amongst the details recorded on the GRN will be the Approved Certificate
Number, the supplier, date, description, Part No. Serial No. (if applicable), status
of component - new, overhauled, repaired, TSN, TSO, and any other relevant
details shown on the Approved Certificate. Additionally, the Purchase Order
number will be recorded on the GRN. The Goods Inwards Inspector will sign the
GRN.
GRN 0998/28
GRN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Date
Approved
Cert. No.
Supplier
Description
Part
No
Serial
No.
Status
TSN/
TSO
Purchase
Order
Sign.
The top copy of the GRN is filed in number, i.e. date order and forms the
Goods Received Record.
The GR number is written on top of the Approved Certificate and filed away in
GR number order. Approved Certificates come in a variety of sizes and with
an even greater variety of reference numbers depending on the suppliers, so
that trying to file them in a suitable order so that quick retrieval is possible is
very difficult indeed. If each Approved Certificate has a GR or Batch number,
it can be filed in that number order. Provided the item is identified with the
GR or Batch number from this point on, in the Bonded Store, when installed
in an aircraft, it will always be easy to refer to the Approved Certificate should
it be necessary.
The GR number based on the month and year 0998 is a permanent record of
when the item was received at the company.
The next action of the Goods Inwards Inspector is to raise a stores label that will
be attached to the item or its packaging. The Stores label will be filled in with
Description, Part and/or Serial Number as applicable. Also the status - new
overhauled/repaired, GR or Batch No. (Approved Cert. number if GR or Batch
number system not used), Shelf Life if applicable and any other details the
company may require such as Aircraft Type.
The item can now be passed into the Bonded Store, it having been confirmed as
an approved, serviceable part. The Bonded Storekeeper enters the item into the
Stores Record System. An indexed card system is a common method, each card
being filed in Part Number order. Other details will be recorded such as
description, location stored or Bin number, quantity in stock, minimum stock
levels and re-order quantities. Larger organisations will use a computerised
database system with the same type of information recorded. There may also be
a Shelf Life Book. This may have separate pages headed by month and year for
the foreseeable future. Each item is entered on to the page when its shelf life
expires, or 3 months ahead of that point to enable its use to be planned before
expiring.
When an item is drawn from the Store for installation on an aircraft, the part will
be identified using the Part Number. The indexed card or database system may
be checked to find out how many are in stock and where stored. Normally the
first item received into the store will be issued (First in, First Out or FIFO). This
procedure may be varied if a component is held with only part life remaining either a repaired item or a serviceable item which has been removed from an
aircraft and returned into the stores system. The decision must be made if a
part-life item is acceptable or if an item with a full overhaul life remaining is
required.
The item will be issued on a Materials Issue Voucher or similar sheet generally
headed by the Job Number and listing the description Part Number, serial
number, if applicable, and GR or Batch number. When the job is completed, a
copy of this voucher is sent to Technical Records for inclusion in the Work pack.
The Storekeeper will then up-date the record cards or database, showing the
item has been issued to the Job Number and deleting the item from his shelf-life
book if applicable.
If management has decided that replacement items must be ordered when the
stock reaches a certain point, this will be shown on the Stores Record Cards and
the Storekeeper will initiate a requisition so that a Purchase Order will be raised
on a supplier for the required amount. With a database system, this may be
automatic.
The engineer installing the item on the aircraft will have all the information
needed for the logbook entry on the Stores Label, including the GR or Batch
Number which will enable the history of the item to be checked back to the
Approved Certificate if necessary.
10.2.3 STORAGE CONDITIONS
C.A.A.I.P Leaflet 1-8 gives information on acceptable conditions for the storage
of aeronautical supplies. This information may be used in the absence of any
specific manufacturer's recommendations.
In particular, the need for ventilation, and the ability to monitor and control
temperature and humidity to prevent condensation is mentioned.
Different items will require different storage procedures. Some of the specific
procedures are shown below:
Lead Acid and Ni-Cad Batteries must not be mixed and care taken that fumes
from batteries cannot damage other parts.
Instruments must be kept at constant temperature and silica gel crystals used
to ensure no moisture is present.
When received from a company approved by the CAA to BCAR A8-4 Material
Manufacturer, A8-5 Process Company, A8-6 Test House, A8-7 Material
Distributor or A8-16 Fastener Distributor.
There have been many incidents in recent years of aircraft accidents or near
accidents caused because work has not been carried out correctly. The problem
is that the CRS statement highlighted on the previous page simply says that the
work has been carried out in accordance with JAR 145. A more positive
statement is given in Airworthiness Notices Number 3. This states clearly that the
signatory i.e. the person who signs a CRS must be satisfied that the work has
been carried out correctly having due regard to the use of:
Issuing the necessary instructions and documentation to the `shop floor' when
maintenance activities are to be carried out and eventually to collect in the
documentation, check it is correct and complete and then to up-date the logbooks and records again.
Then the Stores Issue Vouchers on which will be recorded all items issued to
that job i.e. that aircraft (Different organisations may use different methods
and paperwork for issuing stores, but the principle will be the same).
The Engineers' time sheets will show the hours expended against each job
number so that labour costs can be calculated.
The use of a Job Number is, amongst other things, to ensure that costs are
apportioned correctly to each job. Many engineers feel that such concerns are
not for them. This is a short sighted view, because generally the costs have to be
recovered from a customer, or at least used to determine the cost effectiveness
of particular operations. If the costs are not estimated correctly, the engineer may
find at the end of the month, that there is no cash left to pay wages!
10.4.3 WORKSHEETS
It is essential that records be kept of all maintenance work carried out on aircraft.
Defects and rectification can be entered and signed for directly into the logbooks,
but the logbooks would rapidly be filled and difficult to check. It is common
practice to use worksheets for the following reasons.
Consider a Scheduled Maintenance Inspection (SMI). In this case the
worksheets will list all the inspections and checks to be carried out as part of the
SMI. Often they are copies of the maintenance schedule pages with extra
columns in which the engineers will sign when they have completed the job.
Ideally, the worksheets should contain all relevant information to enable the
engineer to do the Job correctly without having to constantly refer to maintenance
manuals. (That is not to say that the engineer will not need to refer to manuals
and, in fact, steps must be taken to ensure that manuals are readily available to
him. Information such as pressures, types of greases to be used, wear limits,
can usefully be given on the worksheets provided they are always up to date.)
The benefits of the worksheets will be self-evident. The engineer has the
detailed requirements at his fingertips, so that he knows what he has to do
eliminating the risk of missing anything. He is not constantly handling schedules
and inevitably making a mess of them. He is able to sign as he completes each
item so that records are up to date.
As defects are found during the inspection, or if the aircraft comes in with a
defect, the defect is entered onto a Continuation or Rectification Worksheet, i.e. a
blank sheet with columns for defects, rectification work and signatures.
Mandatory Modifications, Inspections, Service Bulletins, or any other work
required will be entered on continuation worksheets also. When the work is
completed, the engineer and supervisor or Licensed Engineer if required, will
sign to this effect.
10.4.4 WORKPACKS
When completed, the worksheets are then filed in the WORK PACK. This will
normally be a file containing all of the paperwork for that particular job. All of the
Work Packs will be kept together as part of an Aircraft File and held in Technical
Records. It is treated as part of the aircraft logbook. A logbook Entry will have to
be made on completion of the work, which will refer, where necessary, to the
Work Pack by a Job Number. A reference note will state where the Work Pack it
is held i.e. the name and address of the company.
Typical uses of a worksheet are shown overleaf.
10.4.5 PLANNING
Prior to carrying out an inspection, the Planning Department will provide a
document pack containing all of the task cards associated with the inspection,
plus any other documents required. This will be made into a work pack that will
also contain a list of the documents contained in the pack. The Maintenance
Control Department will audit the documents to ensure the pack is complete.
The package will then be sent to the technical work area concerned.
This worksheet shows a typical page from a ramp check worksheet for a British
Airways Boeing 747. The worksheet page shown is page 1 of 8 pages.
The following worksheet is from Virgin Atlantic and shows a completed Flight
Management System task and the associated CRS.
Major Check - This is carried out at approximately 15,000 flying hours or five
years of average use. The time taken for this inspection will be
approximately 25 to 30 days. It will usually involve a thorough strip-down with
removal and overhaul of major components. The aircraft painted surface will
be stripped to allow for thorough surface inspection and the aircraft will be
repainted
Intermediate Check - This is carried out at intervals of 4-5000 hours and the
aircraft will be out of service for about 9 days.
Service check - Done at intervals of 800 - 3000 hours and will take from 1
to 2 days or six months of average use
Ramp Check - This is done at intervals from 125 to 500 hours and will
normally be done overnight
CLASS B
PIPER PA31/78
PIPER PA31-350
FOSTER YEOMEN LIMITED
PUBLIC TRANSPORT FLYING
SA/NAVAJO/1 Issue 2 Date: OCTOBER 1984
CONDITIONS-GENERAL
CONDITIONS-CERTIFICATION
C (Engine)
R (Radio)
APPROVAL
3.1 Non-compliance with any of the Conditions of this Approval Document or it's
Endorsements shall invalidate the Authority's Approval of this Maintenance
Schedule.
