Cigre - 544 - Metal Oxide (MO) Surge Arresters - Stresses and Test Procedures

544
MO Surge Arresters
Stresses and Test Procedures
Working Group
A3.17
August 2013
MO SURGE ARRESTERS
WG A3.17
Members
B. Richter, Convenor (CH),
J.L. De Franco (BR), R. Ghler (DE), F. Greuter (CH), V. Hinrichsen (DE), M. Holzer (AU), S. Ishibe
(JP), Y. Ishizaki (JP), B. Johnnerfelt (SE), M. Kobayashi (JP), K. Lahti (FI), T.M. Ohnstad (NO), R.S.
Perkins (CN), M. Reinhard (DE), J.H. Sawada (CA), A. Sironi (IT)
Corresponding Members
A. Dellallibera (BR), R. Diaz (AR), S. Vizintin (SL), Y. K. Tong (GB)
Copyright 2013
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ISBN: 978-2-85873-239-5
MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures
MO Surge Arresters
STRESSES AND TEST PROCEDURES
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. 4
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.
Stresses on Surge Arresters ...................................................................................................................................... 11

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Stresses from three phase systems ......................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Temporary Overvoltages ................................................................................................................................. 11
1.2.3 Slow front/switching overvoltages .................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.4 CB and DS TRVs ............................................................................................................................................... 13
1.3 Stresses from HVDC networks ................................................................................................................................ 15
1.3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.2 Stresses on surge arresters.............................................................................................................................. 17
1.3.3 Creepage distance and clearance in air............................................................................................................ 19
1.3.4 Overvoltage limiting characteristics of arresters .............................................................................................. 19
1.3.5 Surge arresters in a converter station.............................................................................................................. 21
1.3.5.1 AC bus arrester (Type A) ............................................................................................................................... 22
1.3.5.2 Valve arrester (Type B) ................................................................................................................................. 22
1.4 Stresses in traction systems.................................................................................................................................... 24
1.4.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.4.2 Voltages in traction systems ............................................................................................................................ 25
1.4.3 MO surge arresters for d.c. traction systems ................................................................................................... 26
1.4.4 MO surge arresters for a.c. traction systems ................................................................................................... 26
1.5 Stresses from Lightning .......................................................................................................................................... 27
1.5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.5.2 Lightning surges. ............................................................................................................................................. 27
1.5.3 Examples from transient analysis. ................................................................................................................... 28
1.5.4 Lightning Statistics .......................................................................................................................................... 29
1.5.5 Winter lightning. ............................................................................................................................................. 29
1.5.6 Parameters of summer and winter lightning current ....................................................................................... 32
1.6 Ambient stresses .................................................................................................................................................... 37
1.6.1 Mechanical stresses ........................................................................................................................................ 37
1.6.2 Pollution ......................................................................................................................................................... 46
1.6.3 Humidity ......................................................................................................................................................... 50
1.6.4 Combined humidity and AC stresses ................................................................................................................ 53
1.6.5 Exposures to low ambient temperatures ......................................................................................................... 55
1.6.6 Biological growth ............................................................................................................................................ 56
1.7 Short circuit currents.............................................................................................................................................. 58
2.
Functional parameters and design of MO Surge Arresters ........................................................................................ 62

2.1 Function and relevant parameters .......................................................................................................................... 62
2.1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 62
2.1.2 Currents and voltages ..................................................................................................................................... 64
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2.1.3 Coordination of insulation and selection of arresters ....................................................................................... 67
2.2 MO-Varistors: state of the art and actual trends ..................................................................................................... 69
2.2.1 Electrical properties of the metal-oxide resistor .............................................................................................. 69
2.2.2 Microstructure of Metal-Oxide resistors .......................................................................................................... 70
2.2.3 The manufacturing process ............................................................................................................................. 72
2.2.4 Electrical testing of Metal-Oxide varistors ....................................................................................................... 73
2.2.5 From grain boundaries to varistor blocks ......................................................................................................... 73
2.2.6 Failure modes of varistor blocks ...................................................................................................................... 79
2.2.7 Long-term stability of ZnO varistors................................................................................................................. 83
2.2.8 Trends and open issues ................................................................................................................................... 85
2.3 Design of surge arresters ........................................................................................................................................ 87
2.3.1 Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................ 87
2.3.2 Design principles of polymer housed HV arresters ........................................................................................... 87
2.3.3 The mechanical supporting structure .............................................................................................................. 87
2.3.4 Outer housing and sheds................................................................................................................................. 92
2.3.5 Design principles of polymer housed MV arresters .......................................................................................... 92
2.3.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................... 93
2.4 Special designs of surge arresters ........................................................................................................................... 94
2.4.1 Separable and Dead front Arresters ................................................................................................................ 94
2.4.2 Under-oil Arresters ......................................................................................................................................... 96
2.5 SF6 gas insulated MO surge arresters ...................................................................................................................... 98
2.6 Integrated Arrester Systems ................................................................................................................................. 102
3.
Energy handling capability of MO surge arresters .................................................................................................. 104

3.1 Summery ............................................................................................................................................................. 104
3.2 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 104
3.3 The different aspects of energy handling capability ........................................................................................... 105
3.3.1 Thermal energy handling capability ............................................................................................................... 105
3.3.2 Impulse energy handling capability ............................................................................................................... 107
3.4 State of knowledge about energy handling of MO arresters .................................................................................. 108
3.4.1 A brief review of the relevant literature ........................................................................................................ 108
3.4.2 Results of an experimental investigation initiated by Cigr WG A3.17 ............................................................ 112
3.5 Energy handling capability in international arrester standards .............................................................................. 129
3.5.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 129
3.5.2 Energy handling issues in standard IEC 60099-4............................................................................................. 130
3.5.3 Energy handling issues in standard IEEE C62.11 ............................................................................................. 136
3.5.4 Energy handling issues in other national standards ........................................................................................ 138
3.5.5 Conclusion and outlook ................................................................................................................................. 138
4. Summary .................................................................................................................................................................... 139

APPENDIX 1.................................................................................................................................................................... 140
References ..................................................................................................................................................................... 141
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Cigr Technical Brochure TB 60 was published in 1991 describing effects on gapless metal oxide surge
arresters (MO arresters) from various electrical stresses encountered in 3-phase AC systems. Since then,
continued improvements in equipment technologies coupled with the interest of the de-regulated power industry to
maximize utilization of the existing infrastructure has revolutionized the MO arrester applications and the expected
performances in an environment, characterized by higher stress levels.
Todays proven confidence in the reliability and capability of modern MO arresters offers new possibilities of
overvoltage protection and improved management of power system disturbances.
The Working Group A3.17 of SC A3 took the task to evaluate the stresses on MO arresters and to review the
existing test procedures. Further on, the actual state of MO arrester designs was investigated, as well as the
various applications in different types of electrical networks.
Emphasis was given to the MO resistors as the active part of the MO arresters. A research project was started to
experimentally investigate the energy handling capability of the MO resistors, which is a key design criterion for a
reliable arrester application. The resulting Technical Brochure covers and describes the actual MO resistor and
arrester technology and the results of the first part of the research project on the energy handling capability of MO
resistors.
Electrical stresses on MO arresters can be divided into stresses at power frequency, which can have long time
durations, and transient stresses of short time duration resulting from switching and lightning. IEC 60071-4
proposes some recommendations for the evaluation of overvoltages, based on the use of numerical programs.
The different stress types seen by a MO arrester are:
Temporary Overvoltages
A temporary overvoltage (TOV) is an oscillatory phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase condition that is of relatively
long duration and is undamped or only weakly damped. TOV are one of the most crucial stresses to an MO
arrester and are detrimental for its layout.
The following origins of TOV are typically considered:
-
Earth fault temporary overvoltages occur in a large part dependent on the effectiveness of system earthing.
Guidance for the determination of TOV amplitudes is given in IEC 60099-5 and IEC 60071-2.
Disconnection of a load will cause the voltage to rise at the source side of the operating circuit breaker. The
amplitude of the overvoltage depends on the disconnected load and the short-circuit strength of the feeding
substation. The amplitude of load rejection overvoltages is usually not constant during their duration.
Accurate calculations have to consider many parameters.
Voltage rise along long unloaded lines (Ferranti effect).
Harmonic overvoltages, originating from e.g. DC converters or saturated transformers.
Resonances, in particular Ferro resonances.
Overvoltages due to flashover between two systems of different system voltages installed on the same
tower.
Slow-front overvoltages
Slow-front overvoltages, in most cases generated by switching or faults, are associated with load switching or fault
clearing. Different switching cases have to be considered: line re-energization, switching of capacitive loads and
inductive loads.
Page 4
Fast-front overvoltages
Fast-front overvoltages are in many cases caused by thunderstorms and occur all over the world. The heaviest
thunderstorms with the most intensive lightning will normally be experienced in the equator region. Other sources
are, for instance, current chopping of breakers or back flashovers.
In low voltage (LV) power systems up to 1 kV and medium voltage (MV) power systems (1 kV < Us 52 kV) the
distribution lines are generally of lower height and less exposed to direct flashes than transmission lines. Most of
the occurring overvoltages are then due to induced voltages originating from lightning to surrounding structures.
High voltage (HV) systems in the range of 52 kV < Us 245 kV can be found in transmission and sub-transmission
rural areas. Direct strokes, back flashovers and induced overvoltages will statistically result in a higher stress for
the installed arresters than in other voltage systems.
Transmission lines in extra-high voltage (EHV) with 245 kV < Us 800 kV and ultra-high voltage (UHV) systems
above 800 kV have steel towers with shield wires and are in spite of their height above ground well protected
against direct lightning strokes to the phase wires. Most of the lightning will hit the towers or the shield wires, and
only shielding failures and back flashovers will cause a critical surge in the phase wire.
In general, in 90% of all cases the lightning flashes are negative flashes from cloud to ground. However, some
countries, such as Norway or Japan, experience rather often thunderstorms during winter. Typical weather
conditions to create the winter thunderstorms are strong winds from the west, which transport warm air from the
ocean to the mountains of the mainland. The typical positive lightning flashes of winter thunderstorms transfer
higher charge than negative lightning flashes, which are typical for summer thunderstorms.
HVDC networks
Since the late 1970s overvoltage protection of HVDC converter stations has been based exclusively on MO
arresters. This is due to their superior protection characteristics and their reliable performance when connected in
parallel to the sensitive converters.
The continuous operating voltage stress for HVDC MO arresters differs from that of a normal a.c. arrester in that it
consists of not only the fundamental frequency voltage but also of components of direct voltage, fundamental
frequency voltage and harmonic voltages, and high frequency transients. These waveforms require other
dimensioning rules for the continuous operating voltage and some specific tests of the MO arresters, e.g. the
accelerated ageing procedure, as described in the emerging IEC 60099-9. Furthermore, polarity reversals might be
an issue.
Ambient stresses
Mechanical stresses like seismic loads strongly affect the structure and materials used for the design of the MO
arresters. Vibrations as well as static and dynamic loads have to be considered and appropriate test procedures
have been developed accordingly.
Ambient stresses can be very different in the different regions of the world. Very cold climates with ice and snow
loads have to be considered as well as climates of high temperature and high humidity. Observations of biological
growth on the surface of polymer insulation have been made in various places. Three types of organic growth have
been identified: Algae, Fungi and Lichen. Despite all the reports of biological growth on the insulation in some
areas of the world there are up to now no known failures of MO arresters caused by it. Animal impact may be
another issue in some countries of the world, e.g. Australia, where cockatoos would nibble on specific types of
polymeric material.
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MO Resistors
Steady progress has been made over the last decades in MO resistor technology, their application in overvoltage
surge protection devices and the understanding of the basic mechanisms of nonlinear conduction, energy handling
capability etc. A lot of new insights have been gained, new physical phenomena have been observed, improved
and more consistent models have been developed and much progress has been made in simulations related to
materials and components.
The nonlinear conduction mechanism of the material can be traced back to individual grain boundaries in the
ceramics, which show a typical value of the switching or breakdown voltage UB of approximately 3.2 V 3.4 V each.
Combining many grain boundaries in series and in parallel within an MO element allows to scale the voltage and
current characteristic of an MO resistor. For a sufficient large number of grain boundaries, the field strength E and
current density J then describes the material characteristic more generally.
Design of MO arresters
Different basic design principles are used for high voltage arresters and medium voltage arresters. In the high
voltage field mechanical requirements are much higher than in normal distribution applications. For this reason
porcelain housings are still used besides the growing number of hollow core insulators, so called tube designs,
and direct molded designs. For distribution arresters in medium voltage systems, porcelain housings have rapidly
disappeared and the direct molded design is used almost exclusively today.
Energy handling capability of MO resistors
The energy handling capability is a key property of MO arresters and has many different aspects, which are only
partly or not at all reflected in the actual standards. At least, though this list may be not complete, they have to be
divided into:
-
thermal energy handling capability

impulse energy handling capability
For the impulse energy handling capability single impulse stress, multiple impulse stress (without sufficient
cooling between the impulses), and repeated impulse stress (with sufficient cooling between the stresses) have to
be considered.
Thermal energy handling capability, on the other hand, can only be considered for complete arresters, as it is
mainly affected by the heat dissipation capability of the overall arrester design, besides the electrical properties of
the MO block.
For a deeper understanding of the energy handling capability of MO resistors and the relevant parameters, the
working group A3.17 initiated a research project to evaluate the energy handling capability under different impulse
stresses such as rectangular impulse currents, sine half waves, alternating currents and double exponential highcurrent impulses. More than 3000 specimens of commercially available MO resistors from seven well established
American, European and Japanese manufacturers were tested. Two basically different sizes of MO resistors were
considered, one for application in high voltage arresters (Size 1: 40...45 mm in height, 60 mm diameter) and
one for application in medium voltage arresters (Size 2: 30...40 mm in height, 40 mm diameter).
For the tests with impulse stresses, an extended failure criterion, beyond simple visible damages, was introduced
for the first time to differentiate the various failure modes and to quantify early changes in the electrical material
characteristics. The a.c. tests were performed up to mechanical failure.
It turned out that for the a.c. tests up to failure the statistical evaluation gives better information on very low failure
probabilities compared to the impulse stress tests (characterized by their mean failure probabilities).
Some of the most important conclusions from the research program, as discussed in more detail in the TB, are:
-
Energy handling capability has generally been improved over the last decade by the established
manufacturers.
Page 6
Energy handling capability increases with current density.

Statistical evaluation is easier to perform for a.c. tests and leads to more reliable predictions than for
impulse testing.
Due to different dominating failure mechanisms, the energy handling capability is somewhat lower for Size
2 resistors.
For the lightning current impulse ( 90/200 s), recently introduced in the arrester standard IEC 60099-4,
energy handling capability may be affected by flashover phenomena.
Outlook
The follow-up working group of A3.17 (A3.25: Metal oxide varistors and surge arresters for emerging system
conditions) is working on:
-
Further aspects of the energy handling capability such as durability (repeated impulses) or combined
stresses
UHV arresters
Consequences of increasing the field strength of MO resistors
Long term ageing of MO resistors
Consequences of the axial temperature distribution in an MO arrester
The outcome of WG A3.25 will be given in an up-coming Technical Brochure.
Page 7
Foreword
Cigr Technical Brochure 60 (TB 60) METAL OXIDE ARRESTERS IN AC SYSTEMS written by Working Group 06
of Study Committee 33, published April 1991, describes the severity with which system parameters affect arrester
performance and how system performance is affected by the arresters. The main intention was to give detailed
information on the application of the new type of surge arrester at this time. In addition the IEC standards for testing
and application developed in parallel. Many of the results of TB 60 were incorporated at this times in the new IEC
standards for metal oxide surge arresters (MO arresters).
TB 60 addresses, besides some basics about the characteristics of the MO material, the application in high voltage
3-phase transmission systems with 50/60 Hz and MO arresters with porcelain housings only.
Since the 1990s the application of MO arresters has increased in general and, due to the relatively simple and
robust mechanical design of the MO arresters compared to the conventional gapped arresters with SiC resistors,
new applications have become possible.
Continuous basic research on the MO material as well as the introduction of polymeric materials for the housings of
MO arresters for all system voltages has brought new and deeper knowledge and new application possibilities at
the same time. Today almost 100% of the medium voltage MO arresters have a polymeric housing, porcelain types
are not produced anymore on large scale. In the high voltage field more than 50% of all designs are of the
polymeric type, with increasing share. This development has brought new possibilities and as usual new questions.
The mechanical and pollution performance is of course different for polymeric and porcelain designs.
The MO material itself has been studied continuously over the years, which has brought better understanding of
the overall characteristics and better MO resistors with respect to electrical characteristics, homogeneity, long term
stability and energy withstand capability.
The number of manufacturers of MO resistors and arresters has increased, as well as the application of MO
arresters. Nowadays MO arresters are installed in a.c. and d.c. power systems with very different voltage levels,
from 660 V d.c. in traction systems up to 800 kV d.c. in HVDC systems, up to 1100 kV a.c. in UHV systems, and
they are used in substations, in cable systems, as line arresters etc., to give only some examples. In parallel, the
application of zinc oxide based MO varistors developed into a mass market for low voltage and electronic
applications, but this development is not described here.
The continuous development and the field experience with the MO arresters made it necessary to review the actual
state of the technology as well as the validity of the existing standards for testing MO resistors and arresters. An
example is for instance the classification of MO arresters in line discharge classes. The line discharge classes for
MO arresters are based on the energy that may be stored in transmission lines of different system voltages. This
classification works well as long as only 3-phase transmission systems up to 550 kV system voltage are being
considered. Various new applications in all electrical power systems, including UHV and HVDC, traction systems,
distribution systems etc. makes it necessary to reconsider the classification according to line discharge classes. For
this reason a critical review of the existing international standards was performed with emphasis on the energy
handling capability of MO resistors. To get a clearer and deeper understanding of energy related to MO resistors
and arresters the working group initialized a research program on energy handling withstand capability of MO
resistors. For the first time several thousand MO resistors for medium and high voltage application from many
different manufacturers were tested up to the limits and relations between the type of current impulse stress and
the failure mode of the MO resistors were evaluated.
Following the title Evaluation of stresses of Surge Arresters and appropriate test procedures and the scope of
working group A3.17 of Cigr SC A3, High Voltage Equipment, the TB is structured in the following sections:
Section 1. Stresses on Surge arresters
describes in general the different types of stresses on MO arresters, which may influence the performance of the
arresters. Naturally the performance of polymer housed and metal clad arresters is different in many aspects to the
performance of the classical designs with porcelain housings.
Page 8
- Subsection 1.2 (following a general introduction in 1.1) gives an overview about the stresses in 3-phase systems
with specific attention to temporary overvoltages and switching overvoltages. This is of special interest for system
studies.
- The subsection 1.3 addresses the special case of the very different voltage wave shapes and related stresses in
HVDC systems. The performance of the MO arresters under voltage stresses different from pure a.c. or pure d.c.
needs careful consideration.
- The specific conditions of d.c. and a.c. traction systems are dealt with in subsection 1.4.
- Stresses from lightning are discussed in subsection 1.5. Lightning parameters are given and the severe and
special cases of winter lightning is addressed. Results from studies and evaluations about the occurrence of
lightning stresses in different systems are given as examples.
- Subsection 1.6 deals with various stresses from the ambient. This can be divided into static and dynamic stresses
and the severe case of seismic stresses, which is especially important for larger equipment with mechanically
sensitive internal design like SF6 gas insulated (GIS) arresters. Further on, long term stresses with pollution and
humidity, as well as very low temperatures and temperature cycles, are of importance if polymeric insulation is
concerned. Biological growth is addressed in brief.
- Finally, subsection 1.7 deals with the electrical and mechanical stress under overload conditions.
Section 2. Functional parameters and design of MO Surge Arresters
deals with material and design aspects of MO resistors and arresters, respectively.
Surge arresters constitute an indispensable means for insulation coordination in electrical power supply systems.
A general definition states that a surge protective device is a device that is intended to limit transient overvoltages
and divert currents. Two different principles exist: voltage switching devices based on a spark gap (which are the
old gapped arresters with SiC resistors), and voltage clamping devices based on varistor technology. In the high
voltage community the todays devices are of the voltage clamping type and are called MO surge arresters, or
shortly arrester. A MO arrester has, simply speaking, to protect important and expensive electrical equipment
against damages resulting from overvoltages.
- Subsection 2.1 gives details about the voltage-current-characteristics of MO surge arresters, shows the current
and voltage wave forms as specified and standardized in international standards.
- Subsection 2.2 provides an overview of the material science of the MO material, the production process, and
leads from the micrometer scale of a single grain boundary up to the complete MO resistor and arrester. Possible
failure modes of the MO resistor and the long term performance of the material are addressed.
- In subsection 2.3 the different design principles of medium and high voltage arresters are shown.
- MO surge arresters with designs adapted to specific applications are dealt with in subsections 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6.
Section 3. Energy handling capability of MO surge arresters
deals with the need of a critical review of the existing standards and gives the details of the research project.
- In subsection 3.1 (summary) and 3.2 (introduction) the motivation of the performed research project on energy
handling capability is given and the general results are summarized.
- Subsection 3.3 explains the different aspects of energy handling capability for MO resistors and complete MO
surge arresters.
- In subsection 3.4 the state of knowledge and the initiated research project on energy handling capability of MO
resistors is described in detail.
- Subsection 3.5 finally gives a critical review of the many different aspects of the energy capability of MO surge
arresters in international standards.
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Section 4. Summary
summarizes the work of WG SC A3.17 and points out the influence on the actual standardization work in IEC TC
37.
APPENDIX 1
gives an overview about Cigr Technical Brochures related to MO surge arresters and their application.
Considering the actual development and discussion in the field of MO surge arresters some subjects have been
addressed more in detail than others. For instance the electrical stresses on MO surge arresters for application in
HVDC systems are of increasing interest because of the increasing numbers of HVDC lines. Further, MO surge
arresters (and high voltage equipment in general) for application in UHV systems require special attention with
regard to pollution and seismic stresses and possible test procedures. The development and the variety of possible
arrester designs made it necessary to go into the details of the actual designs available on the market. Questions
regarding the long term stability and the energy handling capability of the MO resistors can only be dealt with when
the material properties are given in detail.
The content of this TB was discussed and agreed by all members of the working group. The sections were written
by one or more authors in charge. Each section starts with a short introduction to the specific subject and ends with
a short conclusion. Thats why each single section can be read by itself without necessarily reading the other
sections.
Page 10
1.
Stresses on Surge Arresters
1.1 Introduction
Surge arresters are widely applied in HV and MV a.c. and d.c. systems. They provide overvoltage protection from
the generator in the power plant up to the end-user, including protection of substations, overhead-lines, and cables.
They are installed in fixed installations and in traction systems. Due to the world wide applications under very
different and sometimes severe ambient conditions a variety of stresses occur.
According to the title of the working group Evaluation of stresses of Surge Arresters and appropriate test
procedures the working group collected all stresses that can occur.
The addressed stresses, like electrical stresses from the system, from lightning and from ambient are described in
the following chapters.
1.2 Stresses from three phase systems

Author in charge: Jack Sawada
1.2.1 GENERAL
CIGRE WG 06 published Technical Brochure TB60 in 1991 which describes effects on gapless metal oxide surge
arresters (SA) from various electrical stresses encountered in AC systems. Since then, continued improvements in
equipment technologies coupled with de-regulated power industrys interest in maximizing utilization of existing
infrastructure has revolutionized SA applications and expected performances in a more stressful environment.
Confidence in the reliability and capabilities of modern SAs and power electronic based equipment offer improved
management of power system disturbances. On the other hand, such power systems which allow increasing
number of distributed generations tapping into existing transmission and distribution circuits or circuits of different
voltage classes sharing common towers increase operational complexity and higher occurrences of network stress.
1.2.2 TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES

A temporary overvoltage (TOV) is an oscillatory phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase condition that is of relatively
long duration and is undamped or only weakly damped. TOV magnitudes are determinable and the stress on
surge arresters and insulation is considered in steady-state terms. The following causes of temporary overvoltages
are typically considered:
Earth fault overvoltages occur in a large part dependent on the effectiveness of system grounding. Guidance for
the determination of temporary overvoltage amplitudes is given in Annex of IEC 60099-5. The duration of the
overvoltage corresponds to the period of the fault (until fault clearing). Within earthed neutral systems it is generally
less than 1 s. For resonant earthed neutral systems, with fault clearing, it is generally less than 10 s and systems
without earth fault clearing the duration may be several hours.
Load rejection, following disconnection of a load will cause the voltage to rise at the source side of the operating
circuit breaker. The amplitude of the overvoltage depends on the disconnected load and the short-circuit strength of
the feeding substation. The temporary overvoltages have particularly high amplitudes after full load rejection at
generator transformers depending on magnetizing and over speed conditions. The amplitude of load rejection
overvoltages is usually not constant during its duration. Accurate calculations have to consider many parameters,
the following typical values of such overvoltages may be considered
In moderately extended systems, a full load rejection can give rise to phase-to-earth overvoltages with amplitude
usually below 1.2 p.u. The overvoltage duration depends on the operation of voltage-control equipment and may be
up to several minutes.
In extended systems, after a full load rejection, the phase-to-earth overvoltages may reach 1.5 p.u. or even more
when Ferranti or resonance effects occur. Their duration may be in the order of some seconds.
Page 11
For load rejection of generator transformers, the temporary overvoltages may reach amplitudes up to 1.4 p.u. for
turbo generators and up to 1.5 p.u. for hydro generators. The duration is approximately 3 s.
TOVs from following causes may also require consideration depending on the nature of the network:
- Voltage rise along long unloaded lines (Ferranti effect).
- Harmonic overvoltages, e.g. DC converters or saturated transformers.
- Back feed through interconnected transformer windings, e.g. dual transformer station with common secondary
bus during fault clearing or single-phase switched three-phase transformer with an unbalanced secondary load.
Resonance: Linear resonance can be either series or parallel which could involve both large currents and/or
voltages. Ferro-resonance modes may be sub-harmonic or harmonic with the latter producing higher temporary
overvoltages. Temporary overvoltages from resonance should not form the basis for the surge arrester selection.
The use of a surge arrester to damp out resonance is not effective and unproven.
Combination of TOVs: Combinations of TOVs such as earth faults and load rejection may result in higher
temporary overvoltage values than those from a single event. When combinations are considered sufficiently
probable, overvoltages from each cause have to be compounded taking into account actual system configuration.
Severe TOV Cases: Occurrences of severe or repetitive TOVs are possible when different voltage circuits share
common towers and flashovers occur between high and low voltage conductors and possibly with multiple re-close
operations. While it is practical to provide limited SA protection for moderate TOVs of short duration, more severe
and/or sustained cases could cause multiple equipment and SA failures. To safeguard against such events it might
be worthwhile to install some designated SAs with lower protective level to relieve stress on parallel SAs and
equipment.
1.2.3 SLOW FRONT/SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES

Slow front overvoltages generated by switching have traditionally been associated with lines, load or fault clearing.
With the emergence of flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices such as static var compensators(SVC),
static compensators (STATCOM), and thyristor controlled series capacitors(TCSC) which require power-electronic
types of switching and SA protection for both the electronic and power components.
1.2.3.1 Line Reclosing

Random high-speed reclosing on transmission lines with trapped charges generates travelling waves on the phase
conductors which may cause insulator flashover(s) to the tower(s) along the line if not controlled. Especially critical
is the case at remote end without terminal equipment such as shunt reactors, transformers or SAs which may
cause a doubling of the incident surge.
There are various methods of controlling line switching overvoltages, like traditional closing resistors, line switching
surge arresters and more recently, circuit breaker (CB) controllers. With advancements in SA technology, low
protective level line arresters with high energy capacity have been introduced which when combined with CB
staggered-pole closing is considered adequate for limiting switching overvoltages on short to medium line lengths.
Alternatively, modern CBs have fewer interrupters and more consistent point-on-wave (POW) switching capabilities
so that controlled switching is now a practical and economical option.
Unlike lightning related applications where arresters may be installed at consecutive structures, arresters to control
switching surges are only needed at both ends of the line and possibly one or two other locations along the line
depending on the SIWL of the line insulation, arrester protective level and the length of the line. For one or two
point installations, arresters are applied near the midpoint or approximately one third and two thirds of the line
length, respectively.
In theory, with recent developments of intelligent multi-purpose POW CB controllers [refs: ABB CATCO, AREVA
RPH3, SIEMENS PSD3] and emergence of modern CBs with precision and consistent closing capabilities,
switching overvoltages seem to be virtually eliminated, regardless of length. In practice, however, line SAs are still
Page 12
considered necessary to ensure line switching performance and reliability when controllers are out-of-service or
CBs misoperate.
1.2.3.2 Capacitive Loads

Capacitor bank energization can generate both voltage and current transients. Also, switches used for capacitive
switching have been improved to reduce restrikes but not eliminated. Therefore, some methods of reducing the
severity of transients are often incorporated such as current-limiting resistors or reactors, controlled switching and
SAs to minimize restrike possibilities and also provide overvoltage protection.
Controlled switching is typically reserved for large capacitor banks and/or networks with weak source strengths or
sensitive loads. Since controller and/or CB misoperations and local faults are possible, both current limiting
reactors and SAs may be applied to reduce the severity of inrush and outrush transients.
SAs may be applied in parallel with capacitors and sometimes with current-limiting reactors or more often phase-toground for overvoltage protection. During re-strikes, unprotected capacitor overvoltages can exceed 3 p.u. while
SAs can reduce them well below 3 p.u. SAs applied with low voltage current-limiting reactors can be subjected to
both fast and slow front transient stresses during lightning and normal switching operations but severest stress is
still encountered during restrike conditions.
1.2.3.3 Inductive loads

Switching small inductive load currents is considered a challenge for CBs designed for interrupting large fault
currents. Very fast reignition and/or restrike transients can also damage wound equipment like shunt reactors and
transformers due to uneven winding voltage distribution.
Simple control methods can be applied with CBs on large reactors for de-energization which minimizes reignition
possibilities by advancing the contact opening or equivalently increasing the switchs dielectric strength before
interruption takes place naturally near current zero. Special controllers for transformer energization are now
available which monitors remanent flux left on transformers and closes optimally with flux conditions to minimize
energization disturbances. SAs are also applied with reactive equipment to reduce switch restrike possibilities and
also provide basic overvoltage protection.
Large switching transients can appear across phase-phase insulation of terminal equipment connected to
simultaneously switched lines or shunt capacitor banks. When special phase-phase switching transient
requirements have not been specified for such equipment, it might be necessary to apply switching controls and/or
additional SAs directly in parallel across those insulation to attain acceptable protective margins.
1.2.3.4 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) Devices

Power electronics offer fast switching capabilities and unlike mechanical switches can be turned off before natural
current zeros. Therefore with proper design, it is possible for these devices to initiate system control within cycle
of overvoltage or overload detection.
Some SAs are usually applied to protect major components from normal external stresses. FACTS devices are
frequently or continuously switched when in service and for security measures, SA protection is applied internally
as countermeasures against abnormal control and/or equipment misoperations. Besides evaluating arrester
protective and thermal energy requirements, transient interaction possibilities between SAs and power electronic
devices must be carefully examined.
1.2.4 CB AND DS TRVS

Interrupting fault and even load currents can generate severe transient recovery voltages (TRV) across the switch.
If the TRVs are too fast or too large relative to the switch thermal or dielectric recovery rate, switches can re-ignite
or restrike, resulting in switch failure and/or damages to unprotected equipment caused by single or multiple
restrike transients.
Both switch TRV performance and equipment protection can be improved by appropriate SA application but
arrester failure from excessive energy absorption during multiple restrikes might be expected. Normally, SAs are
applied phase-to-ground on one or both terminals of the switch to limit respective overvoltages. In some special
Page 13
cases, SAs may be applied directly in parallel with the switch to provide more effective TRV control but continuous
or temporary overvoltages expected during open switch conditions must be carefully examined.
Page 14
1.3 Stresses from HVDC networks