3.2 This Approval Document includes 3 Endorsements.
AT DALTON
for the Civil Aviation Authority
Date:
10 JULY 1985
ENDORSEMENTS
No.
1
MS/PIPER PA31/78
Subject
CAA
Approval
AD 271A 311084
10.7.85
ENDORSEMENTS (Continued)
No.
2
MS/PIPER PA31/78
Subject
CAA
Approval
10.7.85
NOTE:
An SMI is any inspection other than mandatory ,
scheduled to recur at periods exceeding 2 calendar days and
made for the purpose of ascertaining whether the aircraft remains
airworthy.
3
AD 271A 260880
10.7.85
It isn't possible to make a set of rules which specify every requirement in advance
because some decisions in the process involve engineering judgement by
experienced staff. In the original MSG-1 & MSG-2 there was considerable scope
for interpretation of the rules, which led to different results, depending on the
experience fed in. One of the objectives of MSG-3 was to tighten up the
definitions used by airline staff and manufacturers so as to leave little room for
ambiguity.
1968
MSG 1
Lockheed L-1011 & Douglas DC-10
1970
Airline experience
MWG1
MWG2
MWG3
MPP
MSC
MRB
MRB
DOC
MWG4
MWG5
MWG6
MPD
AIRLINE
AMP or
AMS
10.5.5.4 Implementation
The initial work of implementing the MSG process is divided into several groups
such as structures, systems, powerplants, electrical/avionics, flight
control/hydraulics and zonal inspections. Representatives of the operators
(launch customers), manufacturers, and regulatory bodies (CAA, FAA) comprise
the working groups, who are supervised by a steering committee. This committee
defines "specifics" to direct the groups; These include a procedures guide which
describes the frequency and nature of aircraft inspection to be used. The working
groups are also given a specific time schedule, since this interacts with the
certification and delivery of the new aircraft.
10.5.5.5 MRB Report
The final report is termed the Maintenance Review Board (MRB) Report. This is
produced by the manufacturer and forms the basic document with which the
operators then work. The regulatory organisations must first approve the MRB
Report and this is normally done in stages. Once it is available the operators
write their own schedule from the MRB Report. The end result should be the
Approved Maintenance Schedule (AMS) or Airline Maintenance Program (AMP).
This is a legal document enforced by the regulatory authority. The MRB Report
also covers operation of the aircraft and some economic considerations in
maintenance decisions. The levels of importance for maintenance decisions are
(1) technical factors (2) operational factors (3) economic factors. Once produced,
the AMS or AMP provides the operators staff with planning information for
necessary materials, labour and facilities.
10.5.6 THE MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
The MRB report is the starting point for the operator to prepare its own
maintenance schedule. To this may be added tasks generated by:
-
The MPD may contain tasks additional to the MRB report which are
recommended but not mandatory. These may include work on non-airworthiness
items such as passenger cabin appearance.
Once the maintenance schedule is finalised, the plans to implement it begin.
These include production of other supporting documents related to the schedule,
such as maintenance and training manuals. Discussions about the make up of
work packs take place with production engineering staff. Model work cards for
every task may be stored in a computer database. Arrangements for supply of
consumables and spares have to be made. Training and recruitment
programmes have to be made based on estimates of skills needed and workload
expected. If the aircraft is a significant addition to the existing fleet, then hangar
space will have to be allocated or built. It is also very likely that specialised
access and ground equipment will be required. Many of these items may have
lead times measured in years.
Legibility of notices
General metal parts including pipes, ducting, tubes, rods and levers and
avionic and instrument racking and panels. Seat framing, galley and toilet
structures.
Fluid contamination
4..1.4. Control System Components
7. Turnround - Aircraft only earn money when they are flying so there is much
pressure for them to spend as little time on the ground as possible. For this
reason, aircraft may operate different routes to maximise their utilisation.
8. Configuration or Role - Airlines vary seating plans and loading plans to suit
the market. Most tour charter firms and other low fare promotions utilise high
density seating. For business-class travel and luxury travel, low density
seating will be used. Some flights also use different passenger and cargo
configurations, often both on the same deck. Obviously if changes are
frequent, they will require manpower to facilitate alterations to seating,
furnishings and galleys etc.
10.6.2 MAINTENANCE OPPORTUNITIES
Maintenance opportunities will vary with the nature of the operations and the
market. The best occasions for maintenance are:
1. Short Haul Operations Overnight maintenance enables most short-term
routine scheduled work and some unscheduled work to be carried out. Many
short haul routes are used for business and commuter travel so there is less
demand for weekend use, so routine work which takes longer than overnight
can be done then. The quieter midweek period could be used for some
maintenance.
2. Larger Short Haul These operations are normally flown as busy inclusive
tour charters which peak in the summer. There is usually time in the winter
for major checks and other long tasks.
3. Economic Short Haul Aircraft By this we mean aircraft which yield the
most profit. They are usually newer aircraft and hence have high depreciation
values. This means that they are best used at peak operation times such as
the summer and maintenance would therefore be done in the winter.
4. Long Haul Operations The summer period may last several months. It is
desirable to schedule heavy maintenance activity outside these times.
Weekend availability for must be the highest, so there is a long mid-week
period for maintenance. There may be longer intervals during long haul
aircraft turnrounds. This work is not always done at the home base. Winter
maintenance is again desirable for this type of aircraft. Aircraft with unusual
routes or performance, such as Concorde or ultra-long range types (London
to Australia), may not have the same peak patterns as others. Luxury
markets tend to have a weak demand in the summer, so maintenance can be
done then.
10.6.3 MAINTENANCE - IDEAL PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS
A different set of objectives from the commercial one previously discussed
emerges if aircraft maintenance is examined from the engineers standpoint.
The quality assurance must be independent from the work. It must be carried
out by persons not involved with the tasks being checked.
BCAR Section D6-13 paragraph 7.1 - Cables and Associated Fittings and
Equipment
BCAR Section K6-13 paragraph 7.1 - Cables and Associated Fittings and
Equipment
BCAR Section G6-14 paragraph 7.1 - Cables and Associated Fittings and
Equipment
JAR 25
25.1309
25.1353
25.1355
Distribution System
25.1359
The same paragraph numbers will apply for BCAR 23 and BCAR 29 where
applicable.
See also Airworthiness Notice No. 12 Appendix No. 32. Electrical Cable Failure
and Appendix No. 42, Maintenance and re-installation of piped and cables looms.
Section A (CAP 553): Airworthiness Procedures where the CAA has Primary
Responsibility for Type Approval of the product.
Section B (CAP 554): Airworthiness Procedures where the CAA Does Not
have Primary Responsibility for Type Approval of the product.
These three documents will remain concurrent until 30 June 1990 at which time
BCAR Section A (CAP 460) at Issue 29 will be withdrawn.
11.1.4 MODIFICATION & REPAIR
Cables used as replacements, or used for medication of an aircraft, should be of
a type approved by the constructor for that particular aircraft type unless an
alternative is selected by an approved Design Authority. This selection should
recognise the various factors detailed in this Leaflet. This is most readily
achieved by obtaining a Declaration of Design and Performance (DDP) from
the manufacturer if that manufacturer is suitably CAA approved. The user should
also take steps to ensure that the quality of cable is satisfactory and the preferred
method of achieving this is by obtaining a CAA Approved Certificate from the
manufacturer.
This release should define a cable by reference to its specification. For aircraft
constructed overseas, the manufacturing sources approved by the aircraft
constructor as satisfactory for his requirements for quality should be used.
Interconnect cables employ thinner insulation than airframe types, which saves
weight and space and increases flexibility, the latter being most important where
looms (bundles) are required to turn through small radii into electrical connectors.
However, all the constraints given in chapter 11.2.1 for airframe cable also apply
here.
The term "Hook-up" is commonly used in the USA to designate cables of this
type and the designation "Light Weight-Interconnect" may also be applied.
11.2.3 EQUIPMENT WIRE
This cable, invariably known as "wire", is intended to be used within equipment
and, therefore, is very flexible and suitable for soldering. It is not designed for
use as interconnect wiring, but design organisations do, on occasion, select a
particular type for use in protected areas of an airframe. There is a considerable
range of such cables which vary in basic construction and performance and they
should always be closely defined. In general, the types in aircraft use are
produced by CAA Approved Organisations who provide "CAA Release" to
British Standard G210 or an equivalent specification. Some manufacturers have
sought "Accessory Approval" for BS G210 cable and this has been granted, but it
is not a CAA requirement that any form of design approval be applied to this
cable when it is used for its intended purpose, (which is within equipment
enclosures where the equipment itself is subject to control). If follows that it can
be manufactured and released by a Supplier, approved to BCAR Section A,
chapter A8-2. The term "Module Wire" is sometimes used for this class of cable
in the USA.
11.2.4 FIRE RESISTANT CABLES
This type of cable is required to retain a defined level of electrical insulation in the
presence of fire for five minutes, as defined in BCAR Section D, Chapter D1-2
paragraph 1.17.2 and JAR 1. "Fire Resistant" should not be confused with high
temperature and fire resistant types should only be employed where this
property is required because other characteristics, such as fluid resistance, will
usually be poorer than could be expected from a non fire resistant high
temperature cable.