Authors in charge: Bengt Johnnerfelt and Reinhard Ghler
1.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The most significant differences for arrester applied in HVDC systems compared to normal AC-applications are the
wave shapes of the actual COV and TOV, and that the verification of the energy stresses becomes more complex.
For some applications the most severe energy stresses are sometimes not even followed by any significant service
voltage so that thermal instability cannot occur.
For the arresters indoors, for example in the valve hall, insulation withstand tests are not relevant and should be
skipped.
Continuous operating voltages
As the HVDC arresters can be applied at a variety of different positions, with many different wave shapes of the
service voltage, it is unpractical to give the voltage values in r.m.s. values. Therefore the continuous operating
voltage always has to be given in crest values together with the wave shape. Hence additional definitions for the
operating voltages are needed.
-
CCOV, which is the highest crest value of the continuous operating voltage excluding possible
commutation overshoots.
Non-significant CCOV, which is a continuous operating voltage of such low amplitude that the power losses
generated can never initiate a thermal run-away after energy injections. Each manufacturer will have to
give its limit for significant power losses of their designs.
PCOV, which is the highest crest value of the continuous operating voltage including possible commutation
overshoots.
ECOV, which is the equivalent ac- or dc-voltage, used in operating duty tests, having at least the same
power losses as the actual CCOV at the actual temperature after energy injections.
At the AC-yard there are applications apart from the normal AC-bus, e. g. in the filters. These HVDC-arresters may
rd
th
th
th
be stressed with sinusoidal voltages but with higher frequencies, like for example 3 , 5 , 11 , 13 harmonics of the
nominal power frequency.
In the converter station there are more complex wave shapes. Typically there are also commutation overshoots.
The wave shapes for valve arresters have a dc-component and a very short voltage peak of the opposite direction.
In the valve hall there may also be so called bridge arresters across 6- or 12-pulse groups. Their operating voltage
has commutation overshoots together with a high dc-component but with no voltage peak of opposite polarity. It is
important to notice that the commutation overshoots are more or less influenced by the arresters themselves
depending on the valve set up, so studies should be performed also with the arresters present to see the true
commutation overshoots, as the arresters may damp them significantly.
In the DC-yard there may also be filter arresters at different frequencies apart from the DC-bus arresters which see
a pure dc-voltage. Other applications may be across the smoothing reactor, which see a non-significant CCOV.
There may also be neutral bus arresters in the valve hall or in the DC-yard. They also have non-significant CCOV.
Accelerated ageing tests should be performed with wave shapes similar or obviously worse than the actual ones.
Also for determination of power losses at the actual wave shapes it is necessary to generate a variety of different
wave shapes in order to get the proper ECOV to use in operating duty tests. One way to solve this is to generate
similar wave shapes on the low voltage side and then amplify this voltage with an amplifier up to appropriate levels
for testing on individual ZnO-discs. For the filter applications a frequency generator can be used.
Worth noticing is also that some HVDC system may reverse the dc-polarity even after a long time with one polarity.
This means that there has to be shown in accelerated ageing tests, after 1000h testing, that the ZnO-discs, which
are exposed to CCOV with a high dc-component, can cope with this without causing excessive power losses or
other ageing effects.
Page 15
Energy stresses
The aim of the type testing for HVDC arresters is to verify both energy capability of the ZnO-discs themselves as
well as to verify their thermal stability after maximum energy stresses followed by CCOV. The operating duty tests
should in principal follow the IEC procedures, but standard test parameters for line discharge classes acc. to IEC
are typically not usable.
System studies are nearly always performed, resulting in energy stresses and typical transient wave shapes. For
HVDC applications it is proposed that the long-duration current impulse withstand test is substituted by a high
energy impulse withstand test with 6 impulses of the maximum energy requirement from the system studies,
separated by one minute apart. Then it has to be decided which test wave shape that best cover the actual energy
stresses; sinusoidal, half sine wave shapes or rectangular, which can typically be generated in arrester test labs
for operating duty tests. Guidance which wave shape to use can be found in Chapter 3, Energy Handling Issues.
The operating duty tests should be performed similar to the switching surge operating duty tests for line discharge
classes 4 and 5 in IEC 60099-4, with test samples preheated to 60C, but with the two long-duration current
impulses substituted with one energy impulse having at least the same energy as calculated in the system studies.
In some cases the maximum energy stress may also come from two consecutive impulses and then two energy
impulses one minute apart are used in the testing. After the energy injection, the test samples shall be exposed to
an a.c.- or d.c.-voltage voltage that generates the same or higher power losses as the actual wave shape. If there
are TOV stresses, the calculated energy from these stresses should be generated either by adding it to the energy
impulse or test the test samples with an equivalent ac- or dc-voltage generating the same or higher energy. TOV
stresses of the a.c.- or d.c.-bus arresters can of course be tested with the actual voltage and duration. It is also
recommended to use the same three test samples in both the long-duration current impulse withstand test and the
switching surge operating duty test.
It is not unusual that for the most severe fault scenario the converter station is closed down afterwards. In these
cases there is no need to verify thermal stability after this energy injection. But if there are other fault scenarios
followed by CCOV also this has to be verified. So for some arresters there may be one high energy value verified in
the high energy impulse withstand test and a lower energy verified in the operating duty tests.
In some cases like the neutral bus arrester application there is never any significant CCOV, so all the disc-tests can
be performed on open ZnO-disc sections. For this application, which often consists of several parallel columns,
there may also exists very rare fault scenarios with so extremely high energy requirements that it is more
economical to use the arrester as a sacrificial device with a failure of one or two columns. In this case special
consideration to the short-circuit tests may be necessary, in order to easily facilitate a restart of the converter
station.
Since the late 1970s, overvoltage protection of HVDC converter stations has been based exclusively on metaloxide surge arresters. This is due to their superior protection characteristics and their reliable performance when
connected in series or parallel with other arresters.
The basic principles when selecting the arrester arrangement are that:
-
Overvoltages generated on the a.c. side should be limited by arresters on the a.c. side
Overvoltages generated on the d.c. or earth electrode line should be limited by d.c. line arresters and
neutral bus arresters
For overvoltages within the HVDC converter station, critical components should be directly protected by
arresters connected close to the components, such as valve arresters
Information about selection, application and testing of HVDC surge arresters is given in the Application guide for
metal oxide surge arresters without gaps for HVDC converter stations prepared by CIGRE working group 33/14-05
and published in 1986. Further information is given in IEC 60071-5 Insulation Coordination Part 5: Procedures
for high voltage direct current (HVDC) converter stations. Parts of the CIGRE guideline are already included in IEC
60071-5
Page 16
The CIGRE guideline is divided into 7 chapters:

-
Chapter 1: Scope
Chapter 2: Metal oxide arresters characteristics
Chapter 3: Arrester schemes and stresses on HVDC converter station arresters
Chapter 4: Studies for determination of arrester stresses
Chapter 5: ZnO arrester to limit temporary overvoltages
Chapter 6: Rules for determination of arrester capabilities and arrester test requirements
Chapter 7: Arrester testing
1.3.2 STRESSES ON SURGE ARRESTERS
1.3.2.1Continuous operating voltages

The continuous operating voltage for HVDC arresters differs from that for normal a.c. arresters in that it consists of
not simply the fundamental frequency voltage but rather of components of direct voltage, fundamental frequency
voltage and harmonic voltages, and high frequency transients (see Figure 1.1).
Special attention must be paid to the commutation overshoots caused by switching action of the valves with
respect to energy absorption in the valve arresters and other arresters on the d.c. side.
The continuous operating voltage waveform for the valve arrester is shown in Figure 1.2. The CCOV is proportional
to the Udim, and is given by:
CCOV
U dim
(equation 1.1)
2 U v0
Udio
ideal no-load direct voltage (IEC 60633)
Udim
maximum value of Udio
U v0
no-load phase-to-phase voltage on the valve side of converter transformer, r.m.s. value
Operation with large delay angles increases the commutation overshoots.
Page 17
Figure 1.1: Typical waveforms of continuous operating voltages at various locations in the converter
station. All individual figures show the voltage over time.
1.3.2.2 Sources and types of overvoltages
Overvoltages on the a.c. side may originate from switching, faults, load rejection or lightning. Overvoltages on the
d.c. side may originate from either the a.c. system or the d.c. line or from in-station flashovers or other fault events.
1.3.2.2.1 Slow-front and temporary overvoltages

Slow-front and temporary overvoltages occurring on the a.c. side are important to the study of arrester applications.
Together with the highest a.c. operating voltages they determine the overvoltage protection levels. Slow-front
overvoltages can be caused by switching of transformers, reactors, static vac compensators, a.c. filters and
capacitor banks and by fault initiation and fault clearing as well as by closing and reclosing of lines. Slow-front
overvoltages caused by events occurring close to the converter a.c. bus are relatively high in comparison to those
which originate at locations in the a.c. network remote from the HVDC converter station.
The d.c. side insulation co-ordination for slow-front overvoltages and temporary overvoltages is mainly determined
by fault on the d.c. side. Events to be considered include d.c. line-to-earth faults, d.c. side switching operations,
events resulting in an open earth electrode line, generation of superimposed a.c. voltages due to faults in the
converter control (e.g. complete loss of control pulses) misfiring, commutation failures, earth faults and shortcircuits within the converter unit.
Page 18
1.3.2.2.2 Fast-front, very fast-front and steep-front overvoltages

Travelling waves such as those caused by lightning strokes on the a.c. side or on the d.c. line are attenuated due
to the presence of a.c. filters, d.c. filters, large shunt capacitor banks, series reactance and shunt capacitance to
earth. Steep-front overvoltages caused by earth faults in the HVDC converter station, including locations inside the
valve hall, are important for insulation co-ordination. These overvoltages typically have a front time of the order
0,5 s to 1,0 s and durations up to 10 s. In the a.c. switchyard section, very fast-front overvoltages with front
times of 5 ns to 150 ns may also be initiated by operation of disconnectors or circuit breakers in gas-insulated
switchgear (GIS).
1.3.3 CREEPAGE DISTANCE AND CLEARANCE IN AIR

The creepage distance on the insulators is one of the factors that dictate the performance of external insulations at
continuous operating voltages (a.c. or d.c.). Contamination on the insulators reduces their ability to support the
operating voltages, particularly during wet conditions. When wet weather conditions concentrate the pollution on
some parts of the surface of the insulators, the non-uniform distribution of pollution and increase in leakage current
creates dry zones resulting in uneven voltage stresses and this can initiate the process of flashover. Rain, snow,
dew or fog are some of the weather conditions that can initiate this process. The withstand capability of
contaminated insulators is also affected by other factors such as the shed profile, the orientation angle and the
diameter of the insulators.
The base voltage used together with the specific creepage distance is as follows:
-
for the insulation on the a.c. side of the converter (a.c. equipment): the highest value of operating voltage
expressed as the r.m.s. voltage phase-to-phase (IEC 60815);the minimum recommended creepage
distances are defined in terms of mm per kV (phase-phase). Typically the range is between 16 mm to 31
mm/kV.
for the insulation on the d.c. side of the converter (d.c. equipment): the d.c. system voltage for the
insulation to earth, or a corresponding average value of the voltage across the insulation for insulations
between two energized parts.
The trend in the industry for several years has been to use larger specific creepage distances in HVDC
applications. For example, creepage distances as high as 60 mm/kV have been used in HVDC systems. However,
such an increase in the specific creepage distance did not eliminate the external flashovers.
The specific creepage distance of 60 mm/kV in a d.c. system corresponds to about 35 mm/kV in an a.c. system.
The use of composite housings for surge arresters has been successful also with smaller specific creepage
distances.
For an indoor clean environment, a minimum specific creepage distance of about 14 mm/kV has been widely used
and has not experienced any flashover.
For both d.c. and impulse voltages the positive polarity has lower withstand voltage than the negative polarity.
1.3.4 OVERVOLTAGE LIMITING CHARACTERISTICS OF ARRESTERS

Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps are used for the protection of equipment in HVDC converter stations.
These arresters provide superior overvoltage protection for equipment due to their low dynamic impedance and
high energy absorption capability. The ability of the metal-oxide arrester blocks to share arrester discharge energy
when connected in parallel if they are selected to have closely matched characteristics allows any desired
discharge energy capability to be realized. Metal-oxide blocks may be connected in several parallel paths within
one arrester unit and several arrester units may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired energy capability.
Also, parallel connection of metal-oxide blocks may be used to reduce the residual voltage of the arrester, if
required.
The protective characteristics of an arrester are defined by the residual arrester voltages for maximum steep-front,
lightning and switching current impulses that can occur in service.
Page 19
The amplitude of the current for which the protective level is specified, which is referred to as the co-ordination
current, is usually selected differently for different types of current wave shapes and locations of the arresters.
These co-ordination currents are determined from detailed studies carried out during the final stages of the design.
The arresters used on the a.c. side are usually specified as for arresters in a normal a.c. system by their rated
voltage and maximum continuous operating voltage.
For the arresters on the d.c. side of a HVDC converter station, the rated voltage is not defined and continuous
operating voltage is defined differently because the voltage wave shape which continuously appears across the
arresters consists, in many cases, of superimposed direct, fundamental and harmonic components and, in some
cases, also commutation overshoots. The arresters are specified in terms of:
-
PCOV peak continuous operating voltage

CCOV crest value of continuous operating voltage
ECOV equivalent continuous operating voltage
This means that the tests specified for these arresters shall be adjusted for the particular applications, different
from standard tests usually applicable for a.c. arresters.
The required energy capability of the arresters shall consider the applicable wave shapes as well as the
amplitudes, duration and the number of respective discharges.
Figure 1.2: Operating voltage of a valve arrester, rectifier operation
Page 20
1.3.5 SURGE ARRESTERS IN A CONVERTER STATION

An HVDC converter station includes a number of different surge arresters for protection of the different pieces of
equipment. There are basically six types of surge arresters, which are commonly denominated by the letters A
through F.
Figure 1.3: Different types of surge arresters in a HVDC converter station
Event
Arresters
A
Earth fault d.c. pole
Lightning from d.c. line
Slow-front overvoltage from d.c. line
Lightning from earthed electrode line
Earth fault a.c. phase on valve side
Current extinction
Loss of return path, monopolar operation or commutation failure
Earth faults and switching operation, a.c. side
Lightning from a.c. system
Station shielding failure (if applicable)
X
X
Table 1.1: Events stressing the different arresters
Page 21
1.3.5.1 AC BUS ARRESTER (TYPE A)

The a.c. side of an HVDC converter station is protected by arresters at the converter transformers and at other
locations. These arresters are designed according to the criteria for a.c. applications.
1.3.5.2 VALVE ARRESTER (TYPE B)

The dimensioning of the B- and C-arresters for protection of the semiconductors of the valve tower is particularly
critical. On the one hand, the protection level must be maintained as low as possible in order to protect the very
sensitive semiconductors and to minimize the number of these very costly components. On the other hand, the
voltage and current wave shape across the arresters is extremely non sinusoidal and dependent on the load
conditions and power flow of the HVDC converter station. As a consequence, the power dissipation of the arrester
is variable with the load conditions and it is difficult to find the right compromise between protection of the valve
tower and safe operation of the arrester. Simulation of the HVDC station including the various possible faults is an
important tool for determination of the arrester voltage and current stress.
The valve arrester continuous operating voltage consists of sine wave sections with commutation overshoots (see
Figure 1.1). The peak continuous operating voltage (PCOV), which includes the commutation overshoot, shall be
considered when the reference voltage of the arrester is determined. The commutation overshoot is dependent on
the firing angle.
The maximum temporary overvoltages are transferred from the a.c. side during fault clearances combined with load
rejections close to the HVDC converter station.
The events producing significant valve arrester currents of switching character are as follows:
-
earth fault between the converter transformer and the valve in the commutating group at highest potential;
clearing of an a.c. fault close to the HVDC converter station;
current extinction in only one commutating group (if applicable).
Depending on current rating, control system dynamics, inductance of the d.c. reactor, and the protection scheme,
the phase to earth fault will be dimensioning for the energy and current rating of the arresters.
The valve arresters can in general only be subject to fast-front and steep-fronted overvoltages at back-flashovers
and earth faults within the converter area. The most critical case for steep-front overvoltages is normally an earth
fault on the valve side of the converter transformer of the bridge with the highest d.c. potential.
1.3.5.3 Converter unit arrester (Type C)

A converter unit arrester may be connected between the d.c. terminals of a 12-pulse bridge. The maximum
operating voltage is composed of the maximum direct voltage from one converter unit plus the 12-pulse ripple.
The converter unit arresters are normally not exposed to high discharge currents of switching character. The
arrester may limit overvoltages due to lightning stresses propagating into the valve area, although these stresses
are not decisive for the arrester.
1.3.5.4 DC bus and DC line/cable arrester (Type D; DB and DL)

The maximum operating voltage is almost a pure d.c. voltage. These arresters are mainly subjected to lightning
stresses. Critical slow-front overvoltages can often be avoided by suitable selection of the parameters in the main
circuit, thus avoiding critical resonances.
When the HVDC line comprises overhead line sections as well as cable sections, consideration should be given to
the application of surge arresters at the cable-overhead line junction to prevent excessive overvoltages on the
cable due to reflection of travelling waves. At HVDC links with very long cables, the energy rating of the cable
arresters is decided by the discharge of the cable from the highest voltage.
Page 22
1.3.5.5 Neutral bus arrester (Type E)