11.2.5 FIREPROOF CABLES
These cables are required to operate for fifteen minutes in a designated fire as
defined in BCAR Section D, Chapter D6 paragraph 6.5.1 and JAR 1 and are for
use in designated fire zones. BCAR Section D, Chapter D6-13 paragraph 6.6.2
and JAR 25.1359 define a fire zone. As for Fire Resistant types, they should
only be used where necessary.
11.2.6 MULTI-CORE, SCREENED AND JACKETED CABLES
Airframe and Interconnect Cables may be supplied in a multi-core form or
generally up to four cores, the cores being twisted together. The multi-core may
be jacketed (sometimes known as a sheath) or it may be screened and jacketed.
The screening is usually a braid which gives 85% surface coverage, but
screening to a higher standard may be used and on replacement of such cables,
the standard must not be degraded. The cores are coloured for identification as
defined in BS G230.
11.2.7 DATA BUS
Data Bus cables are designed to specific requirements which will not, as a
general principle, allow for replacement by any other type other than that
specified by the Design Authority for the installation. (This requirement will also
apply to the terminations of such cables).
CO-AXIAL CABLES
Boeing
- BMS XXXX
b)
c)
d)
It has to be emphasised that these cables are approved in relation to the aircraft
on which they are installed by the constructor, i.e. a cable which is approved for
use by on constructor may not necessarily be acceptable to another.
11.3.5 INTERNATIONAL (INCLUDING EUROPEAN) STANDARDS
The official body for the standardisation of aircraft equipment, including cable, is
the ISO (International Standards Organisation). The BSI contributes to the work
of the ISO but it has to be said that few, if any, ISO cable standards are
employed by industry. Within Europe, the Society of British Aerospace
Companies (SBAC) works in association with other manufacturers in the
organisation known as AECMA ( Association Europeanne Des Constructeurs De
Materiel Aerospatiale). AECMA seeks to promote their own standards and they
publish European Normes as EN specifications. These have not yet been
widely adopted, at least within the UK, but preliminary specifications may be
published and these are known as prEN Standards. ISO and EN Standards may
be recognised for installation approval purposes except that is not usually within
the boundaries of the CAA to grant product approval against a specification not
controlled by BSI or a recognised (Approved) organisation.
K =
Where T is the maximum service temperature of the cable and t is the higher
ambient temperature.
For example: If it was intended to use Fepsil in an ambient temperature of 170C,
the current values in the table would have to be multiplied by:
K =
= 0 707
135C
b)
200C
c)
260C
d)
260C
Nickel clad copper is used instead of nickel plate on fire resistant cable to provide
a thicker nickel element.
The temperature figures quoted above may have to be varied downwards
because of limitations imposed by the cable insulation. Higher figures, notably
150C for tin plating, are sometimes quoted in the USA but performance at such
temperature, especially in regard to stable crimp resistance and solderability is
the subject of debate, if not dispute. It should be noted that the plating used on
crimped terminal ends must be compatible with the conductor plating of the
cable, and information should be sought from termination manufacturers.
11.5.3 DIELECTRIC MATERIALS / CABLE TYPES
It is not practicable to review in these notes, the performance of all of the many
types of cable construction available except in general terms Extensive studies
have been made, especially in the USA, in an attempt to determine an optimum
cable type. The conclusion drawn is that there is not an overall best cable and
that all the materials studied have advantages and disadvantages. This is little
help to a user who is seeking to resolve the conflicting guidance and advice
offered by organisations which have a keen commercial interest in the decisions
of an intending purchaser. This information Leaflet is intended to alert people to
the difficulty of making a sound judgement in what has traditionally been
considered to be a simple subject.
11.7.1 B.I.C.C.
Description:
The cables are single and multi-core airframe and interconnect, multi-core
sheathed airframe and interconnect and single and multi-core screened and
sheathed types. Conductors and braids are tin plated, the insulation and sheath
being ETFE extruded and irradiated.
Temperature range:
65 to + 35C
Size:
Description :
The cables are single core or multi-core metsheath, having conductors of tinned
annealed copper or silver plated copper alloy insulated with extruded ETFE.
Temperature range:
Size:
NOTE: Thin wall cable also available, intended for internal wiring of equipment.
Silver plated high strength copper alloy conductor - size 24 AWG only and tinned
copper conductor sizes 22 to 12 AWG (Thick wall).
Description
The cables are single and multi-core airframe and interconnect, multi-core
sheathed airframe and interconnect and single and multi-core screened and
sheathed types. Conductors and braids are nickel plated, the insulation and
sheath being a composite of polyamide and PTFE.
Temperature range:
65C to +260C
Size:
Description
The cables are single and multi-core airframe and interconnect, multi-core
sheathed airframe and interconnect and single and multi-core screened and
sheathed types. Conductors and braids are silver plated, the insulation and
sheath being a composite of polyamide and PTFE.
Temperature range:
65C to +150C
Size:
Description:
55C to +260C
Description
55C to +150C
Description:
The cables are single core, having conductors of nickel coated copper. The
insulation is a composite of silicone rubber, quartz and PTFE.
Temperature range:
40C to +260C
Description:
The cables are single core, having conductors of nickel coated copper. The
insulation is a composite of silicone rubber, quartz and PTFE.
Temperature range:
40C to +260C
Description :
The cables are single core, screened and sheathed and multi-core screened and
sheathed having nickel plated copper alloy (size 24 only) or nickel plated copper
alloy (size 24 only) or nickel plated copper conductors and braids insulated and
sheathed where appropriate with a combination of PTFE and Kapton/FEP taps
are sintered.
Temperature range:
65C to +260C
Sizes:
Description:
Single core screened and sheathed Kapton insulated cables with silver plated
copper alloy and silver plated copper conductors.
Temperature range:
65C to +150C
Description
Single core Kapton insulated cable with a top coat of FEP lacquer having electro
tinned copper conductors.
Temperature range:
65C to + 135C
Size:
22-12 AWG
Description:
Silver plated copper alloy and silver plated copper conductors with Kapton
Insulation.
Single core cables sizes 22-10 inclusive with silver plated copper conductors.
Single core cable sizes 24 and 26 with silver plated copper alloy conductors.
All cables insulated with FEP/Kapton/FEP tape and PTFE tape overall.
Twisted single cables (two, three and four) also available sizes 26-16.
Temperature range:
65C to +150C
Description:
Single core cables, sizes 22-10 inclusive with nickel plated copper conductors.
Single core cables, size 26 and 24 with nickel plated copper alloy conductors.
All cables are insulated with FEP/Kapton/FEP tape and PTFE tape overall.
Twisted single cables (two, three and four) also available, sizes 26-16.
Temperature range:
65C to +260C
Raychem Type 44
Description:
Silver plated high strength copper alloy conductors or tin plated copper
conductors. The insulation is made up of radiation cross linked polyolefin
polymer with a protective sheath of polyvinylidene fluoride.
The following part numbers are identified with respective limitations:44A0811-XX-Colour
44A0812-XX-Colour
Airframe Constructions
44A0814-XX-Colour
44A0211-XX-Colour
44A0212-XX-Colour
44A0212-XX-Colour
44A0111-XX-Colour
44A0112-XX-Colour
44A0114-XX-Colour
44A1211-XX-Colour
44A1212-XX-Colour
44A1214-XX-Colour
44A1111-XX-Colour
44A1112-XX-Colour
44A1114-XX-Colour
Note: XX denote AWG size
Temperature range:
75C to +140C
Raychem Type 55
Silver plated high strength copper alloy or tin plated copper or silver plated
copper conductors. The insulation is made up of an extruded radiation cross
linked fluoropolymer.
The constructions are types 1 and 2 in single, two, three and four conductors and
"metsheath" versions. A cross reference sheet between this specification and
Raychems type 55 wire part numbering system is given on the next page:
Type
Part Number
55A8022-24*to 10-X(colour)
55A8623-24*to 10-X/X/X
55A8813-24*to 10-X/X/X/X
55A8776-24*to 16-X(colour)
55A8777-24*to 20X/X
55A8778-24*to 20-X/X/X
55A8814-24*to 16-X/X/X/X
55A8744-24*to 16-X-X
(sheath colour)
55A8745-24*to 16-X/X-X
55A8746-24*to 16-X/X/X-X
* Size 24 has silver plated high strength copper alloy conductors. All other
conductors under the part numbers shown have tin coated copper conductors.
Temperature range:
75C to +150C
Description:
Description:
Description:
Description:
Description:
Nickel plated copper + PTFE tapes, glass fibre tape and glass fibre braid coated
with PTFE insulation.
Size: 0000 - 10 AWG: Approval Reference AR648
12 -22 AWG:
Description:
Description:
Description:
Description:
Description:
75C to +120C
E7998
E7996
E9178
(DDP H/TECH/P114)
E8691
E8238
(DDP H/TECH/P109)
E11566
E6379
E6411
E6418
E4273
E4289
E12304
E13284
E12279
E12374
E6641
E8308
AR194
11.8.5 Fileca
AR230
AR412
AA
AB
BB
CC
DD
Rists Ltd.
EE
FF
AG
HH
KK
LL
Ripaults Ltd.
NN
PP
Permanoid Ltd.
RR
Raychem Ltd.
SS
TT
UU
VV
WW
XX
Crompton Parkinson
YY
ZZ
GG
GBX
Switzerland
CHX
France
(1)
1
(2)
E
(3)
(4)
(5)
22
(6)
NMS
V
Suffix Data
Cable Size
Cable Segment Letter
Cable Number
Cct. Designation Letter
Cct. Function Letter
Unit Number
Position 1
Position 2
Not Used
Not Used
Not Used
Not Used
Control Surfaces
Fuel
Engine Instruments
Radio
Flight Instruments
Radar
Landing Gear
Special Electronics
AC Systems Pressurisation
& Anti-icing
Not Used
Not Used
W Warning
AC Power Supplies
Lighting
Not Used
Miscellaneous
Not Used
Position 3
Position 4
Position 5
Cable size.
Position 6
Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its
connection function. For example, in the example code NMS V
indicates nyvinmetsheath ungrounded cable in a single-phase
system.
N
Earth
AL Alumel
CN Constantan
Single Phase ac
CH Chromel
EC Nickel/Copper
CU Copper
NOTE: Full details of the cable coding system will be found in the Maintenance
Manual or Wiring Diagram Manual for the relevant aircraft.
Shown below is an example of ATA 100 Specification coding.
11.10.2
MANUFACTURERS CODING
22
B
Year of Manufacture Code Letter
Manufacturers Code Letter
Cable Size
Cable Type Name
XX
22
Cable Size
Year of Manufacture Code Letter
Manufacturers Code Letter
Country of Origin
Cable Type Name
With effect from 1st January 1979 the country of origin code for Great Britain
was changed from G to Gbx, although the rest of the code remained
unchanged.
Blank Page
12.2 LACING
Lacing is no longer commonly used on aircraft looms, however it is still widely
used within equipments. The lacing cord used on aircraft looms was generally
1mm diameter pvc covered nylon cord. Inside electrical equipment, the cord used
is generally thin waxed linen or flax tape, as these are less prone to slipping.
Starting. The two methods commonly used to start lacing are a whipped start
and a knotted start.
Whipped start. Hold one end of the cord on the cable and wrap about 4 turns
tightly around the cable and over the cord. See diagram. When the end is well
secured, whip a further eight turns and make a lock stitch. The whipping can be
continued for any distance required to provide protection against chafing.
Knotted start. Make a clove hitch around the cable and secure the ends with a
reef knot. Make a lock stitch and finish normally.
Lacing is achieved using a running stitch pressed tightly against the cable loom
by means of locking knots or locking stitches formed at regular intervals along the
loom. The running stitches should be kept in line, parallel to the wires in the cable
loom.
Finishing. To terminate the lacing, wrap the cord four times around the loom,
tight against the last lock stitch. Using a separate piece of cord, form a loop and
lay it along the loom. Wrap eight turns over the loop and pass the end of the
running cord through the loop. Pull the loop out by its free ends, thus locking the
cord under the last eight turns. Cut off any excess cord.
Branching. If only one wire branches from a loom, it should be branched out at
a lock stitch without any variation in the lacing. If a group of wires leave the loom
at the same point, they should be laced together. At the required branching
point, make a lock stitch, wrap six turns closely together and make another lock
stitch. This whipping takes any sideways forces without straining the main lacing
or separating the wires of the loom. Form the wires into the required branch
loom, using a knotted start where it leaves the main loom.
12.3.3 WRAPPING
Efwrap and Spywrap are forms of extensible wrapping that can be wound around
looms without having to disconnect the cables. It comes in a variety of sizes, to
provide protection for single cables or looms. When applied, the wrapping needs
to be held in place at either end by cable ties.
12.3.4 RUBBER BEADING & GROMMETS
Rubber beading and grommets are used on parts of the airframe to prevent
chafing of cables or looms that may come into contact with the airframe.
12.3.5 CONDUITS
Conduits are generally used for conveying cables where there is the possibility of
exposure to oil, hydraulic fluid or other fluid. Cables may take the form of plastic,
flexible metal or rigid metal sheaths. Where shielding against signal interference
is necessary the cables are conveyed by metal conduits in contact with metal
parts of the aircraft structure to ensure good bonding.
12.3.6 CABLE SEALS
In pressurised aircraft it is essential for many cables to pass through pressure
bulkheads without a break in them an without causing leakage of cabin pressure.
This is accomplished by sealing the necessary apertures with either pressure
bungs or pressure proof plugs and sockets. A pressure bung comprises a
housing, perforated synthetic rubber bung, anti-frictional washer and knurled
clamping nuts; the housing is flanged and threaded, having a tapered bore to
accept the bung. The holes in the bung vary in size to accommodate cables of
various diameters, each hole being sealed by a thin covering of synthetic rubber
at the smaller diameter end of the bung. The covering is pierced by a special tool
when loading the bung with cables.
The cables are a tight fit in the holes of the bung which, when fully loaded and
forced into the housing by the clamping nut, is compressed tightly into the
housing around the cables. The anti-friction washer prevents damage to the face
of the bung when the clamping nut is turned. On assembly, holes not occupied
by cables are plunged with plastic plugs.
In instances where cables 'breaks' are required at a pressure bulkhead, the
cables at each side of the bulkhead are terminated by specially-sealed plug or
socket assemblies of a type similar to those shown in the diagram below.
Does not degrade the cable as other joining methods e.g. soldering.
Simpler to inspect.
Pre-insulated ring tags and spade terminations comprise a cable receiving barrel
and tongue, these both being made of tin plated copper. A copper sleeve is
pressed over the barrel which in turn is covered by a plastic sleeve. One end of
the insulated sleeve overlaps the barrel. During the crimping operation this
portion is compressed over the cable insulation in order to provide support to the
cable.
The insulation on each PIDG connector is coloured Red, Yellow, Black or Blue.
The colour of each connector is related to and is an indication of the size of the
appropriate crimping tool. These in turn may be recognised by similar coloured
handles. The tool size is stamped on the tongues of each connector. This
marking also indicates the cable sizes for which it is suitable.
The size of the connector tongues are varied and as such may be attached to
terminal studs and screws in the B.S.F., B.A., Unified and Metric ranges.
Pre-Insulated In-Line Connectors
In-line connectors comprise a two way receiving barrel made of tin plated copper.
A copper sleeve is pressed over and overlaps each end of the barrel. During the
crimping operation this portion is compressed over the cable insulated in order to
provide support. The whole of the connector is covered by a hard plastic sleeve.
This has an indentation midway along its length so as to provide a means of
locating the connector in the crimping tool. The sleeve is again coloured for the
purpose of identifying the appropriate crimping tool.
The tools have two sets of crimping jaws. A set of barrel crimping jaws which
are preset and not adjustable, these crimp the conductor inside the conductor
receiving barrel of the connector. The second set are the insulation gripping
jaws which are adjustable by means of adjusting pins (2 pins in the older style
tools, 1 pin in the newer style tools), these jaws crimp the connector to the wire
insulation, forming a cable support. The adjusting pins can be put in one of three
positions. Position 1 sets the jaws to the smallest opening for thin insulation,
position 3 sets the jaws to their largest opening for thick insulation.
The handles are colour coded to match the colour of the insulation on the
appropriate size connectors (crimps). On the newer tools the two handles have
two different colours, one to match the colour of the insulation on the high
temperature connectors, the other to match the colour of the insulation on the low
temperature connectors. The handles also incorporate a certi-crimp ratchet. This
is to ensure completion of the crimping operation.
It should be noted that, once the handles start to close, they must be fully closed
before the tool can be opened again and any work removed.
13.1.1.2 Terminating a cable with an AMP termination
The double action hand tools have three insulation adjustments. Firstly it is
necessary to determine which insulation crimping adjustment is needed for
the cable being used. The crimping operation must crimp the insulation as well
as the cable.
Proceed as follows.
2. Place both Insulation Crimping Adjustment pins in the No.3 position.
3. Place terminal or connector in crimping jaws of correct tool (wire size range is
stamped on the tool) so that the terminal barrel tests against the locator.
Squeeze handle until the terminal or connector is held lightly in place.
4. Insert unstripped wire into only the insulation
grip portion of terminal or connector sleeve.
5. Crimp the terminal or connector.
6. After crimp is made, check the insulation support
as follows; Hold on to the terminal or connector
and bend the wire back and forth once. The
terminal or connector sleeve should retain its
grip on the insulation of the cable.
7. If the wire pulls out, set both Insulation
adjustment pins to the No. 2 position and repeat
test.
8. If the wire pulls out, set both Insulation adjustment pins to the No. 1 position
and repeat test.