The operating voltage of the neutral bus arrester is normally low. These arresters are provided to protect
equipment from fast-front overvoltages entering the neutral bus and to discharge large energies during the
following contingencies:
- earth fault on the d.c. bus;
- earth fault between the valves and the converter transformer;
- loss of return path during monopolar operation.
An earth fault on the d.c. bus will cause the d.c. filter to discharge through the neutral bus arrester, giving a very
high but short current peak.
1.3.5.6 AC and DC filter arrester (Type F; FA/FD)

The ratings of a.c. arresters are normally determined by the transient events. The events to be considered with
respect to filter arrester duties are slow-front plus temporary overvoltages on the a.c. bus and discharge of the filter
capacitors during earth faults on the filter bus.
The normal operating voltage of the d.c. filter reactor arrester is low. Arrester duties are mainly determined by filter
capacitor discharge transients resulting from earth faults on the d.c. pole.
Page 23
1.4 Stresses in traction systems

Author in charge: Bernhard Richter
1.4.1 GENERAL
The overvoltage protection of the electrical traction systems has an increasing importance nowadays. This is not
only by the railways which are supplied with a.c. voltage but also increasingly by the d.c. railways.
The long-distance railway system is electrified with 3 kV d.c. voltage on over 70 000 km rails (in year 2000, that
means about 38% of the total length of the rails of the electrical railways) and with 1,5 kV d.c. voltage on more than
20 000 km (about 11%). That means that about half of the world-wide railway length of the long-distance traffic is
operated with direct-current. The length of the electrified rails by the outer suburban service, including local trains,
which operate with a d.c. voltage under 1000 V, is about 25 000 km. These figures show the extent of the d.c.
voltage systems by railways and also the importance of an optimal overvoltage protection which is adjusted to the
specific demands of the d.c. voltage railways.
Increasing use of electronic equipment in and close to the rails and overhead lines (safety and signaling
equipment) need protection against overvoltages. Further on each breakdown of the power supply leads to an
interruption of the train service.
Lightning strokes are the most dangerous threats for railway networks. Overhead lines and trains can be hit by
direct or nearby lightning. For this reason very high charges can be transferred into the overhead lines and the
installed surge protective devices have to withstand high energy stresses. On the other hand the continuous
voltage in d.c. traction systems is naturally a d.c. voltage, which means that all surge protective devices have to be
designed for d.c. application. For this reason MO surge arresters without gaps are used in the d.c. power supply of
the traction systems. It stands for itself that the used MO surge arresters have to be long term stable under d.c.
voltage stress.
The application and dimensioning of metal oxide surge arresters (MO surge arresters) without spark-gaps in
alternating current networks with 50/60 Hz and 16,7 Hz of the railway supply is not very different from the one of
the general energy supply. Requirements and tests for MO surge arresters for application in a.c. traction systems
are similar to the ones for MO surge arresters without gaps for three phase power systems and [IEC 2009] applies.
A separate international standard is not available.
As can be seen in Table 1.2 the voltages in traction systems have a strong fluctuation depending on the load in the
system, which is given by the number of accelerating and breaking trains in a power supply section. Due to this fact
the voltage Umax2 should be considered the relevant precondition when choosing the continuous voltage Uc. This
applies for the a.c. as well as for the d.c. system.
In general the electrical and mechanical requirements for MO surge arresters for application in traction systems are
very high. Arresters installed on traction vehicles have to withstand high mechanical stresses, especially vibrations,
mechanical shocks and high wind loads in case of high speed trains have to be considered.
Because rails, trains and train stations are public places the safety of the surge arresters is an important point. The
arresters should have fail-safe performance in case of an overload.
The electrical requirements and tests for MO surge arresters for application in d.c. traction systems are given in the
new European Standard EN 50526-1 [EN 2012].
Page 24
1.4.2 VOLTAGES IN TRACTION SYSTEMS

The values for the operating voltages of the railway facilities with the admissible deviations are defined in the
European Standard EN 50163. The most important values and definitions are given in the following Table 1.2 and
Figure 1.4.
Nominal voltage
Un
V
Highest permanent
voltage
Highest non-permanent
voltage
Umax1
Umax2
Umax3
V
DC systems (mean values)

600
720
770
1015
750
900
950
1269
1500
1800
1950
2538
3000
3600
3900
5075
AC systems (r.m.s. values)

15 000 (16,7 Hz)
17 250
18 000
24 311
25 000 (50 Hz)
27 500
29 000
38 746
Note 1: Umax3 is a calculated value for an overvoltage at t = 20 ms.

Note 2: The voltage values for Umax2 can become 800 V in the 600 volt net and 1 000 V in the 750 V net, in case of
regenerative breaking.
Table 1.2: Voltages in traction systems
Figure 1.4: Highest values of voltage occurring in the system depending on time duration
Page 25
The definitions of the voltages are as follows:

-
Un :
designated voltage for a system.
Umax1: maximum value of the voltage likely to be present indefinitely.
Umax2: maximum value of the voltage likely to be present for maximum 5 min.
Figure 1.5 shows as an example the possible voltage fluctuations on the current collector of a metropolitan d.c.
traction system. For the purpose of overvoltage protection only the maximum values are of importance, because
they designate the values for the design of the MO surge arresters used for the protection in traction systems.
Figure 1.5: Voltage at the current collector of a d.c. traction vehicle for a period of 15 min, urban
transportation system
1.4.3 MO SURGE ARRESTERS FOR D.C. TRACTION SYSTEMS
The surge arresters are classified by their charge transfer capability Qt and their nominal discharge current In.
The classes DC-A, DC-B and DC-C correspond to increasing discharge requirements. The selection of the
appropriate class shall be based on system requirements.
Class DC-A has a nominal current of In = 10 kA and a charge transfer capability of Qt = 1.0 As
Class DC-B has a nominal current of In = 10 kA and a charge transfer capability of Qt = 2.5 As
Class DC-C has a nominal current of In = 20 kA and a charge transfer capability of Qt = 7.5 As
An optional test is intended to prove the ability of the arrester to withstand direct lightning currents. The
requirements for the direct lightning current Iimp are 2 kA peak value for class DC-A, 5 kA peak value for class DC-B
and 15 kA peak value for the class DC-C.
1.4.4 MO SURGE ARRESTERS FOR A.C. TRACTION SYSTEMS

AC surge arresters for traction systems are classified in the same way as MO surge arresters for three phase
power systems according [IEC 2009] and [IEC 2000].
Page 26
1.5 Stresses from Lightning

Authors in charge: Trond Ohnstad and Yoshihiro Ishizaki
1.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Lightning and thunderstorms occur all over the world, from far north in Norway to far south in South-Africa. The
heaviest thunderstorms with the most intense lightning will normally be experienced in an area of about 2000 km
along the equator.
Lightning has always been a problem to telecommunication and electricity systems and surge arresters have
become an important asset to protect people and equipment against dangerous over-voltages caused by lightning.
As a general rule surge arresters are installed close to the equipment it shall protect.
1.5.2 LIGHTNING SURGES.

Surge arresters in electrical systems are due to stress caused by lightning surges in case of:
-
Lightning stroke to an incoming power line.

Direct stroke to the substation.
Induced voltage from a nearby lightning stroke.
During a thunder storm a power line could probably be hit by several lightning strokes, either directly to the phase
conductors or most likely to the shielding wires, if any present.
The strokes will cause an earth fault on the line, and initiate a switching sequence of the circuit breakers in the
substations at both line ends.
The following lightning surges and switching surges will eventually stress the surge arresters at the line ends or
elsewhere in the substations.
The degree of stress to the arrester depends on several factors like: distance to the place of lightning stroke,
striking point on the voltage curve, lightning current amplitude, earth resistance, the total flash charge, tower
earthing impedance and if the power line has shielding wires or not.
Different electricity systems with different voltage levels will see different levels of lightning surges and cause
different level of stress to the arresters.
1.5.2.1 LV- (U s up to 1 kV) and MV- systems (1 kV < U s
52kV)
Power distribution lines are generally of lower height and less exposed to direct flashes than transmission lines with
higher voltage. The substations are often in-house and well protected against direct strokes to the bus bars. The
number of overvoltages exceeding the basic insulation level in these systems is dominated by induced
overvoltages caused by lightning strokes to or in the surroundings. Due to a large number of surge arresters used
in these systems the energy is split on several units and failures due to stress caused by lightning are rare. Surge
arresters for these systems are rather small and cheap and are easy to keep as spares and to replace when
necessary.
1.5.2.2 HV-systems (52kV < U s
245kV)
Systems within these voltage levels consists of both distribution and transmission lines but often still in a rural area
where the lines and substations to a certain degree are protected against lightning by surrounded houses, towers
and trees. Combinations of surge arrester stress due to direct strokes, back-flashovers and induced voltages will
statistically result in a higher failure rate caused by lightning than in any other systems.
1.5.2.3 EHV-systems (245kV < Us
800kV) and UHV-systems above 800kV
Transmission lines with steel towers and shield wires are in spite of the height above ground well protected against
direct lightning strokes to the phase lines. Most of the lightning will hit the towers or the shield wires, and only a
back-flashover will cause a critical surge in the phase-line.
Page 27
Operation experience from different utilities in different places on earth implies surge arrester failure due to
lightning only in cases with very close and nearby strokes to the substation or in an incoming transmission line
without shielding wires. The surge arrester energy capacity is dimensioned according to the much higher energy in
switching surges and normally the much lower stress from lightning is not a problem.
System voltage Us
kV
0.23 - 52
52 - 245
245 - 800 and above
Insulation characteristic
BIL < induced lightning
surges.
Determined by lightning
overvoltages
BIL determined by
lightning overvoltages.
BIL > induced lightning

surges.
BIL > surges caused by
direct stroke to the phase.
BIL determined by
switching surges.
Lightning overvoltage
Induced surges can cause
flashover.
Direct stroke to a line or
substation is very rare.
Induced surges can cause
flashover.
Direct stroke to shield
wires with back flashover,
and direct stroke to phase
conductors.
Direct stroke to the power
line, to a phase conductor
or shield wire.
Surge arrester stress

No critical stress due to
lightning.
Critical stress from

lightning can occur.
High energy ratings
needed.
Critical stress only due to

no shielding or shielding
failure or high earth
resistance combined with
a nearby stroke.
Table 1.3: Lightning stresses in different system voltages

1.5.3 EXAMPLES FROM TRANSIENT ANALYSIS.
1.5.3.1 Norwegian 145kV and 420kV system.

A study of energy stress on surge arresters due to lightning in a 145kV and a 420kV substation [Tra 1994],
concludes the following about the average accumulated stress during a thunder storm:
-
145 kV without shielding wires

145 kV with shielding wires
420 kV with shielding wires
2,20 kJ / kV
0,02 kJ / kV
0,03 kJ / kV
According to [Fuk 1997] only lightning strokes hitting the line without shielding wires within 2 km to the substation
will cause critical level of stress to the arresters, about 60 kJ/kV.
In power systems with voltage > 100kV the modern metal oxide surge arrester will be able to withstand the stress
caused by lightning as long as it is not a lightning stroke directly or close to the arrester in a power line without
shielding wires.
1.5.3.2 Norwegian line arresters 300kV

A study of energy stress due to lightning on transmission line surge arresters in a 300kV line in the south part of
Norway gave the following energy levels :
-
Direct stroke to the phase wire (10kA)

Stroke to the shielding wire (100kA)
Stroke to a tower without shielding wires
0.88kJ/kV
0.04kJ/kV
15.8kJ/kV
1.5.3.3 115kV Transmission Line surge Arresters

An EPRI study [Bir 1997] of lightning on an 115kV transmission line with surge arresters calculated the energy
dissipated in the surge arresters with stroke to the shielding wire and direct stroke to a phase wire:
-
Direct stroke to a phase wire (50kA)
2.95 kJ/kV
Page 28
Stroke to a shield wire (50kA)
0.10 kJ/kV
1.5.4 LIGHTNING STATISTICS

Since 10-20 years several countries throughout the world have established a lightning location and registration
system which include information about lightning current amplitude, polarity and striking site and time.
Information from these systems are very important establishing databases and to get good lightning statistics.
Flash density per square km and year is an important input in all analysis concerning probability of failures due to
lightning.
Area/Country
Maximum flash
density
50% value
positive
50% value
negative
50% value
total
23
17
18
0.6
37
22
24
24
(51kA 16% value)
0.1 - 200
35
Norway
Norway
west coast
Japan (winter)
Cigr (all world)
Table 1.4: Lightning parameters in different parts of the world

1.5.5 WINTER LIGHTNING.
1.5.5.1 General
Norway as well as Japan experience rather often thunder storms during winter.
In Norway the winter lightning occurs most frequent along the west coast and not very far inland from the sea.
Typical weather conditions to create the thunder storms are strong winds from the west which bring rather warm air
from the ocean in to the Norwegian mainland. The warm air is pressed upwards and collides with the much colder
air coming from the mountains and the Norwegian inland. Normally heavy clouds are building up and eventually
initiate thunderstorms. Observations from the Norwegian lightning location and registration system shows a
proportional higher number of positive lightning strokes during the winter storms than during the summer storms.
The positive strokes have in general higher energy and higher lightning current than the negative strokes.
Along the northern part of the west coast the winter lightning occurs more frequent than summer lightning, but in
the southern part the summer lightning is much more common and more frequent. In Norway there are no
indications of more failures in the electricity systems caused by lightning in the winter than in the summer.
Winter lightning studies from the engineering side started in 1978 in Japan, because the winter lightning occurred
primarily along the coast of the Sea of Japan which brought about peculiar lightning faults on EHV transmission
lines. The characteristics of winter lightning are described below, based on measurement results so far and are
compared with summer lightning.
Page 29
1.5.5.2 Characteristics of Winter Thunderstorm

[Mic 2007]
Figure 1.6 shows the schematic evolution of winter thunderclouds. The winter thunderclouds are smaller compared
with the summer thunderclouds.
The characteristic features of the electrical activity of winter thunderclouds have been extensively investigated.
The representative main results are as follows:
-
The duration of the lightning activity of an individual storm is short (usually less than 30 min) and the
frequency of lightning discharge is very low.
About 30 40% of all ground flashes lower from cloud positive charge. This percentage is remarkably high
compared with that of a few percent for summer thunderclouds.
Ground flashes of more than 300 C are occasionally observed [Hac 2008].
Winter thunderclouds in this area are formed by the advection of Siberian air masses, which are dry polar air
masses, over the relatively warm Sea of Japan.
Figure 1.6: Schematic chart illustrating radar echoes associated with the cycle of a thundercloud
(Chisholm and Renick, 1972); in the lower part of this figure the temporal variation of each radar echo
reflectivity in a convective cloud is illustrated in correspondence with the echo life stages.
1.5.5.3 Lightning current parameters
Table 1.5 summarizes typical lightning current parameters in Japan. As is widely known around the world, lightning
in Japan can be broadly classified into summer lightning, which occurs frequently in the summer months, both in
the mountains and flatlands, and winter lightning, which occurs frequently in the winter months, primarily along the
coast of the Sea of Japan. Consequently, the Lightning Protection Design Guide for Transmission Line must
propose designs that take into account the characteristics of both types of lightning.
Page 30
Table 1.5: Characteristic comparison between summer and winter lightning [AIE 1950, Uma,
Uma 1987]
1.5.5.4 Probability distribution of lightning stroke peak current
For the cumulative probability distribution of lightning stroke peak current, a variety of them have been proposed
mainly targeting at summer lightning, both in Japan and abroad CRI 1976 . In Figure 1.7, curve 1 is the one
recommended in the old guide [AIE 1950] (logarithmic normal type: Average value=26kA and logI=0.325), while
curve 5 is an AIEE distribution curve [Uma ] (exponential type). In addition, curve 2 is a distribution created based
on both positive and negative polarity data from 103 winter lightning strokes recorded between January 1979 and
July 1986 in Kashiwazaki and Fukui on the coast of the Sea of Japan. Note that since the cumulative frequency
distribution of lightning peak current differs by the geographical region, we must consider distributions that are
appropriate for each one.
Based on a comparison of probability distributions, this guide recommends curve 1 given by equation 1.2, which
agrees with the observational results for both summer and winter lightning, as the probability distribution of
lightning stroke peak current.
(equation 1.2)
Note that it is possible to calculate the probability for any current value with the above equation, but we do not
recommend it for portions exceeding the range in Figure 1.7.
Page 31
probability (%)
Figure 1.7: Various data of cumulative probability distribution of lightning stroke peak current
[CRI1976]
The winter lightning phenomenon along the coast of the Sea of Japan occurs, is specific in this region on the globe.
The increase of positive ground flashes and frequent occurrence of upward lightning are considered as main
features of the winter lightning in this region.
1.5.6 PARAMETERS OF SUMMER AND WINTER LIGHTNING CURRENT
1.5.6.1 Wave front and wave tail duration of lightning currents

Cumulative probability distribution curves of wave front duration of the summer and winter lightning current are
shown in Figure 1.8 [Ike 1981] [Asa 1994]. The 2 s value is usually used to represent the wave front duration of
summer lightning and winter lightning current, but the actual 50% value is longer than 2 s as shown in Figure 1.8.
As for the winter lightning it is furthermore long. The 22 examples of winter lightning discharges, which accompany
strong electromagnetic emission and heavy current, are classified and shown in the figure as type A.
Page 32
Summer lightning
probability
probability (%)
Winter lightning
Wave front duration s
Data of Fukui &

Kashiwazaki
Type A
Figure 1.8: Probability of the wave front duration of lightning current [Ike 1981][Asa 1994]
As for the range of wave tail duration of lightning current, it is approximately 10~100 s with the 50% value of
30~50 s [Ike 1981].
The observation result for the winter lightning current in Japan is shown in Figure 1.9 [CRI 1989]. The figure
suggests the following:
-
50% value of wave tail duration is 50 s.