9. If the wire still pulls out, something is wrong i.e. incorrect or worn tool.
Colour Identity of
P.I.D.G. Terminals
Yellow
One dot
22 - 16
Red
One dot
2 lines
16 - 14
Blue
Two dots
2 lines
Yellow
One dot
2 lines
Black
Two dots
12 - 10
Small
Dot Coding
Large
26 - 22 (Minyvin)
Dot Code
Handle Colour
Code
24 & 22
2 dots
1 Black 1 Brown
Brown
Black
20
1 dot
1 Grey 1 Purple
Grey or Purple*
Purple with
Black stripe
18
2 dots
1 Orange 1 Black
Orange
Orange with
Black stripe
16
1 dot
Both Orange
Orange
Orange with
Black stripe
14
2 dots
1 White 1 Black
White
White with
Black stripe
12
1 dot
Both White
White
White with
Black stripe
10
1 dot
Both Black
Black
---------------
Terminal Colour
High Temp.
Low Temp.
Wire Size
Colour
Stripes
Crimping
Dot Code
26
Black
Yellow
1 Dot
24
Blue
Yellow
1 Dot
22
Green
Red
1 Dot
20
Red
Red
1 Dot
18
White
Red
1 Dot
16
Blue
Blue
2 Dots
14
Green
Blue
2 Dots
12
Yellow
Yellow
1 Dot
10
Brown
Yellow
1 Dot
Equiv AN
Cable size
AMP
Device
size
Colour of
Insulation
AMP Tool
Test
Current
Amps
MV
Drop
Max
Tensile
Strength
Lbs. Min
19/ 006
22
Mini 22
BLACK
575091
11
14
14
19
18
32
21
38
21
38
31
57
19/ 0076
20
22-16
RED
33/ 0076
18
22-16
RED
40/ 0076
16
22-16
RED
40/ 0076
16
16-14
BLUE
70/ 0076
14
16-14
BLUE
47386
575025
47386
575025
47386
575025
47387
575024
47387
575024
If any of the test specimens fail to pass the performance requirements, all the
terminations made with the crimping tool must be quarantined and individually
inspected. The crimping tool must then be removed from service and the die
dimensions checked using a 'GO/NO-GO' gauge to ensure they fall within the
limits specified by the manufacturer. A specimen table is shown below.
Tool No.
'A' Dimension
'G' Dimension
Go
No Go
Go
No Go
47386
22 - 16 PIDG
109
115
035
055
47387
16 - 14 PIDG
120
126
045
065
When measuring the 'G' dimension, the insulation crimping adjustment pins
should be in position No. The tool must be closed before inserting the gauge.
The tool must be withdrawn from use if it fails to meet any of the above
conditions.
Crimping tools in regular service should be inspected every three months or 1000
crimping operations, whichever comes sooner, to ensure they are in good
working order and that the dies are undamaged and are free of foreign matter.
13.1.1.6 Inline crimping
The procedure for crimping "inline crimps" or "butt splices" is basically the same
as that used for tags or connectors. If the connector cannot be turned over to
complete the second crimping operation, then the tool must be turned over, this
may take some practice.
When using inline crimps certain points should be noted:
Each barrel must carry only one cable unless specifically permitted by the
airworthiness authority.
The tool is used in much the same manner as any other crimping tool, with the
exception that the pump has to be operated several times before the crimping
operation is complete. When the correct pressure is attained a ratchet operates
preventing any further increase in pressure.
Once the crimping operation has been completed, the pressure is released by
operating a pressure relief valve on the side of the tool. When the pressure is
released the jaws open and the crimped cable can be removed for inspection.
Insert the separation spring of the lower die into the upper die opening. Push
up firmly and insert the lower die stem into the hole in the ram.
Insert the connector, with the ground trap facing up, into the nest area of the
die. Be sure to centre the connect.
Place the ground wire into the ground trap and the shielded cable into the
bottom of the connector. Be sure to butt the cable jacket and ground wire
insulation against the metal connector edge. The ground wire can exit from
either direction.
Squeeze the tool handles to form the connector around the shield.
Caution: Be sure that neither the cable outer jacket nor the ground wire
insulation is under the metal portion of the connector. This will overload the
dies.
Measure the diameter of the cable shield using a calibrated measuring tool.
Rotate the cable in order to locate the maximum shield diameter. Exert only
light pressure on the cable to get an accurate measurement.
For twisted pair and other non-symmetrical shielded cables, measure the
dimension of the major axis or the largest width of the cable.
Connector
Cat. No.
& Code
Die Cat
. No
RSK101
RED
101RSK
101A
101B
Ground Wire
Range
1 OR 2
*24 AWG STR
OR 1
*22 AWG STR
201C
RSK201
BLUE
201RSK
201D
201E
301G
301H
301J
401L
401M
101BG
201DG
201EG
201FG
1 OR 2
*22 AWG STR
OR 1 OR 2
*20 AWG STR
401K
RSK401
GREEN
401RSK
101AG
201CG
1 OR 2
*22 AWG STR
OR 1
*20 AWG STR
201F
RSK301
YELLOW
301RSK
301GG
301HG
301JG
401KG
1 OR 2
*20 AWG STR
OR 1
*18 AWG STR
401N
Cable preparation:
Note: These connectors should not be used
with multi-conductor shielded cables whose
conductors are solid or stranded bonded wire.
401LG
401MG
401NG
Close the handles of the tool so that the face of the red insert in the lower die
just touches the face of the upper die. Do not squeeze the tool beyond this
point.
Select the gage whose catalogue number corresponds to the die catalogue
number and insert it from either side of the die into the slots in the upper and
lower dies as shown.
If the gage freely enters until the gage shoulder touches the side of the lower
die, the die is worn beyond limits. If the gage will not enter with gentle
pressure up to its shoulder, the dies are within limits and will produce good
installations.
Intended Use:
Wrap around connectors have been designed to ground the shield of single or
multiple conductor shielded cables. It is suggested that the customer evaluate
the suitability of these connectors and verify their performance for the particular
application.
13.2 SOLDERING
Connections inside electronic equipment are normally made by soldered joints.
Due to the increasing reliability of modern components, failure of soldered
connections is causing an increasing proportion of the total equipment failures.
The reliability of a soldered joint depends on the condition of the material to be
joined and on the care and skill of the operator making the joint. Poor joints
caused by surface oxidisation can be virtually eliminated by sealed storage
methods and by careful preparation of the materials immediately prior to
soldering.
A high level of operator skill can only be maintained by regular repetitive practice
and by meticulous attention to detail when making a joint.
13.2.1 SOLDERING IRONS
To enable the solder to run freely and to combine with the surfaces to be joined,
the solder and the surfaces must be at the correct temperature. The normal
method of applying heat is with an electrically heated soldering iron. The working
end, or bit, is made from copper because it is a good conductor of heat which
allows the solder to create a tinned working face.
A large number of different types of soldering irons are in service use, and it is
essential that the correct iron is chosen for a specific task.
Mains operated irons. The Antex type G240 is one of a large range of general
purpose mains operated miniature irons. This iron has an 18 watt element which
reaches working temperature in about 90 secs. The bits are interchangeable
with four different sizes being available; 3/32 inch, 1/8 inch, 3/16 inch and 1/4
inch.
Low voltage Irons. Several types exist with operating voltages of 6 volts, 12
volts and 24 volts. These irons are used mainly for work on printed circuits
boards and transistorised equipment and operate from the mains through
electrostatically screened isolating transformers.
Heavy duty irons. Solon 983/984 are two commonly used heavy duty irons.
These irons have either 65 watt or 240 watt elements and have an oval shape bit.
They are designed for heavy duty soldering tasks and must not be used for
printed circuit or other transistorised work.
Bits. These are generally detachable and designed in a variety of shapes and
sizes to enable selection of the best suited for the job. Bits are manufactured
from high grade copper and may be unplated, or plated with an iron coating
called ferroclad. The shanks are normally chromium plated to protect against
corrosion, to prevent feed-back of solder, and to facilitate removal and
replacement. Unplated bits require frequent dressing with a file on account of
wear, this results variations in heat retention capabilities. Ferroclad (Iron clad)
bits wear less rapidly and are therefore recommended. Ferroclad bits must not
be cleaned with a file, use a damp sponge.
13.2.1.1 Care & maintenance of irons
When properly used a soldering iron has a long life. The following hints will help
to achieve this.
Any oxides that form on the bit should be removed immediately and should
be retinned immediately.
Do not overheat, it causes the bit to pit and oxidise. To prevent this the iron
should be switched off when not in use, alternatively, place on a heat sink
between jobs.
Ensure the leads are not frayed or damaged. If so they can kill, also ensure
that a hot iron does not come into contact with the mains lead as a fire or
worse can result.
13.2.2 SOLDER
Soft solder is an alloy of tin and lead. It is melted and allowed to flow between
the surfaces to be joined. A fused joint is formed by an alloying action between
the solder and the metal surfaces. The joint produced is not very strong
mechanically but is a good conductor of electricity. The lack of strength in a
solder joint means that a good mechanical joint must be formed prior to
soldering.
The most suitable solder for electrical work contains 60% tin and 40% lead,
melting at 190C. Some solders contain small amounts of antimony or copper
and melt between 190C and 240C. The soft solder normally used for electrical
work as supplied at 22 SWG, flux-cored wire.
Soldered joints can only be used at temperatures below 150C.