50% value of wave tail duration of negative polarity lightning is only 25 s.
10% of negative polarity currents have longer wave tail duration than about 100 s.
50% value of wave tail duration of positive polarity lightning is 650 s, and 10% value of it exceeds several
thousand s.
Page 33
probability (%)
Wave tail duration

50%: 50.1 s
16%: 794 s
Wave tail duration s
Figure 1.9: Probability of lightning current wave tail duration of winter lightning [CRI 1989]
As understood from the relationship between wave front duration and wave tail duration in Figure 1.10, the longer
the wave front duration, the wave front duration also tends to be longer. According to data of Figure 1.11, which
were measured by Berger [Ber 1975], the 10% value of the wave tail duration of negative first stroke currents
exceeds 150 s. When focused on the positive polarity lightning, the 10% value exceeds 1 ms.
Figure 1.10: Relationship between the wave front and wave tail duration of the lightning current of
winter lightning [CRI 1989]
Page 34
probability (%)
1: negative first lightning stroke

2: negative
3: positive lightning stroke
Figure 1.11: Probability of wave tail duration of lightning current [Ber 1975]
: Total
probability
30% : 2.9C
Amount of electric charge (C)

Figure 1.12: Probability of electric charges of winter lightning current [Miy 1992]
Page 35
Current peak value
Time
Figure 1.13: Example of positive polarity current shape of winter lightning measured at Fukui in Japan in
February 1983 [CRI 1995]
1.5.6.2 Electric charge of lightning currents
The electric charge quantity of lightning is calculated by time integration of the lightning current. An example of the
cumulative probability distribution of the electric charge quantity of the winter lightning current is shown in Figure
1.12 [Miy 1992]. The figure suggests the following:
Approximately 10% of the winter lightning currents have the electric charge quantity exceeding 100 C.
The 50% value of the electric charge quantity of the positive polarity lightning is 20 C, which is 20 times of
the 50% value of negative polarity lightning.
Lightning currents with large electric charge quantity have very long wave tail duration rather than high
crest values. Figure 1.13 shows an example of the current wave shape of positive polarity with duration
exceeding 4 ms observed in winter.
According to electrical charge data of summer lightning shown in Figure 1.14 measured by Berger [Ber
1975], the 50% value of the electrical charge of positive polarity lightning is 80 C, which is 10 times or more
of the 50% value of 7.5 C for the negative polarity lightning.
probability
1: negative first lightning stroke

3: positive lightning stroke
Electrical charge C
Figure 1.14: Probability of electrical charges of summer lightning [Ber 1975]
Page 36
1.6 Ambient stresses

1.6.1 MECHANICAL STRESSES
Author in charge: Shinji Ishibe
Arresters are usually mounted vertically or horizontally, but there are various erection alternatives (suspension,
under-hung, etc.) especially in polymer arresters. Mechanical stresses occurred in arresters are strongly dependent
on the erection configuration and external forces and can be categorized into static load, vibration load and seismic
load.
(1) Static load
The following loads are considered with regard to arresters in the actual fields.
a) Electromagnetic force
Since the continuous current thorough an arrester is of the order of a few mA, electromagnetic forces are usually
not considered. When the arrester is directly connected to the main circuit that may receive electromagnetic forces,
the effect of these forces on arresters should be considered.
b) Thermal effect
This is the load due to a thermal expansion of the line conductor corresponding to ambient temperature change or
main current change. Arresters should be connected by flexible leads so as not to be applied such loads.
c) Load during assembling
This load may be applied when a lead is connected to the arrester top. The installation work shall be carried out
taking the cantilever strength of the arrester into consideration.
d) Line pull
Flexible leads should be used to connect arresters so as to minimize the loads due to the weight of the leads.
e) Wind load
The wind speed of 34 m/s in IEC 60099-4 and 40 m/s in JEC-2371 are specified. But wind loads are generally not a
problem for arresters [100300 N/m (per unit length of porcelain type arrester) at the wind speed of 40 m/s].
e) Snow load
The effect of snow loads is larger in the horizontally mounted arresters than in the vertically mounted arresters.
According to the installation configuration the effect of the snow on the lead should be considered
The mechanical strength of arresters against the above loads is typically evaluated by the cantilever strength. The
IEC 60099-4 standard covers the test method of the cantilever strength, which is a manufacturers declared value.
Porcelain type arresters have basically strong cantilever strength and the above loads may not be a great concern.
But in case of polymer arresters, the cantilever strength of which is usually 10003000 Nm may be sensitive to
these loads depending on the installation configuration. Therefore a guide for the cantilever strength of arresters is
required for manufacturers to design the mechanical strength of their arresters and for users to design the
installation and connection of arresters.
(2) Vibration load
This load would be severe if the vibration frequency were close to the natural frequencies of the internal part of the
arrester. A large vibration load may cause shifts or cracks of ZnO elements.
Page 37
a) Transportation vibration
Arresters are transported by trucks, trailers, freighters or airplanes and subjected to their inherent frequencies and
shocks due to bad roads, blocks, sudden braking or landing. These loads are usually taken into consideration in
the construction of arresters: e.g. insulators for supporting ZnO elements or bumpers between ZnO elements and
the porcelain wall. In case of polymer arresters where ZnO elements are directly molded, these loads may not be
large.
Some manufacturers evaluate the capability against these loads by the actual transportation test, where a truck or
trailer runs through normal roads, highways and bad roads. The vibration test with simulated waveforms is also
carried out instead of the actual transportation test. Shocks watching labels or meters are sometimes used for
monitoring loads when a high shock is expected during transportation.
b) Suspension vibration
A suspension type arrester may be subjected to a continuous vibration of its natural frequency due to the wind or
the movement of the line. This load may be small for the arrester body because acceleration is not so high and the
natural frequency of the suspension system is lower than that of the arrester, but the long-term reliability of the lead
connecting and arrester suspending parts should be confirmed.
(3) Seismic load
This load should be considered when the arrester is installed in the area where a large earthquake is expected. As
a seismic event is rare to occur, it is unreasonable to expect all of the above static loads to occur simultaneously.
There are three typical guides, IEC, IEEE and JEAG (Japan), which have been published and revised through the
experience of the large earthquakes as shown in Table 1.6.
Page 38
Year
1965-
1970-
1975-
1980-
1985-
1990-
st
JEAG
Static 0.5 G
-5003
1995-
2000-
2005-
Revision
Dynamic 0.3 G
(1980)
st
(1998)
IEEE
Revision
Revision
-693
(1984)
(1997)
(2005)
68-3-3
[Note]
68-2-57
(1991)
1463
62271-2
(1989)
1166
(1996)
(2002)
IEC
(1993)
Tottoriken
Niigata
-Seibu
(1964)
Off-
Nihonkai
Hokaido
Hyogoken
Off-
Miyagi
-Chuubu
-Nanseioki
-Nanbu
Tokachi
(1978)
(1983)
(1993)
(1995)
Earthquake
(2000)
in Japan
Niigata
-Chuuetu
(1968)
(2004)
Earthquake
Sanfernand
Northridge
in US
(1971)
(1994)
Indonesia
Kocaeli,
Other earthquake
Off-
Pakistan
Sumatra
(2005)
Shu-shu
(1999)
(2004)
[Note] IEC 68-2-57(IEC 60068-2-57): Time history method

IEC 68-3-3(IEC 60068-3-3): Seismic test methods for equipments
IEC 1166(IEC 62271-300): Seismic qualification of alternating current circuit breakers
IEC 1463(IEC 61463): Bushings Seismic qualification
IEC 62271-2: High-voltage switchgear and control gearSeismic qualification for voltages of 72.5 kV and above
Table 1.6: Publication and revision history of the guide for seismic test [JEA 1998]
Table 1.7 shows the seismic test conditions of IEC, IEEE and JEAG for arresters, where the acceleration response
of JEAG is the most severe. The concept of the JEAG with resonant 3 cycles sine wave is different from that of IEC
and ANSI with artificial earthquake waves which comply with the required response spectrum (RRS) as explained
below.
Seismic loads of arresters are also strongly dependent on the connecting leads [Oka 1986]. The guides of IEEE
and JEAG require sufficient flexible lead slack that allows for any relative deflection of the equipment that will occur
during an earthquake.
Page 39
Arrester standard
IEC60099-4
IEEE C62.11
JEC-2371
(Circuit breaker)
IEEE-693
JEAG-5003
IEC 60068-3-3
(General)
(General)
IEC 62271-300
Referred guide for seismic test
(General)
90kV Test
Voltage rating
170 kV
Not detailed
( 90kV Analysis)
0.5 G High
Input
acceleration
0.5 G High
0.3 G
0.3 G Moderate
0.25 G Moderate
0.2 G Low
Frequency
range
Seismic test
method
0.5 35 Hz
0.3 33 Hz
0.5 10 Hz
Artificial earthquake
which complies with
RRS
Artificial earthquake
which complies with
RRS
Resonant 3 cycles
(Note 2)
sine wave
Waveform
RRS
Max. acceleration response
at 2% damping
RRS
1.4G (High)
1.62G (High)
2.35G
0.85G (Moderate)
(Single-degree-of-freedomsystem)
Acceptance
criteria
For structural
parts
For arrester
performance
0.81G (Moderate)
0.56G (Low)
Specified
Specified
Specified
in the guide
in the guide
in the guide
Not detailed
Not detailed
Not detailed
(Note 1)
(Note 1) Only check items (reference voltage, partial discharge, leakage check) are listed in Annex M of IEC
60099-4.
(Note 2) When the inherent natural frequency of the equipment is higher (lower) than 10 Hz (0.5 Hz), the frequency
of 10 Hz (0.5 Hz) shall be used.
Table 1.7: Comparison of seismic test guides for arresters
Page 40
(3.1) Test condition of Japanese seismic test guide

The arrester standards of IEEE and JEC require having the seismic withstand capability according to the referred
guides. The IEC60099-4 standard requires the seismic test in case of the agreement between the manufacturer
and user in Annex M and refers the IEC61166 (IEC62271-300), which is the guide for circuit breakers. As arresters
of higher rating have more sensitive and complex responses against the earthquake, the actual seismic test may
be necessary. Therefore the guide for the seismic test and evaluation method for arresters is required.
(3.1.1) Background of the test condition
(1) Acceleration
Figure 1.15 shows the map that indicates the value of horizontal acceleration on the ground surface expected in
Japan once at the interval of 75 years (return period of 75 years). According to this figure, the horizontal
accelerations are less than 0.3 G in almost all regions in Japan.
Figure 1.15: Distribution of horizontal acceleration on the ground surface expected once at the interval
of 75 years [JEA 1998]
Table 1.7 shows the seismic intensity scale used by the Japanese Meteorological Agency. The acceleration of 0.3
G (294 Gal) corresponds to the level of the seismic intensity .
Figure 1.16 shows the seismic records in the past 75 years from 1921 to 1995 in Japan. This figure shows that the
past records of the acceleration are below 0.3 G (294 Gal) in almost all regions in Japan. Please note that the
mentioned scale was revised in 1997.
Page 41
Intensity scale
Designation
Acceleration (Gal)
No feeling
< 0.8
A slight earthquake
0.8
2.5
A weak earthquake
2.5
A rather strong earthquake
A strong earthquake
25
80
A very strong earthquake
80
250
A disastrous earthquake
250
A very disastrous earthquake
> 400
25
400
Table 1.8: Seismic intensity scale used in 1949 1997 by the Japanese Meteorological Agency
[JEA 1998]
Hokkaido
107
12
Tohoku
116
25
Hokuriku
17
Kanto
13
Chubu
93
Chugoku
205
3
32
Kansai
95
17
[25-80] [80-250] [250-400]
Sismic intensity scale

[Acceleration (Gal)]
Chugoku
58
13
Kyushu
4
Figure 1.16: Seismic records in the past 75 years from 1921 to 1995 in Japan [JEA 1998]
Page 42
(2) Waveform
As the waveform of an earthquake is dependent on the ground condition between the epicenter and the equipment,
it is not practical to specify an earthquake waveform for the test. Porcelain type apparatuses are destroyed at the
peak acceleration of the response and the destruction is not affected by the duration and the waveform of the
vibration, therefore the quasi-resonant method by resonant N cycle sine wave is adopted as the Japanese seismic
test.
(2.1) Frequency
The predominant frequencies of earthquakes in Japan are 0.510 Hz, which overlaps the natural frequencies of
porcelain type apparatuses, bushings, arresters, etc. So the severest test condition is realized when the test wave
is specified as a sine wave with the natural frequency of the apparatus.
(2.2) Cycle
The acceleration response factors of a simplified single-degree-of-freedom model to resonant 13 cycles sine
waves are compared with the actual 615 earthquake records on the ground surface in Figure 1.17. The response
factor in the resonant 2 cycles sine wave covers the most responses of the actual earthquake records.
In addition, the amplification effects due to the existence of foundations (1.2 times) and other unknown factors (1.1
times) are considered. As the correction factor of 1.3 (1.2x1.1) corresponds to the ratio of the response factor to
resonant 3 cycles sine wave to that to resonant 2 cycles sine wave (6.1/4.7 as shown in Figure 1.16), resonant 3
cycles sine wave is adopted as the seismic test wave.
Figure 1.17: Comparison of the response factors between a simplified single-degree model to resonant
1-3 cycles sine waves and the actual 615 earthquake records in Japan [JEA 1998]
Page 43
(3.1.2) Example of test

Table 1.9 and Figure 1.18 shows the seismic test result of the 500 kV GIS-arrester in accordance with JEAG-5003.
As the measured inherent natural frequency of 17 Hz was higher than 10 Hz, the 3 cycles sine wave of 10 Hz was
applied. The test with the EL Centro earthquake wave was also carried out for reference.
Direction
Item
Natural frequency [Hz]
Seismic test
JEAG-5003
of
24
17
> 30
Wave shape
3 cycles sine wave of 10 Hz
Input acceleration [G]
0.3
0.31
0.31
Tank (A4)
1.4
1.4
1.0
Middle of Internal parts (A3)
2.3
2.9
1.0
Top of Internal parts (A2)
2.4
3.0
1.1
Response
factor
Seismic test with
Wave shape
Actual earthquake wave
Input acceleration [G]
0.35
0.35
---
Tank (A4)
1.1
1.0
---
Middle of Internal parts (A3)
1.3
1.0
---
Top of Internal parts (A2)
1.3
1.1
---
the EL Centro
Response
earthquake wave
factor
Table 1.9: Seismic test results of 500 kV GIS arrester in accordance with JEAG-5003 [Shi 1997]
Page 44
Insulating rod (S1)