13.2.3 FLUX
Soft solder cannot alloy with a metal if there is any barrier such as oil, grease or
oxide present at the joint surfaces. These surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned
and a flux must be used to prevent oxide formation when making the joint. The
flux used for electronic work is a high-grade chemically developed resin. The
residue is not-corrosive, moisture proof and hard. Residue should always be
removed from joints used at high frequencies to prevent its dielectric properties
from affecting the circuit.
The jaws of the tool are of the reverse-spring type, and the shape of the tips
permits gripping of the lead insulation and the exposed part of the lead, so that
during soldering the tips serve as a heat sink.
All joints should present a neat, bright and shiny appearance with well formed
solder films or fillets feathering out to a thin edge.
The ends of leads protruding through holes should not extend excessively
from their mounting lands.
Dry Joints. This is the name given to a joint when the solder fails to alloy
with the work surfaces. A dry joint usually has a dull rough surface and can
easily be broken by slight pressure with the blade of a screwdriver. It will
cause a high resistance connections possibly intermittent, which may be very
difficult to trace after the equipment has been returned to service. The most
common causes of dry joints are grease, dirt and moving the joint before the
solder has solidified.
Excess Flux. Flux residue left on or near a joint will act as a dielectric at high
frequencies and may affect the circuit. It can be removed by gentle pressure
with a small screwdriver blade.
This method should only be used to remove solder from surface joints
13.2.9.2 Solder Suckers
In this method de-soldering is carried out by drawing molten solder from a joint
through a hollow bit. The hollow bit may form part of a separate suction desoldering tool which is used in conjunction with a conventional soldering iron, or it
may form part of a specially designed iron.
The pins are of tubular steel and are precision brazed in the block at a spacing
which corresponds both to the relevant hole spacing of the board and to the pin
configuration of the package. The block should be applied to connections on the
circuit side of a board and with the aid of tweezers the package should be gently
pulled from the board. Residual solder should be removed from the holes by a
solder extractor iron before remounting the original package or a replacement.
Extreme care should be exercised when using heater blocks of all types. They
act as heat reservoirs and when applied to a board considerable heat can be
transmitted into the base material.
Modified wire-wrapping (class A), the stripped end must be wrapped 8 turns
around the post, followed by about one turn of the insulated part of the wire. This
provides significantly improved resistance to vibration (see Detail B in the
diagram above).
The wire must be a single-strand conductor with good electrical properties. The
post should be relatively hard. It is usually made of bronze and has at least two
sharp corners. The wire is usually tin-plated or silver-plated.
The wires are run bunched together into looms along special paths on a circuit
board, or directly between the wire-wrap points, criss-crossing the board. The
latter is known as point-to-point wiring. The advantages of point-to-point wiring
include simplified service, less risk of interference and lower weight.
13.3.2 TOOLS
The wrapping tool consists of a metal rod, known as the bit, with a central guide
hole, which fits into the terminal post, and with a narrow groove in the periphery,
which fits the wire. The bit is caused to rotate, and the wire is then stretched
around the terminal post (see diagram below).
The tensile force during wrapping around the post is decisive to the quality of the
connection and is determined by the dimensions of the tool. In other words, it is
important to employ the correct tools, which are suitable for the intended
combination of wire area and type of post.
Tools for stripping and wire-wrap must have gained type approval and must be
subjected to periodic inspection.
13.3.3 WIRE-WRAPPING PROCEDURE
Stripping is an extremely important operation in wire-wrapping. The correct
length of wire must be stripped, so that the correct number of turns will be
obtained, and the wire must be entirely free from scratches and other stressraisers.
The correct length of stripped end for modified mini-wrapping is 25 mm for posts
0 025 x 0 025 and 35 mm for posts 0 045 x 0 045.
40. Fit the stripped end of the wire as far as it will go into the wire groove of the
bit (see Detail A in the diagram below).
41. Fit the wire into the recess in the sleeve and bend the wire towards the
sleeve, along its length (see Detail B in the diagram below).
42. Hold the wire with the fingers and push the tool into the terminal post, to the
position at which wrapping is to start (see Detail C in the diagram below).
43. During wrapping, hold the tool straight and exert slight pressure in the
direction of the post (see Detail D in the diagram below).
If a connection must be re-wrapped, cut the wire and unwrap it with an
unwrapping tool. (The unwrapped end of the conductor must be not be used
again).
Wrapping may be repeated on a post from which earlier wire had been
unwrapped, provided that the post is undamaged.
Wire-wrapping with one of the defects specified below shall be rejected. (Refer to
above diagram).
Spiral wrapping (in the case of open turns and in spiral wrapping, the distance
between the turns must not exceed one-half of the wire diameter) (see Detail
C).
Wrap too far up on the post (the wrap must not exceed beyond the chamfered
part of the post) (see Detail F).
Projecting end of the wire (the wrapping operation has been interrupted too
early) (see Detail G).
Physical damage (the wire must be free from scratches) (see Detail H).
The relieving turn, i.e. the bottom turn of insulated wire must be wrapped
around at least three corners (see Detail I).
The wire must be run so that the bottom turn will not be unwound (see Detail
J).
The following methods of inspection are intended for checking the tools and
terminal posts, and shall be carried out as random sample tests in production.
Separate test post and conductors of the same type as those employed in the
relevant work shall be used.
Note: The methods of inspection are of the destructive type.
The pull test involves applying a force to the wire-wrap and measuring the force
at which the wire-wrap slides off the terminal post (see Detail A in the diagram
above).
Diameter
20
0.80
40
22
0.65
35
24
0.50
30
0.40
25
0.32
20
0.25
15
26
28
30
The unwrapping test involves wrapping the wire off the post (see Detail B in the
diagram above). The test can be carried out in different ways:
By hand.
During the unwrapping test, the conductor must not be subjected to tension
and/or torsion. The unwrapping test is considered to be satisfactory if
unwrapping is carried out without the wire fracturing.
The block was ultimately found to be too large for the confined conditions
resulting from the use of extended electrical systems and panels in later
installations. A miniature block of a similar nature was developed but never
produced.
The decision not to proceed with the S.B.A.C. miniature block led the Plessey
Company to develop a smaller terminal block which was used extensively on
British aircraft. The unit could accommodate up to 20 terminations and employed
a spade type crimped terminal, locking into a metal clamp with spring retainer,
which could be further secured by a screw to from a rigid connection, as shown
above.
14.1.3 WARD BROOK TERMINAL BLOCKS
Later built British aircraft use a terminal block which has screw studs for
mounting ring terminals. These blocks are called ward Brook terminal blocks. The
ring tags are secured using special torque spanners.
These terminal blocks are made from Polyethersulphate 430P and are either
black or red in colour. The screw studs are made of stainless steel and secured
by steel cadmium plated stiff nuts called 'Kaylock fasteners'. They are supplied in
both single and double row of either 1,2,3,5 or 10 way configuration.
These terminal blocks have a temperature range from -50C to 175C. They are
made from Diallyl Phthalate and are red or black in colour. They are sealed with
flourosilicone rubber coloured red or white. The contacts and the bus plate
assemblies are made from gold plated copper alloy. Although the bus plates
cannot be seen, the layout is indicated by trace lines on the top of each module
as shown below.
The contact sizes are determined by their current rating and each contact size
can accommodate more than one conductor size as shown below:
Size 21 - 3 amps
14.2 CONNECTORS
Electrical connects are designed in many shapes and sizes to facilitate the
installation and maintenance of electrical circuits and equipment in all types of
aircraft. For example, if may be necessary to replace a damaged section of
electrical harness in an aircraft. If the section of harness is connect other
sections by connectors, it is a comparatively simple matter to unplug the section
at both ends and remove the damaged section. A completely new section may
then be quickly installed. If the damaged section were connected by terminal
strips, the operation would take a considerable amount of time. It can be seen
that if larger electrical or electronic equipment were connect by terminal strips a
similar problem would result.
A conductor assembly comprises two principal parts. These parts are generally
called the plug and socket or receptacle. The plug section generally contains
'pin sockets' and the socket or receptacle, contains pins. Some confusion may
arise concerning plugs and receptacles because some authorities call the section
containing the pin sockets, the receptacle and the section containing the pins
the plug. In many cases it is simpler to refer to the two sections as the socket
section and the pin section. Whichever way the connectors are described, the
live side of the circuit should always be connected to the socket section. This
arrangement reduced the risks of shorting the circuit and of electrical shock.
Connectors may be fixed or free items, i.e. fixed in a junction box, panel or
equipment, or free as part of a loom assembly to couple onto a fixed item.
There are numerous variations in the design of connectors governed principally
by the requirements of the circuit, the number of conductors to be terminated and
the environmental conditions in which the connector is to be used. The bodies or
shells are mostly of light alloy or stainless steel finished overall with cadmium
plating. They may be provided with either a male or female thread, or may be of
the bayonet type for quick connection and disconnection. Connectors used on
rack mounted equipment may be square and simply push together, retention
being achieved by locking the equipment into the rack.
Polarising keys and keyways are provided to ensure that plugs and sockets mate
correctly, they also prevent movement between the contacts, thereby reducing
strain when the coupling rings are tightened.