Acceleration
Tank (A4)
Middle of internal parts (A3)
Top of internal parts (A2)
Input acceleration (A1)
Time
a: Example of wave shapes
Input acceleration (A1)
Tank (A4)
X
Z
Y
1.5 m
Top of
internal parts (A2)
Middle of
internal parts (A3)
Shield
ZnO element
Shaking table
b: 500 kV GIS shaking table,
seismic test for horizontal
installation
Insulating rod (S1)

Y
c: Internal view of 500 kV

GIS arrester
X
Z
Figure 1.18: Seismic test of 500 kV GIS arrester in accordance with JEAG-5003 [Shi1997]. The axis X,Y
and Z give the directions of acceleration, see Table 1.9.
Page 45
1.6.2 POLLUTION
Authors in charge: Bernhard Richter and Yoshihiro Ishizaki
One of the unsolved problems, and therefore discussed in Cigr working groups again, is the pollution performance
of polymer housed surge arresters for high voltage applications. Due to the length of the multi-unit designs test
procedures and criteria could not be agreed upon in the past. This was discussed as well in WG A3.21 and WG
A3.22 when dealing with 1000 kV UHV aspects. The principle problems are addressed in the following.
Figure 1.19 illustrates three possible mechanisms that may affect a multi-unit MO HV arrester in a polluted
environment, see also [Ric 2007].
A special problem for HV arresters of Type A (see 2.3 Design of surge arresters) with considerable gas in the
inside of the insulator may be the radial field strength as shown in Figure 1.20. Radial field stress, however, is also
a concern for Type B arresters. Here the radial voltage drops across small distance of only few millimeters between
the outer surface and the MO column, and a weak design may lead to puncture of the insulation material. As the
possible radial field stress increases with the distance between two metal fittings, the maximum unit length is
limited.
3
Risk of "internal"
partial discharges,
degradation of the
MO resistors and
deterioration of the
supporting structure
1
Risk of external
flashover (see
IEC 60507)
2
Risk of partial
heating of the active
parts (see Annex F
of IEC 60099-4)
Figure 1.19: Possible risks due to pollution
Page 46
MO column
Gas
Conductive
layer
Uaxial, int
Solid
Uradial
Figure 1.20: Possible voltage distribution of an arrester unit under polluted conditions
Table 1.10 gives an overview about proposed methods for pollution tests of polymer housed MO surge
arresters. The main discussed and open point is the way of treating the polymer surface of the insulating
housing to get realistic results in the test, which can be compared to long term stresses in the system.
Item
Solid layer
Standard to be
referred
IEC 60507
Artificial
pollution
procedure
After the polluted insulator

dried, the pollutant wetted by
clean fog
Pollutant slurry
sprayed on insulator
Salt fog generated
Soluble
component
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
Kieselguhr
Kaolin
Tonoko
SiO2
or Tonoko
or Bentonite
Non-solible
component
Note
Sprayed pollutant
Salt fog
JEC 0201
IEC 60507
IEEE C62.11
--Recovery of hydrophobicity
during testing considered
No special testing
facilities required
Recovery of
hydrophobicity
considered
Table 1.10: Applicable pollution methods for polymer housed arresters

A method to remove the hydrophobicity of a polymeric housing for test purposes, as practiced in Japan, is
described for information in the following, see Figure 1.21.
Page 47
Remark 1: Tonoko
Tonoko is fine inorganic powder from particular kinds of natural rock, which has been originally used as fine
abrasive or filler for some traditional craft works in Japan. Tonoko is also introduced in IEC 60507 as inert material,
of which characteristics are given in Table 1.11.
Granulometry
(cumulative distribution) mm
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
H2O
16%
50%
84%
Volume
conductivity
s20 (S/m)
60 - 70
10 20
4-8
0.8 - 1.5
35
8 - 15
0.002-0.01
Weight composition (%)
Table 1.11: Characteristics of Tonoko [IEC 1991]
Figure 1.21: Procedure to remove hydrophobicity and to apply contaminant for solid layer method
[Nai1996][Ish2008]
Remark 2: representative methods to remove hydrophobicity
The following procedure, as shown in Figure 1.21, is suggested to remove hydrophobicity on silicone surface of
MOR temporarily for the testing, without any damage on the surface or any additional chemical agent in the
pollutant.
a) Prepare Tonoko slurry, which contains approx. 1 kg of Tonoko in 1 liter of water.
b) Spray the Tonoko slurry as uniformly as possible on the hydrophobic MOR surface.
c) Dry the polluted surface under natural ambient condition.
Page 48
d) Wash off the deposited Tonoko roughly, by running tap water, for example. After this process some amount of
Tonoko will remain on the surface, which suppresses recovery of the hydrophobicity temporarily. It is important
to conduct testing during hydrophobicity is completely lost.
Voltage application method
Figure 1.22 shows the test with only the MCOV to apply to surge arrester under the polluted condition according
with IEC 60099-4, Annex F.
Figure 1.23 shows the voltage application method to superimpose a temporary overvoltage (the sound phase
voltage at the time of single phase ground fault) on the continuous operating voltage (U c) according to JEC
standard. This test procedure is considered as one of solutions for the risk concerned the external flashover at TOV
of surge arresters.
10 min.
contaminant
application
UC
3 min.
Figure 1.22: Continuous voltage U c applying method according to IEC standard [IEC 2006]
4 sequences
E2
E1
1 min
contaminant
application
3 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
E1
continuous operating voltage
E2
temporary over voltage
1 min
1 min
1 min
first sequence
Figure 1.23: Temporary overvoltage (TOV) applying method according to JEC standard
[JEC 2003]
Page 49
1.6.3 HUMIDITY
Author in charge: Kari Lahti
1.6.3.1 Ambient humidity stress

The humidity stressing of arresters is caused by different forms of ambient humidity; precipitation and content of
moisture in air. Factors like length and recurrence of moist periods also affect the stressing, likewise the properties
of periods with lower air humidity content and precipitation. Especially in the case of polymer housed equipment
atmospheric humidity stress has to be handled as an entity by considering the total weather type over longer
periods of time. Water may permeate through polymeric materials, and dry periods have a significant effect on this
process.
Atmospheric humidity stress varies a lot depending on the location, season etc. Equatorial areas, especially those
with tropical rainforest climates, typically introduce hard stresses of this kind with frequent rain and high absolute air
humidity. In areas like, for example, Europe these stresses are much lower. An overview of the humidity related
climatological conditions can be made based on levels of relative humidity (RH), precipitation and number of
precipitation days per year. Because the humidity stress conducted on electrical equipment is proportional to the
water vapor pressure and not to the relative humidity of the air the air temperature also has to be kept in mind
when considering the stresses in different parts of the world.
A map of Worlds climatic zones (by Okolowicz) is given in Figure 1.24 with the most humid areas indicated in
colors. As can be seen in the figure, equatorial areas in South America, Africa and Indonesia are examples of
regions with highest atmospheric humidity stress.
Figure 1.24: The worlds climatic zones. The most humid climates in equatorial and tropical zones are
indicated by colors [Mar92]
Page 50
1.6.3.2 Number of days with thunderstorms

An indication of the variation of the lightning caused stresses over the world can be seen in the isokeraunic map
(Figure 1.25). Even better indication would be a ground flash density map but no such map covering the whole
world is, unfortunately, available. An estimation of the ground flash density can, anyhow, be calculated from the
thunderstorm day data for example by empirical expression by Anderson.
Ng
0.04TD1.25
-2
(equation 1.3)
-1
Ng = Ground flash density (km yr )

TD= Number of days with thunderstorms
Figure 1.25: Annual number of days with thunderstorms [Mar 1992]
Page 51
1.6.3.3 Polymer housed surge arresters under humidity stresses

Tightness of any surge arrester type is an important factor which is for polymer housed arresters tested by the
moisture ingress test (IEC 60099-4). The test is a combination of thermal - mechanical pre stressing and following
immersion test in boiling water during which the moisture are not allowed to penetrate inside an arrester and form
remarkable power losses, partial discharges or deviation in residual voltage.
The conditions during the above test are really abnormal but information of the behavior of polymer housed
arresters under more realistic ambient conditions can be found in the literature [Lah 1999] [Lah 2002] [Lah 2003]
[Kan 1997] [Kan 1998]. A summary of main results of such tests are given in the following. The corresponding tests
were performed for new, commercial medium voltage arresters during 1996 2001.
1.6.3.4 Moisture penetration into arresters

Figure 1.26 presents the general behavior of internal leakage currents of some arresters during a test in very humid
air (humidity chamber test). In this test the arresters were subjected to very humid ambient conditions (+30C
+35C, RH 95 100 %, artificial rain periods). Moisture ingress into the arrester interior can thus be evaluated by
this figure. In Table 1.12 the tested MV arresters are divided into three groups according to their internal structure
and manufacturing technique.
Group
Arrester types
Description
A,B,C,H
Housing molded directly onto the

arrester body, no end caps
II
D,E
Housing manufactured separately

and pressed or slipped onto the
arrester body, end caps
III
F,G
As type II but with considerable

internal gas space
Leakage Current ( A)
Table 1.12: Tested medium voltage arrester types according to internal structure
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Group I
Group II
Group III
10
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Testing Time (days)
Figure 1.26: internal leakage currents of MO surge arresters according to their internal structure during
the humidity chamber test
Page 52
Based on the results, at least slight moisture penetration into arresters interior is possible in most of the arrester
types studied. However, remarkable levels of internal leakage current was reached by all the arresters of type III,
most of the arresters of type II but none of the arresters of type I. In this context one has to keep in mind that these
tests are performed for certain MV arrester types and, for example, in HV arresters also clearly different structures
are utilized.
In general, same kinds of results/behaviors have been achieved also in hot water immersion tests [Lah 1999] [Lah
2003]. Based on this result hot water immersion tests are applicable in sealing testing of polymer housed arresters.
In some cases some problems may be found in hot water immersion testing of arresters with housings with good
surface properties and high diffusion coefficient (e.g. some silicones). Quite high internal power losses may be
measured immediately after immersion test, which result does not necessarily reflect real service situation where
also good surface properties (e.g. hydrophobicity) affects the total behavior.
1.6.4 COMBINED HUMIDITY AND AC STRESSES

Continuous AC stress typically limits the internal moisture content and corresponding power losses of a polymer
housed arrester into a lower level than it would be without the AC stress. If an arrester has a void free structure with
internal interfaces bonded together small amounts of moisture may still collect into interfacial areas under very
humid ambient. Heating caused by the consequent power losses chance the balance of water vapor partial
pressures and part of the moisture diffuses out from the interfacial areas. The situation changes if the interfaces
loosen or especially when there are voids inside an arrester where water can permeate in and collect to.
Some results of a test case [Lah 2002] where continuous AC voltage stresses were applied to MV arresters having
internal moisture content are given in the following. The tested arresters were preconditioned in a hot water bath
before the actual test to obtain sets of arresters with some humidity inside. 12 kV AC stress was applied on the
arresters but also two and four week periods without voltage stress were applied. At test week 78 the ambient
temperature was increased from +30 C to +50 C. The internal power losses of these pre-defected specimens were
recorded and analyzed over the test period. Indication of the structures of the different arrester types are given in
Table 1.12.
1.6.4.1 General results

Only one of the arresters (E4, Figure 1.28) out of 26 failed totally during the first 102 weeks of the test. The
behavior of internal power losses of some of the MOAs is shown in Figures 1.27 to 1.29.
In the beginning of the test the internal power losses of all the specimens decreased until an equilibrium state in
moisture diffusion was reached. Lowest loss levels were reached by the type I (direct molding) silicone (high
diffusion coefficient) housed arresters (Figure 1.29). During test periods without voltage stress internal humidity
content may increase and evidence of such can be seen as quite high peaks in losses immediately after
reapplication of test voltage. A clearly increasing trend of internal power losses can be seen for arrester F1 (with
internal gas space) from the beginning of the test indicating moisture accumulation inside the arrester.
In general, all rapid changes (increases) in stresses on arresters are the most demanding situations under very
high ambient humidity (e.g. rain forest conditions) since the internal power losses may reach relatively high levels
before the moisture equilibrium is reached.
Page 53
10
9
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
8
Power losses (W)
7
6
3
2
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Test duration (weeks)
70
80
90
100
Figure 1.27: Internal power losses of type D (internal structure type II) at 12 kV during the test
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6
E7
F1
10
9
8
Power losses (W)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 1.28: Internal power losses of type E (internal structure type II) and F (internal structure type III)
at 12 kV during the test
5
H1
H2
H3
H4
A1
A2
Power losses (W)
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 1.29: Internal power losses of type A and H (both of internal structure type I) at 12 kV during
test
Page 54
1.6.5 EXPOSURES TO LOW AMBIENT TEMPERATURES

Exposures of arresters to very low (even -60C) but rather short (2...6 days) temperature stresses have been
studied in laboratory conditions [Kan 1997]. It was shown that these stresses did not in general cause any
remarkable changes in the AC or DC leakage current behavior or in the residual voltages of the tested arrester
types. Field experiences gathered over the cold regions of the world support this result.
1.6.5.1 Effects of ice coverings

Studies of the effect of ice coverings on the electrical behavior of surge arresters have not been reported widely.
Laboratory investigations of the behavior of one two unit HV arrester type (Ur = 120kV) have, anyhow, been
reported in [Kan 1998] where the behavior of this arrester type has been studied under AC- and switching impulse
voltage stresses.
In addition to the outages in transmission networks due to flashovers of ice-covered equipment, icing of a metal
oxide surge arrester consisting of two or more units in series may have harmful effects on the performance of the
MOA. With AC voltage stress an unevenly ice-coated MOA may be thermally stressed due to the leakage current
transition from the ice covering of one unit to the interior of another unit not covered with so much ice. Whether the
stressed unit stands up to this situation or not depends on the thermal properties of the unit, the duration of the
active arcing period and the possible external flashovers on the MOA, which may clean the surface of ice and thus
decrease the leakage current stress after the flashover. The porcelain arrester investigated in this research stood
up to the different types of freezing rain conditions without thermal instability.
With switching impulse current surges the residual voltage across an ice-covered unit can cause an external
flashover. Such a high current surge stresses the varistors of the lower unit operating normally.
Page 55
1.6.6 BIOLOGICAL GROWTH

Author in charge: Trond Ohnstad
Polymer insulators have become a common choice for surge arresters in transmission and distribution systems,
due to their many advantages over traditional porcelain insulators.
Though there are many types of composite materials used in insulators, silicon rubber is the material used by most
manufacturers today.
In many parts of the world there have been reports of observation of biological growth on the surface of the
polymer arrester insulation. Most of the reports concerns growth of algae and fungi on insulators of silicon rubber
in hot and humid climates and in clean environment.
In Scandinavia biological growth has been observed in typical inland substations surrounded by forest, places
which can be very humid and warm during summertime.
In [Gut 2003] the biological or organic growth is described as micro-organisms that colonize polymeric materials
and attach to the surface by forming a bio film. A bio film consists of micro-organisms embedded in a highly
hydrated matrix of extra cellular substances. The water content is 80-95 % and the cells themselves make up a
minor fraction of the bio film.
Three types of organic growth have been identified, Algae, Fungi and Lichen.
Algae can be seen as a simple plant, producing its own food from carbon dioxide and water by utilizing sunlight, i.e.
photosynthesis. They also need some mineral nutrients which are taken from the environment. They can be found
almost everywhere, in sea and fresh water, on rocks, in soil. They spread by wind, water and animal movements
and multiply under certain climate conditions, i.e. under favorable temperature, humidity and sun radiation
Fungi are multi-cellular organisms, and composed of long, thread-like filaments. The body of the organism is called
mycelium and they multiply through sending out spores. Fungi cannot produce their food by photosynthesis;
instead they absorb nutrients from the surrounding environments.
Lichen is a special plant group consisting of fungi and algae which live in symbiosis with each other and adhere to
rocks, stones, trees, etc. The algae are dispersed in the fungi mycelium. The fungi take nutrients from algae while
algae take nothing but water from fungi.
Despite all the reports of biological growth on insulators there are no known reports of any failures of surge
arresters caused by it.
The biological growth will certainly reduce the hydrophobicity, but this might not be a problem in a clean
environment. The problem is more of a visual character, the insulators change color to green or black and the
insulator do not look very reliable.
Observations indicate a dependency of the polymer formulation to the degree of biological growth on the insulators.
This should be closer investigated.
If more severe problems should occur in the future, there will be a need of effective mitigation techniques.
Page 56
Figure 1.30: Example of biological growth.
Page 57
1.7 Short circuit currents