The shells of free connectors are extended as necessary by the attachment of
outlets. These provide a means of supporting the cables at the point of entry to
the connector, thereby preventing straining of the conductor and pin or socket
joints, they also prevent displacement of the contacts in the softer material
insulators. In many cases special clamps are provided, these compress the soft
insulation material so that it grips the conductors, thus providing support and
preventing the ingress of dirt or moisture.
To prevent distortion of the insulated moulding and to assist in correct mating of
the connectors, all positions in the connector should be fitted with a pin or socket
as appropriate, in some instances this may require the use of special pin
insertion tools. In addition, a special filler insert must be fitted to ensure correct
cable support and to prevent the ingress of dirt or moisture.
Plug contacts are usually solid round pins, and sockets contacts have a resilient
section which is designed to grip the mating pin. The contacts are retained in
position by insulators or inserts as they are often called, which are a sliding fit in
the shells and secured by retaining rings and /or nuts. Insulators are made from
a variety of materials depending on the connection application.
Cables were originally attached to connector pins and sockets by soldering and
although retained within some equipment, this has now been superceded by
crimping techniques which have already been studied.
KPSE 00
E - 18 - 32 S X ( )
Modification
Alternate Insert Position
P = Pins S = Sockets
Insert Arrangement
Shell Size
Class
00
01
02
06
Straight Plug
07
08
90 Angle Plug
22
T F
55 P 0 N A*
Keyway Position
Shell Style
Contact Style
'P' for Pin, 'S' for Socket
Insert Arrangement
Class 'E' Grommet Seal
'F' Grommet Seal with Strain
Relief
Shell Style
Shell Size
Smooth Bantam
33. Align tool and contact axially with grommet hole and carefully guide contact
through grommet into lock position. (see diagram 2 below).
Installing Tool:
Removal Tool:
Colour
Contact Size
Part No.
Yellow
12
MS27495A12
Blue
16
MS27495A16
Red
20
MS27495A20
Brown
22
MS27495A22
Black
22D, 22M
MS27495A22M
Colour
Contact Size
Part No.
Yellow
12
MS27495R12
Blue
16
MS27495R16
Red
20
MS27495R20
Brown
22
MS27495R22
Black
22D, 22M
MS27495R22M
Instructions
To install contacts:
48. Open the tool tips by squeezing the handles and the tips around the wire
insulation. Slide tool along the wire until tip ends butt against the shoulder on
the contact.
49. Carefully push the contact forward and directly in line with the grommet hole
until contact is felt to snap into position.
50. Slide the tool back along the wire insulation until it clears the grommet and
remove tool from wire.
To remove contacts:
51. Open the tool tips sufficiently to be places around the wire insulation. Slide
the tool down the wire until tool tips enter the grommet and come to a
positive stop (see diagram below). A slight increase in resistance will be
noticed just before contact.
52. Holding the tool tips firmly against the positive stop on the contact, grip the
wire and simultaneously remove the tool, contact and wire.
Caution!! The tips on installing and removal tools used on small contacts have
very thin wall sections. This causes them to have sharp edges which
can cut the wire insulation or connector sealing grommet.
Do not squeeze, spread, tip or rotate the tweezers while entering the
connector grommet.
Blank Page
When the meter is connected to an electrical circuit, current flows through the coil
creating a field around its conductors. The direction of field rotation can be found
using the Right Hand Grasp rule. The field around the conductors of the coil
react with the main field, the field above the conductor on the right is
strengthened whilst the field below the conductor is weakened, causing the
conductor to move down. The field above the conductor on the left is weakened,
whilst the field below is strengthened, causing the conductor to move up. Both
conductors form part of the coil, so the coil will rotate on its pivots. As the coil
rotates it will continue to distort the main field, without a controlling force to
oppose the movement, even a small current would cause the coil to rotate to its
end stop and indicate full scale deflection. Control for the movement is provided
by the contra wound springs. As the coil rotates, one spring is compressed the
other extended.
Hookes law states that the extension of an elastic body is directly proportional to
the applied force, provided the force remains within the elastic limits of the
material. This means that the relationship between the extension and the applied
force is linear, the applied force is the motor torque, which also has a linear
relationship with the current creating it. Therefore the meter movement is linear
and the scale can be linear.
The coil and pointer will come to rest when the torque created by the springs
cancels the torque created by the moving coil. The larger the current flowing in
the coil, the greater the torque produced and the further the coil will rotate.
Rotation of the coil moves the pointer across a scale calibrated to indicate the
value of circuit current or voltage.
The current required to move the pointer to the furthest point on the scale is
called full scale deflection current, i.e. the current required to moved the
pointer to full scale deflection. If the current in the coil is less than I f.s.d. the
pointer will take up a position between zero and full scale deflection.
15.1.3 DAMPING
The moving coil meter is designed to move quickly from zero to the required
value. With no damping, momentum will cause the movement to overshoot.
When the movement overshoots, the force created by the springs is greater than
the torque created by the coil, so the meter swings in the opposite direction back
towards its intended position. Again, with no damping, the meter will overshoot.
The torque produced by the fields is now greater than the force produced by the
springs and so the meter swings back in the original direction towards its
intended position. With no damping the movement oscillates, each over-swing
being smaller than the previous, until the movement comes to rest. To prevent
the meter oscillating, a damping system is incorporated.
Damping is provided by the aluminium former on which the coil is wound.
Aluminium is a conductor. When moved in the field of the permanent magnet
the former has emfs induced in it that result in eddy currents and the production
of a field. The field around the former opposes the main field and tries to prevent
movement, thus providing damping. The faster the meter moves, the greater the
induced emf, eddy currents and field, and the greater the damping provided.
The amount of damping used is important, too little and the movement will
oscillate, too much and the movement will be sluggish and may not stop at the
correct position, the motor torque being unable to overcome the damping force.
When the damping is insufficient, the movement is said to be under-damped,
when too much damping is provided the meter is over-damped.
The amount of damping necessary to get the meter to move to the correct
position with no over-swings, in the shortest possible time is called critical
damping. Critical damping is one specific value of damping, this is difficult to
obtain and is easily changed by changes in operating conditions, any changes
affect the response of the movement.
Meters are normally set up with ideal damping. Ideal damping allows the meter
to move to its intended position with one over-swing. The initial speed of
response is quicker than a critically damped movement, however, the meter
takes slightly longer to come to rest at the required position. An advantage of
ideal damping is that, as the meter ages and friction increases, the damping
tends towards critical damping, thus improving its response time.
15.1.4 PARALLAX ERROR
When the value displayed on an instrument is read, the value returned is
dependent on the position of the reader. If the reader moves, the value appears
to change, this is known as parallax error. To prevent parallax error, some
meters have a mirror fitted behind the pointer, adjacent to the scale. When
reading the meter, the observer positions themselves so that the reflection of the
pointer is hidden by the pointer itself. Under these conditions the meter is being
read correctly.
When using a shunt it should be connected directly to the main conductors of the
circuit under test, the meter movement should then be connected to the shunt.
This will prevent an accidental open circuit damaging the meter movement.
15.1.6.2 Determining the multiplier resistance
When using the meter to measure voltages it is connected in parallel with the
circuit under test. The maximum current that can pass through the movement is
again that which gives full scale deflection, this is determined by the circuit
voltage and the meter resistance, and may well exceed Ifsd.
To limit the current through the movement, a resistor must be connected in series
with it. This resistor is known as a multiplier.
To determine the multiplier value, Ifsd and the meter resistance must be obtained
from the movement. The series combination of meter resistance and multiplier
resistance must limit the maximum current to Ifsd. Therefore:
Ifsd =
Rmeter + Rmult =
therefore
Rmult =
- Rmeter
Shunts and multipliers should both be made from metals that have low
temperature co-efficient of resistance, metals such as Manganin and Eureka.
15.1.7 METER LOADING
Whenever a meter is connected into an electrical circuit it changes the total
circuit resistance, and therefore changes the values of voltage and current in the
circuit. This means that the values of voltage and current indicated on the meter
will differ from those in the circuit when the meter is disconnected. The degree of
error caused depends on the resistance value of the meter used.
An ammeter and its shunt are connected in series with the circuit under test,
therefore in order not to change the circuit current their resistance must be as
small as possible. If the meter resistance is too large, the circuit current will be
reduced and the meter will under read.
A voltmeter and its multiplier are connected in parallel with the circuit under test,
therefore the combined resistance must be as high as possible in order not to
short circuit the circuit under test. If the resistance is too low, the majority of
current will flow through the meter instead of the circuit under test, changing the
voltage drop across the circuit component.
Using a meter with an incorrect resistance value can cause very large errors in
the measurements taken.
15.1.8 OHMS PER VOLT
When a meter is used as a voltmeter, the degree of circuit loading is indicated by
the Ohms per volt value. This is calculated from the combination of meter and
multiplier resistance and the full scale deflection voltage of the meter.
Meter + Multiplier resistance = 100k
fsd voltage = 100 volts
Ohms/volt = 100 000/100 = 1000
Meter + Multiplier resistance = 2M
fsd voltage = 100 volts
Ohms /volt = 2 000 000 / 100 = 20 000
The second meter in the examples above has the higher Ohms per volt value
and will therefore cause a smaller loading effect on the circuit when used for
voltage measurement.