An arrester overload is a very rare event. However, it cannot in principle be ruled out, not even in the case of an
over dimensioned arrester. Possible causes are, for instance, direct lightning strikes occurring near the arrester, or
power frequency voltage transfer from a higher to a lower voltage system, for example on a transmission line with
several voltage levels crossing each other and suffering a conductor failure or galloping. In transmission systems
this occurs considerably less frequently than in distribution systems. In some special applications an MO arrester is
intentionally overloaded and falls into short circuit state, in this way protecting sensitive and expensive equipment.
This application is then called sacrificial arrester.
In case of an overload of an MO arrester some or all MO resistors in the arrester will flash over and an arc will
occur internally in the housing between the two flanges. The full short circuit current of the net, which appears
where the arrester is actually installed, flows through this arc. As a result, an abrupt increase of pressure develops
within the housing and stresses mechanically the design. In addition the hot arc gets in contact with the housing,
which may lead in the case of porcelain housings to a thermal cracking of the housing. The described scenario is
valid for all arrester designs with considerable enclosed gas volume. To avoid dramatical failures (violent
shattering) pressure relief devices, integrated in the flanges, are needed, typically on both sides of each arrester
unit. The pressure relief devices have to open within a few milliseconds so that the arc can commutate to the
outside of the arrester preventing shattering of the housing.
Based on the design of the housing with pressure relief devices the pressure relief behaviour had to be tested
with specific pressure relief tests. Figure 1.31 shows the principle steps of a pressure relief of a porcelain or
hollow core housed arrester unit.
Figure 1.31: Pressure relief of a porcelain housed arrester unit.

left: puncture and flashover of individual MO resistors
middle: internal arc along the full length of the unit
right: opening of pressure relief devices and venting of the unit
As the new polymer insulated arresters with direct molding no longer contain enclosed gas volumes in their
housing, it makes sense to refer more generally to short circuit behavior, and accordingly to short circuit tests.
No defined pressure builds up in this type of arrester housings and no special pressure relief device is needed.
Instead the arc propagating along the MO resistors in the arrester seeks a path through the housing wall to an
arbitrary point or points, which have been specially provided in the design.
Independent of the design of the arrester, the goal always remains the same: in the case of an arrester overloading
the housing must either remain intact, or if it breaks, the housing fragments and ejected parts must fall down in a
narrow and defined area.
Page 58
Figure 1.32: Short circuit behavior of a cage design polymer housed arrester unit (courtesy ABB).
1: the arrester has failed and gas begins to be expelled through the housing
2: the gas streams trigger an external flashover and the internal arc is commutated to the outside
The maximum short circuit current, defined for a flowing time of 200 ms, is the rated short circuit current Is, given as
symmetric current in r.m.s. value with power frequency. The manufacturer has to state the rated short circuit
current the arrester is intended to withstand. Table 1.13 gives the rated short circuit currents for short circuit tests
as they are defined in IEC 60099-4.
Rated short circuit current

200 ms / A
80 000
63 000
50 000
40 000
31 500
20 000
16 000
10 000
5 000
Reduced short circuit currents

200 ms / A
25 000
50 000
12 000
25 000
25 000
12 000
25 000
12 000
6 000
12 000
12 000
6 000
6 000
3 000
6 000
3 000
3 000
1 500
Low short circuit current

1s/A
600 200
Table 1.13: Standard short circuit currents for tests purposes of MO arresters
Once the rated short circuit current is claimed for an MO arrester the type tests have to be performed with all the
short circuit currents given in Table 1.13. The required tests at reduced short circuit currents shall help avoiding
that the short circuit performance is optimized for high short circuit currents only while at lower short circuit currents
the housing might violently shatter before the pressure relief devices can open.
Page 59
To avoid misunderstandings, it has to be pointed out that the short circuit current with power frequency, driven by
the system voltage, is flowing through the surge arrester, or more likely through the arc, only after the arrester was
overloaded. Therefore, the MO arrester was destroyed and failed in a controlled way.
Figure 1.33 shows as example porcelain housed MO arrester units after successful short circuit tests. Both the
results are considered to be positive according the pass criteria as defined in the test standard IEC 60099-4.
Thermal cracking, as to be seen in Figure 1.33 (right) is acceptable, as long as all parts heavier than 60 g remain in
a well-defined enclosure. The MO arrester is of course destroyed in both cases, but it failed in a well-defined
manner.
Figure 1.33: Examples for successful short circuit tests of porcelain housed arrester units.
left: intact porcelain body, right: secondary break of porcelain body(courtesy Siemens).
Rated short circuit current tested I s = 63 kA for 200 ms.
Figure 1.34 shows examples of short circuit tests performed on polymer housed MO arrester units. Both results are
to be considered positive. In both cases the arrester units are destroyed, but without cracking or ejecting hard parts
like MO resistors or parts of them. In case of the cage design, Figure 1.34 right, only soft polymeric material is
ripped off.
Page 60
Figure 1.34: Example of successful short circuit tests on polymer housed MO arrester units.
left: FRP hollow insulator (courtesy Siemens),
right: cage design (courtesy ABB).
In both cases the short circuit current was I s = 63 kA for 200 ms.
It has to be understood clearly that an overload is a normal operation for a surge arrester. Therefore, surge
arresters have to be designed for an overload. Important is that the arrester fails in a controlled and safe way. This
is an important safety issue when arresters are installed close to public places, sensitive infrastructure or for
instance on the roof of a traction vehicle in railway applications.
Page 61
2.
Functional parameters and design of MO Surge Arresters
2.1 Function and relevant parameters

2.1.1 INTRODUCTION
A metal-oxide surge arrester without gaps (MO arrester) is an arrester having nonlinear metal-oxide resistors
connected in series and/or in parallel without any integrated series or parallel spark gaps. The wording surge
arrester is used in the HV and MV community and describes different designs of MO arresters. In the LV field it is
common to speak in general about Surge Protective Devices (SPDs), which covers different technologies and
design types, e.g. spark gaps, metal oxide varistors and combinations of them including disconnecting devices etc.
The function of a surge arrester with an active part consisting of a series connection of MO resistors is very simple.
In the event of a voltage increase at the arresters terminals, the current rises according to the characteristic curve,
see Figure 2.1, continually and without delay, which means that there is no actual spark over, but that the arrester
skips over to the conducting condition. After the overvoltage subsides the current becomes smaller according to the
characteristic curve. A subsequent current, such as those that arise with spark-gaps and spark-gapped arresters,
does not exist; it flows only the so-called almost pure capacitive leakage current ic of about 1mA.
Figure 2.1: Voltage-current characteristic of a MO surge arrester

a - Lower part (capacitive), b - knee point, c - strongly non-linear part, d - upper part (turn up area),
A - Operating point (continuous operating voltage Uc),
B - Protective level Up (nominal discharge current In).
Page 62
In Figure 2.2 a more technical diagram is given, indicating the standardised definitions.
Figure 2.2: Voltage-current characteristic of a MO arrester with I n = 10 kA, line discharge class 2. The
voltage is normalized to the residual voltage of the arrester at I n . The values are given as peak values
for the voltage (linear scale) and the current (logarithmic scale). Shown are typical values.
In Figure 2.3 typical voltage and current wave forms are given for MO surge arrester as defined in IEC 60099-4 and
ANSI/IEEE C62.11. In the lower part at Uc the arrester acts as a capacitor, the current is in the range of 1 mA and
below. At the knee point b (Figure 2.1) at Ur and Uref the arrester starts to conduct, the ohmic content of the current
is increasing rapidly with a slight voltage increase. At U ref the current has a dominantly ohmic component.
Temporary overvoltages have to be considered in the voltage region between points b and c.
In the low current region up to point b power frequency currents and voltages have to be considered (range of
continuous operation). In the region above b the protective characteristic of the MO arrester is of importance.
Thats why in this range the voltage-current-characteristic is defined by impulse currents of different wave shapes
and current magnitudes (Figure 2.2).
For simulations of the performance of MO surge arresters normally a voltage-current-characteristic is used that
starts at some 10 A in the region c and goes up to maximal 40 kA in the region d. Normally an impulse current
wave shape of 8/20 s is considered.
Page 63
Uc
Isw
Ur
In
Uref
Ist
Ihc
Figure 2.3: Typical voltage and current waveforms of a MO surge arrester.

-
Uc
Ur
Uref
Isw
continuous operating voltage

rated voltage
reference voltage
switching current impulse, wave shape 30/60 s
In
nominal, lightning current impulse, wave shape 8/20 s
Ist
steep current impulse, wave shape 1/.. s
Ihc
high current impulse, wave shape 4/10 s
The following paragraph briefly explains typical current and voltage waveforms in different areas of the
characteristic curve.
2.1.2 CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES

Continuous operating voltage Uc: Designated permissible r.m.s value of power-frequency voltage that may be
applied continuously between the arrester terminals.
Continuous current ic: Current flowing through the arrester when energized at the continuous operating voltage.
The MO arrester behaves in an almost purely capacitive manner in the region of the continuous operating voltage.
The current is around 1 mA and almost 90 electrically shifted compared to the voltage. The power losses in this
region can be neglected.
The continuous current is also known as leakage current.
Rated voltage Ur: Maximum permissible r.m.s. value of power-frequency voltage between the arrester terminals at
which it is designed to operate correctly under temporary overvoltage conditions as established in the operating
duty tests.
Briefly: the rated voltage Ur is the voltage value, which is applied for t = 10 s in the operating duty test in order to
simulate a temporary overvoltage in the system. The relationship between the rated voltage Ur and the continuous
operating voltage Uc is generally Ur/Uc = 1.25. This is understood as a given fact, but it is not defined anywhere.
Other ratios, such as Ur/Uc, can be chosen. The rated voltage has no other importance although it is often used
when choosing an arrester.
Page 64
Reference voltage Uref: Peak value of the power-frequency voltage divided by 2, which is applied to the arrester
to obtain the reference current.
Reference current iref: Peak value (the higher peak value of the two polarities if the current is asymmetrical) of the
resistive component of a power-frequency current used to determine the reference voltage of an arrester.
The reference current is chosen by the manufacturer in such a way that it lies above the knee point of the voltagecurrent characteristic and has a dominant ohmic component. Therefore, the influences of the stray capacitance of
the arrester at the measurement of the reference voltage are not to be taken into account. The reference voltages,
which are measured at single MO resistors, can be added to give the reference voltage of the entire arrester.
Reference voltage U1mA and reference current with DC voltage:
A reference current and the reference voltage for DC voltage belonging to it are often also demanded instead of a
given reference current for AC voltage. It is now common practice to specify the DC voltage, which is applied with a
direct current of 1 mA to the terminals, no matter what the diameters of the MO resistors are. Both types of
information, the reference current and the reference voltage for AC voltage and for DC voltage, are in principle
equal. Both of these types information describe a point on the voltage-current characteristic of an arrester, where
the influences of the stray capacitance can be ignored. All the tests performed according to IEC are always based
on the reference current and the reference voltage for AC voltage. Reference current and reference voltage with
DC voltage are additional information, which can be received from the manufacturer.
Residual voltage Ures: Peak value of voltage that appears between the arrester terminals during the passage of a
discharge current.
The residual voltage of a MO resistor or MO arrester is determined with surges having different wave forms and
current heights and it is given in tables or as a voltage-current characteristic on a curve. The measurements are
generally performed on MO resistors. As the measurement is mostly performed in regions of the characteristic
where the ohmic part of the current is dominant, the capacitive stray influences can be ignored. The residual
voltages measured on single MO resistors can be summed up as the residual voltages of the whole arrester.
Lightning impulse protective level Upl: Maximum permissible peak voltage on the terminals of an arrester
subjected to the nominal discharge current. Corresponds to the guaranteed residual voltage Ures at In.
Switching impulse protective level Ups: Maximum permissible peak value on the terminals of an arrester
subjected to switching impulses.
Lightning current impulse: Current impulse with the wave shape 8/20 s. The virtual front time is 8 s and the
time to half-value on the tail is 20 s. The lightning current impulse reproduces approximately the current impulse
produced by a lightning stroke in a conductor after an insulator flashover. This current impulse travels as a
transient wave along the line.
Nominal discharge current of an arrester In: The peak value of the lightning current impulse that is used to
classify an arrester. The nominal discharge current and the line discharge class of an arrester are correlated to the
system voltages and prescribe the test parameters, see Table 2.1. Recommendations for the choice of the nominal
discharge currents and the line discharge classes for different system voltages are to be found in IEC 2000 and
IEC 2009 .
High current impulse Ihc: Peak value of discharge current having a 4/10 s impulse shape. The high current
impulse should reproduce a lightning stroke close to an arrester and it is used with medium voltage arresters of the
line discharge class 1 as a proof of thermal stability. It represents not only an energetic stress but also a dielectric
one, taking into consideration the high residual voltage that occurs with a high current impulse with a peak value of
100 kA. It is however, necessary to strongly emphasize that a high current impulse with an amplitude of 100 kA is
not the same as a real lightning current of the same amplitude. The real lightning current of this amplitude
measured during a thunderstorm lasts longer than several 100 s. Though such strong lightning currents and
impulse shapes are very rare and appear only under special conditions, such as during winter lightning in hilly
coastal areas.
Page 65
Switching current impulse Isw: Peak value of discharge current with a virtual front time between 30 s and 100
s, and a virtual time to half-value on the tail of roughly twice the virtual front time. The switching current impulses
are used to determine the voltage-current characteristic, and in connection with the line discharge class are also
used to determine the energy which must be absorbed during the operation test. The current amplitudes lie
between 125 A and 2 kA, and roughly reproduce the load of an arrester produced by overvoltages, which were
caused by circuit breaker operation.
Steep current impulse: Current impulse with a virtual front time of 1 s and a virtual time to half-value on the tail
not longer than 20 s. The steep current impulses are used to determine the voltage-current characteristic. They
have amplitudes up to 20 kA and roughly reproduce steep current impulses like those which may appear with
disconnector operation, re-striking, back flashes, and vacuum circuit breakers.
All the current impulses described above (except the high current impulse) are used to determine the voltagecurrent characteristic of a MO arrester. It must be considered that only the virtual front time and the amplitude of
the current impulses are decisive for the residual voltage and not the virtual time to half-value on the tail. That is the
reason why the tolerance for the virtual front times is very tight, and contrastingly, the tolerances for the virtual
times to half-value on the tail are very broad.
Long-duration current impulse Ild: Also called rectangular wave (Irw) or square wave, a long-duration current
impulse is a rectangular impulse that rises rapidly to its peak value and remains constant for a specified period of
time before it falls rapidly to zero. The length of the current pulse duration is correlated to the line discharge class
of an arrester. Rectangular impulses are used in laboratories during the type tests with long-duration current
impulses, and during the operating duty test of MO arresters having line discharge classes 2 to 5, in order to inject
the energy in the arrester. The current amplitudes are up to 2 kA and reproduce the load of an arrester when a
charged transmission line discharges into the arrester in case of an overvoltage occurrence.
It is now regarded as a matter of course to use a rectangular wave of 2 ms duration to compare different MO
arresters, although there is no norm established for doing so. Specified is either the amplitude of the rectangular
wave for a specific MO arrester or the energy transferred into the arrester during the flow of the rectangular current.
Line discharge class: The line discharge class is the only possible way to specify the energy absorption capability
of an arrester provided in IEC 60099-4. The line discharge classes 1 to 5 are defined with growing demands. They
differ from one another due to the test parameters of the line discharge tests. The energy W is calculated from the
line discharge class in connection with the residual voltage of the switching current impulse. This calculated energy
must be injected with each discharge in a MO resistor during the test with a long-duration current impulse Ild (line
discharge test). Two corresponding line discharges are loaded in the arrester during the operating duty test as a
proof of thermal stability.
W = Ures
(UL Ures)
1/Z
(equation 2.1)
Ures = Residual voltage of the switching current impulse. Here, Ures is the lowest value of the residual voltage
measured at the test sample with the lower value of the switching current impulse.
UL = Charging voltage of the current impulse generator used in test labs for producing the long-duration current
impulse Ild.
Z = Surge impedance current impulse generator.
T = Duration of the long-duration current impulse
The parameter of the line discharge classes are derived from the stored energy of long transmission lines, see
Table 2.1.
That is the reason why the line discharge classes have no direct importance in medium voltage systems. They
serve here only to distinguish the energy handling capability of different arresters.
Page 66
In
LD
kA
Us
kV
km
ZL
T
ms
10
245
300
450
2.0
10
300
300
400
2.0
10
420
360
350
2.4
20
525
420
325
2.8
20
765
480
300
3.2
L = the approximate length of the transmission line.