An alternative method used for calculating the Ohm per volt value s to take the
reciprocal of the fsd current.
If Ifsd = 1mA the Ohms per volt value would be 1/ 001 = 1000
If Ifsd = 50 A the Ohms per volt value would be 1/ 00005 = 20 000
The Ohms per volt value also gives an indication as to the sensitivity of the
meter, and is sometimes called the Figure of Merit.
There are numerous types digital meters on the market, but even the most basic
have input impedances of 2M or greater for d.c. measurement and 1M for
a.c. The frequency range varies from 0 to 20 kHz upwards. The values for each
meter should be confirmed before use.
15.1.9 MEASURING RESISTANCE
In order to use a basic moving coil instrument for measurement of resistance, a
battery must be connected in series with the movement. and the circuit under
test. To limit the circuit current to Ifsd, a current limiting resistor is connected in
series with the movement and circuit under test.
For the meter to indicate correctly, the current must flow from the red to the black
terminal of the meter. The positive terminal of the cell must therefore be
connected to the meter movement and the negative terminal to the red terminal
of the meter. Under these conditions, the black terminal of the meter is positive
with respect to the red terminal, and current flows through the circuit under test
from black to red.
When the probes or meter terminals are open circuit zero current flows and the
meter should indicate maximum resistance, that is no pointer movement. When
the test leads are shorted together maximum current flows and the meter should
move to fsd, indicating zero resistance. When a resistor is connected between
the terminals, the current will be determined by the value of the resistance and
the meter will move to some intermediate position to indicate the value of the
resistor.
When using a multimeter to measure resistance, the meter movement is
determined by the amount of current flowing in the circuit under test. In
accordance with Ohms law, the value of current is determined by both the circuit
resistance and the circuit voltage, therefore any change in voltage will affect the
value of current. When a multimeter is used for resistance measurement, the
circuit voltage is derived from the cell, therefore if the cell voltage decreases, the
circuit current will decrease and the meter will under-read. Cell voltage reduces
with age, therefore another variable resistor must be connected in series with the
meter movement and the circuit under test to enable correction. As the cell ages,
the value of resistance is reduced increasing the circuit current to its correct
value.
In circuit 1, the current coil measures the sum of the current flowing in the
unknown resistor and the voltage coil, and the voltage coil measures the voltage
across the unknown resistance only.
In circuit 2, the voltage coil measures the voltage drop across both the current
coil and the unknown resistance, and the current coil only measures current
through the unknown resistor.
If the unknown resistance is high, i.e. when carrying out an insulation resistance
check, it is better to use circuit number 2. When measuring a large resistance the
current flow through it will be low. If circuit 1 were used, the current through the
voltage coil would be large in comparison, creating a large error in the current
measured. Using circuit 2, the low resistance of the series current coil has little
effect on circuit current, and the voltage drop across the small resistance of the
current coil is negligible in comparison to that of the unknown resistance.
If the unknown resistance is low, i.e. when carrying out a bonding check, it is
better to use circuit number 1. When measuring a low resistance the current
through it will be relatively high. If circuit 2 were used, the voltage drop across the
current coil would be very large in comparison to that across the unknown
resistor, creating a large error in the voltage measured. Using circuit 1, the high
resistance of the voltage coil draws little current in comparison to the unknown
resistor, creating a negligible error in the current reading, and the voltage coil
only measures the voltage drop across the unknown resistor.
15.2.1 THE BONDING TESTER
The Bonding tester employs the ratiometer principle, because the expected
resistance values are small, the two coils are connected as in circuit 1. As only
small resistances are to be measured, currents up to one amp may be required,
therefore a small wet NIFE cell is used as the power supply.
Two test leads are used, a 60 ft "static" lead that is fitted with a single spike and
an open ended ring terminal, and a six foot lead that is fitted with a double spike.
The double spike acts as a switch, both spikes having to be in contact with the
bond under test in order for the meter to work.
The 60 ft
lead is
connected to
a fixed
terminal
point, either
the aircraft
main bond
datum or a
secondary
bonding
point thus
ensuring a
good
connection. The 6 ft test lead is pressed onto the item whose resistance is to be
measured.
When the two spikes of the 6 ft test lead are shorted by a suitable conductor and
the 60 ft lead is left disconnected, the current through the voltage and current
coils is the same, however, the torque produced by the voltage coil is arranged to
be greater than the torque produced by the current coil and consequently a full
scale reading is obtained, indicating a high resistance.
When the single spike of the 60 ft lead
is used to short circuit the double
spike of the 6 ft lead, the voltage coil
is shunted by the test circuit. Under
these conditions no current flows in
the voltage coil, and consequently the
pointer moves, under the influence of
the current coil, to give a zero
resistance indication.
Prior to carrying out a bonding test, a check should be made on the state of the
nickel-alkaline cell of the tester by observing that:
a full-scale deflection of the meter is obtained when the two spikes of the 6foot cable probe are shorted by a suitable conductor; and
that the meter reads zero when the two spikes of the 6-foot probe are shorted
by the single spike of the 60-foot probe.
The 60-foot lead of the test equipment should be connected to the main earth
(also known as the bond datum point) at the terminal points which are usually
shown diagrammatically in the relevant Aircraft Maintenance Manual. Since the
length of a standard bonding tester lead is 60 feet, the measurement between the
extremities of the larger types of aircraft may have to be done by selecting one or
more main earth points successively, in which event the resistance value
between the main earth points should be checked before proceeding to check the
remote point.
The 6-foot test lead should be used to check the resistance between selected
points; these are usually specified in the bonding test schedule or the
Maintenance Manual for the aircraft concerned. When the two spikes of the test
lead probe ate brought into contact with the aircraft part, the test-meter will
indicate, in ohms, the resistance of the bond.
It may be necessary to remove a small area of protective finish (e.g. strippable
lacquer or paint) in order to carry out a Bonding check, any protective treatment
removed must be re-applied after the measurements have been taken.
15.2.2 THE INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTER
The Insulation resistance tester also uses the ratiometer principle, because the
expected values of resistance are high, circuit 2 from chapter 34.2 is used. The
high values of resistance being measured also mean that, unlike the bonding
tester, any test leads can be used, although they are generally supplied with the
instrument. In order to generate a useable current, a high supply voltage is
required, this cannot be obtained from a battery and therefore a hand wound
generator is used, this negates the need for an on/off switch.
All appropriate switches should be set for normal in-flight operation. All other
switches involved should be put to 'ON' or minimum resistance position.
All insulation resistance tests carried out should ensure the proper functioning of
both individual and integrated elements of the circuits. They should be carried
out in accordance with the details of the maintenance manual, wiring diagram
manual or modification instruction. On completion, all connections should be
remade and all switches reset to their correct positions.
The results obtained may signify little when taken on their own. They should be
related to the results obtained during previous tests. This will indicate a possible
deterioration in the insulation resistance.
Typical minimum values are:
Maintenance Manual
Overhaul Manual
Code
Chapter
Title
Code
Equipment List
35
Oxygen .
abcd
Dimensions &
areas
36
Pneumatic
38
Water / Waste
abcd
Levelling &
Weighing
49
Airborne Auxiliary
power
abcd
51
Structure - General
10
52
Doors
acde
11
Required placards
53
Fuselage
acde
12
Servicing
54
Nacelles / Pylons
acde
20
Standard practices
- Airframe
abcd
55
Stabilisers
acde
21
Air conditioning
abcd
56
Windows
acde
22
abcd
57
Wings
acde
23
Communications
abcd
*70
Standard practices
- Engine
24
Electrical power
abcd
*71
abcd
25
Equipment /
Furnishings
abcd
*72
Engine
abcd
26
Fire protection
abcd
*73
abcd
27
Flight controls
abcd
*75
Air
abcd
28
Fuel
abcd
*76
Engine controls
abcd
29
Hydraulic power
abcd
77
Engine indicating
abcd
30
abcd
*78
Exhaust
abcd
31
Instruments
abcd
*79
Oil
abcd
32
Landing gear
abcd
*80
Starting
abcd
33
Lights
abcd
*82
Water injection
abcd
34
Navigation
abcd
91
Charts
34 - 50
Code:
Title
GPWS
a. Maintenance Manual
b. Wiring Diagram Manual
c. Overhaul Manual
d. Illustrated Parts Catalogue
e. Structural Repair manual
* Issued in part or complete by the engine manufacturer.
abcd
ae
ac
ab
Maintenance Manual
Description and operation .............1 to 100
Trouble shooting ...........................101 to 200
Maintenance practice ....................201 to 300
Or where complex:
Serving..........................................301 to 400
Removal/Installation .....................401 to 500
Adjustment/Test.............................501 to 600
Inspection/Check...........................601 to 700
Cleaning/Painting ..........................701 to 800
Approved repairs ..........................801 to 900
Fig.1 to 100
Theoretical (schematics)
Fig.101 up
Overhaul Manual
Description, operation and data ...1 to 100
Disassembly ................................101 to 200
Cleaning
....................................201 to 300
...................................501 to 600
....................601 to 700
.......................801 to 900