ZL = the approximate surge impedance of the transmission line
Table 2.1: Correlation between line discharge classes and parameters of transmission lines. The
duration T of the long-duration current impulse I l d is also given.
Rated short circuit current Is: The r.m.s. value of the highest symmetrical short circuit current, which can flow
after an overload of the arrester through the arc short circuiting the MO resistors without violent shattering of the
housing. The proof of the specified value specified by the manufacturer is conducted in the short circuit test.
2.1.3 COORDINATION OF INSULATION AND SELECTION OF ARRESTERS

The coordination of the insulation is the matching between the dielectrically withstand of the electrical equipment
taking into consideration the ambient conditions and the possible overvoltages in a system.
For economic reasons, it is not possible to insulate electrical equipment against all overvoltages that may occur.
That is why surge arresters are installed to limit the overvoltages up to a value that is not critical for the electrical
equipment. Therefore, a MO arrester ensures that the maximum voltage that appears at the electrical equipment
always stays below the guaranteed withstand value of the insulation of an electrical device.
In the following the very basics of insulation co-ordination are given, see also Figure 2.4.
An arrester has to fulfill two fundamental tasks:
-
It has to limit the occurring overvoltage to a value that is not critical for the electrical equipment and
It has to guarantee a safe and reliable service in the system.
The continuous operating voltage Uc is to be chosen in such a way that the arrester can withstand all power
frequency voltages and also temporary overvoltages without being overloaded in any possible situation. This
means that T Uc must be always higher than the maximum possible temporary overvoltages UTOV in the system.
Comment: Ferromagnetic resonances are the exception. The ferromagnetic resonances can become so high and
exist so long that they may not be taken into consideration by the dimensioning of the continuous voltage if the
arrester should still be able to fulfill its protection function in a meaningful way. If ferromagnetic resonances appear,
then this generally means that the arrester is overloaded. The system user should take the necessary measures to
avoid ferromagnetic resonances.
The MO arrester can fulfill its function of protection properly if the lightning impulse protection level Upl lies clearly
below the lightning impulse withstanding voltage (LIWV) of the electrical equipment to be protected, the safety
factor Ks is also to be taken into consideration. The point is to set the voltage-current characteristic of the arrester in
a way that both requirements are met.
Page 67
It makes sense to choose the continuous operating voltage Uc a little bit higher than was calculated (for instance
10%). As a rule, there is enough distance between the maximum admissible voltage at the electrical equipment
and the protection level of the arrester.
Figure 2.4: Comparison of the possible occurring voltages in the system, the withstand voltage of the
electrical equipment and the parameters of the MO arresters.
Page 68
2.2 MO-Varistors: state of the art and actual trends

Authors in charge: Felix Greuter, Roger Perkins and Manfred Holzer
The purpose of this chapter is to lay a foundation of understanding of the basic behavior of the metal-oxide resistor
and its consequences for the surge arrester. In the former technical brochure TB 60 the knowledge gained in the
70-ies was summarized. Since then major progress has been made in the technology of metal oxide (MO)
varistors, their application in overvoltage surge protection devices and in the understanding of the basic
mechanisms. A lot of new insights have been gained, new physical phenomena have been observed, improved
and more consistent models have been developed and much progress has been made in simulations related to
materials and components. These topics are briefly addressed in this chapter.
2.2.1 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE METAL-OXIDE RESISTOR

Some fundamentals are necessary for an understanding of the electrical behavior of the metal-oxide resistor.
Figure 2.5a shows the DC voltage characteristic of a ZnO varistor. The sharp transition from the insulating to the
conducting state, which takes place at the breakdown voltage UB, is the outstanding feature of this strongly nonlinear and voltage-dependent resistor. The switching is both extremely fast (in the range of pico- to nano-seconds)
and also fully reversible, i.e. the resistor reverts to blocking the current flow as soon as the applied voltage U falls
below UB.
Figure 2.5a: Linear presentation of the

characteristic of a metal-oxide resistor
for the high voltage sector
Figure 2.5b: Log-log plot of the

normalized J(E)-characteristics of a
typical ZnO varistor [Gre 1989]
A Pre-breakdown region
B Breakdown region
C Upturn region
1 DC voltage characteristic
2 AC voltage characteristic
3 Residual voltage characteristic
E Field strength
J Current density
UG Continuous operating voltage (DC)
UB Breakdown (or switching) voltage
U v Continuous operating voltage (AC, 50 Hz)
Up Residual voltage, 8/20 s
Resistivity
Non-linearity exponent (U)
Page 69
By careful dimensioning of the geometry and controlled manufacture of the metal-oxide ceramic, the breakdown
4
voltage per element can be set to values within a very wide range (UB 3 V to >10 V). This allows realizing
protection devices for electronic circuits up to ultra-high voltage systems.
The switching mechanism of the material can be traced back to individual grain boundaries in the ceramics, which
each show a typical value for UB of app.3.2-3.4 V. For a general review see [Lev 1989], [Gre 1990], [Cla 1999],
[Bue 2008]. Combining many grain boundaries in series and in parallel within a MO-element then allows scaling the
voltage and current characteristic of a MO-ceramic block. For a sufficient number of grain boundaries the field
strength E and current density J then describe the material characteristic more generally. In the log-log
representation of the characteristic (Figure 2.5b) there are three distinct regions, i.e. the pre-breakdown region A,
the breakdown regime B, and the upturn region C.
During normal system operation, in which no overvoltages occur, the voltage applied to the arrester is the
continuous operating value (UV or COV for AC or UG for DC), which lies in the upper part of the pre-breakdown
region. The breakdown region is characterized by a very high non-linearity in the current-voltage curve. As Figure
2.5b shows, it is described quantitatively by the non-linearity exponent (E), which is a function of the voltage U or
applied field E, respectively. Its maximum values are typically around 20-70, but values above 100 have been
observed. The rated voltage UR, which also dictates the arrester's range of application, lies in the region of UB. In
the extreme case, where current densities are very high or very low, approaches unity (ohmic behavior), the two
regions being as much as 12 current decades apart [Gre 1989] [Per 2003]! In the case of a high, transient
overvoltage, the varistor state lies in the upper part of the breakdown or in the upturn region. This protective range
is characterized by the residual voltage UP, which depends upon the wave shape and amplitude of the impulse
current. For an arrester to effectively suppress voltage transients, the difference between the residual voltage and
the continuous operating or rated voltage must be small. However, it is important to recognize that the highly
temperature and voltage dependent power loss P v(V,T) generated at UV limits the maximum continuous operating
voltage (MCOV) which is possible. The power loss Pv must be low enough to satisfy the conditions for a thermally
stable state under possibly simultaneous conditions of elevated operating voltage, elevated temperature, aging,
pollution and energy absorption. A broad range of thermal stability is ensured by low power losses and the efficient
dissipation of heat in the arrester. This is also dependent on its detailed internal and external design and the
materials used to make them.
The AC-characteristics shown in Figure 2.5b is the result of the superimposed capacitive and resistive currents
flowing through the grain boundaries under a time dependent voltage stress. It is common practice to plot the
current peak vs. the voltage peak under AC. Well below UV the current is predominantly capacitive, while it is
strongly (non-linear) resistive for peak values above U B . To a first approximation, the AC response can be
described by using the DC-curve for the resistive part and the (small signal) dielectric permittivity of the material,
which is rather high (few hundreds). In some cases, for the so called AC resistive currents also the current value
I(t) in phase with the voltage maximum is used, which provides an improved (but not full) approximation to the
power losses. As indicated in Figure 2.5b, in the breakdown region the peak AC voltage is a few percent above the
steady state DC voltage due to the dynamic effects of charge trapping at the grain boundaries [Gre 1990].
It is worth mentioning that the phenomenon of electrical ageing, leading to thermal instability and failure, was a
serious one early in the development of the ZnO varistor. Today it has largely been brought under control by most
qualified manufacturers. However ageing is not only a result of long term exposure to operating voltages, it can
also be generated by current impulses (impulse degradation). Equally, not only the power losses at operating
voltage and/or reference voltage are affected, in some severe cases the discharge voltage can also be in- or
decreased [Lev 1989], [Per 2003].
2.2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE OF METAL-OXIDE RESISTORS

The metal-oxide resistor is made of a ceramic based on ZnO, a wide band gap semiconducting material. Its special
electrical properties are the direct result of its microstructure. Viewed through a microscope, the structure is seen to
be made up of minute ZnO crystals or grains, approximately 10-20 m in size. The core of the grains is a good
electrical conductor (
1 cm). At the grain boundaries, however, electrostatic potential barriers are built-up,
which form a highly insulating (electrostatically repulsing) region not more than 100 nm thick on each side of the ca.
1nm thick interface. It are these tiny grain boundary potential barriers, which control the current flow in the pre-
Page 70
breakdown, breakdown and lower part of the upturn region. By adding a few percent of selected doping elements
such as Bi, Sb, Co, Mn etc. to ZnO and using a suitable sintering process, it is possible to influence both the
conductivity of the ZnO grains and the properties of the high-resistance grain boundaries. The microstructure of the
ceramic is dominated by the densely packed ZnO grains resembling irregular polyhedrons. It are the common
interfaces (or grain boundaries) of these ZnO-polyhedrons, which are the electrical active part of the material.
Photographs of fracture surfaces provide a clear picture of this structure (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6: Typical microstructure of a ZnO-varistor after fracturing preferentially along the grain
boundaries (dark: doped ZnO grains, white: Bi2O3-phase at triple points, grey: Spinel secondary phase
Most of the admixed bismuth oxide collects as a separate phase at the triple points at which the adjacent grain
edges make contact. Also found at these points is a spinel phase in the form of fine grains, which are most easily
distinguished from the ZnO grains by their smaller size and more regular, octahedral shape. The grain boundaries
themselves, however, are not quite free of bismuth, although this cannot be seen in Figure 2.6. Using highly
sensitive techniques for analysis, it is however possible to detect at these boundaries the presence of fractions of
an atomic monolayer of both bismuth and oxygen atoms, which are essential for the electrical function of the
varistor [Cla 1999], [Chi 1998], [Kob 1998], [Sat 2007], [Stu 1990], [Elf 2002], [Che 1996]. During the sintering
process the bismuth oxide melts to form a liquid phase, which dissolves, at least in part, the other doping
substances and promotes their uniform distribution. The liquid phase also favors grain growth and dense sintering.
The spinel precipitates, on the other hand, inhibit grain growth and generate a uniform distribution of the ZnO grain
size. More recently the frequently observed inversion (or twin) boundaries were also recognized to be crucial for
the grain growth mechanism [Ber 2008].
Page 71
2.2.3 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The basic steps of the manufacturing process are shown in Figure 2.7. For a reliable high-performance metal-oxide
varistor to be produced, each of these steps must be well understood and optimally carried out [Lev 1989], [Gre
1989], [Per 2003].
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Figure 2.7: Manufacturing process for metal-oxide resistors

Production of homogeneous slurry by wet-mixing of oxide powders
Drying and granulation in a spray dryer
Compacting the granulate to form resistor blocks
Sintering to obtain dense ceramic bodies
Addition of electrical contacts and a protective coating
Electrical testing
MO resistors ready for assembly
The basic material used to manufacture metal-oxide resistors is very fine grain ZnO with particle sizes of about
1 m, to which as many as ten or more doping elements are added in the form of fine oxide powders. Its actual
composition differs from manufacturer to manufacturer. The proportion by weight of all additives together is typically
10 percent, with the share of the individual components ranging from ppm to percent. The purity and fineness of
the metal-oxide powders and the homogeneity of the mixture are, therefore, of immense importance for the quality
of the end-product. To achieve the required homogeneity the powder is usually treated in several different
processing steps. Sometimes the metal-oxides are wholly or partially heat-treated or calcined with none, part or all
of the ZnO powder to complete some of the solid-state chemical reactions before the sintering process is carried
out. Almost always a grinding operation is necessary to make the overall grain-size distribution smaller and
narrower and thoroughly mix the powders. Additional mixing operations are also used, in particular to mix the
smaller quantity of metal-oxide material with the larger quantity of ZnO. High shear mixing is frequently used to
achieve high homogeneity and various organic processing aids (dispersants, binders etc.) are added.
After these powder processes have been completed, the mixture or slurry has to be spray-dried to remove the
water and obtain a dry granulate that is beneficial for processing. Sometimes the spray-drying operation is also
carried out for the calcining operation mentioned above. The spheroidal granules obtained by spray-drying have
about 100 m in diameter, flow very easily and can be easily compacted under pressure. This takes place in the
next production stage, during which the granulate is compressed into disc-shaped blocks using a dry, uniaxial,
hydraulic press. The green blocks have approximately 50 to 60 percent of the theoretical density at this stage. It is
important here to ensure a uniform high density throughout the block, and that there are no defects present.
The blocks are finally sintered at about 1100-1300C, which has the effect of fully densifying the compacted powder
into a solid ceramic body with virtually no remaining porosity. In a prior step that occurs at lower temperature, the
organic additives mentioned above are pyrolyzed. This is a critical step, which requires very different conditions of
heat treatment and a continuous flow of fresh air. It can easily introduce flaws and voids into the body. During the
Page 72
sintering process the submicron-sized powder particles are united by means of diffusion and grow into large single
crystalline grains, where at the same time the additive dopants are built into the crystal lattices and the grain
boundaries are formed.
Ready-to-use MO resistors are obtained by adding high-conductivity metal contacts to the flat surfaces and
applying a coating to the resistor's peripheral surface to protect it from the environment. Frequently and beneficially
this is a glass coating, but other organic or inorganic materials have also been used. The coating is often referred
to as a passivation, in analogy with those used in solid-state semiconductors. Therefore, whatever material is
used, it is important that the coating not only has high dielectric and thermal withstand capability but also does not
change the properties of the varistor material underneath it.
2.2.4 ELECTRICAL TESTING OF METAL-OXIDE VARISTORS

Before leaving the production line each block has to pass a series of tests to verify its electrical properties, with
additional sampling of the resistors for ageing tests. These tests vary from one manufacturer to another, depending
upon their product quality and company standards. They typically include discharge voltage UP, AC or DC
reference voltage, power loss at continuous operating voltage, long duration and/or high amplitude current
impulses (LCLD, HCSD) and ageing. Some of them are performed on every MO disk whilst others are by nature
almost destructive and therefore sample tests. Some of these values are typically marked on the disk along with
production information such as the lot or batch number. These almost always include the discharge voltage. Often
the information is coded and not disclosed to third parties.
2.2.5 FROM GRAIN BOUNDARIES TO VARISTOR BLOCKS

Early in the history of ZnO-varistors it was already realized that the varistor action is a grain boundary phenomenon
and a variety of models have been developed [Lev 1989], [Gre 1990], [Cla 1999], [Bue 2008]. These models have
continuously been refined and put on a sounder physical basis. Also a more consistent understanding on the
microstructure down to the atomic level at the grain boundaries has evolved in the 80-ies and 90-ies [Lev 1989],
[Gre 1990], [Chi 1998],[Kob 1998], [Sat 2007], [Stu 1990], [Elf 2002], [Che 1996]. Figure 2.8 is a schematic picture
of the (electrical) microstructure of the varistor ceramics. At the grain boundaries extra electrons are trapped in
interfacial defect states, which lead to electrostatic potential barriers (Double Schottky Barriers, DSB) as illustrated
in the band diagram in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.8: Schematic view of the

electrical microstructure of a MOvaristor [Gre 1989]
Figure 2.9: Band diagram of a single grain

boundary, showing the Double Schottky
Barriers DSB formed by charge trapping in
interface states [Gre 1989] (dashdotted/dotted lines: Fermi or quasi Fermi
level [Bla 1986])
Page 73
At the grain boundaries thin intergranular films have consistently been observed, which seems to be an equilibrium
feature decorating all ZnO interfaces in the microstructure [Cla 1999], [Chi 1998], [Kob 1998], [Sat 2007], [Stu
1990], [Elf 2002], [Che 1996]. These films have a thickness of 1 nm, consist of an amorphous Bi2O3-ZnO solid
solution of reduced density and their Bi-concentration corresponds to an equivalent of 0.5-1 atomic layer. In
addition an excess of oxygen ( 0.5-1 monolayer) has been detected at these electrically active interfaces and has
been shown to be essential for the electrical characteristics [Stu 1990]. The negative charge trapped in this
intergranular film (or at its interface to the ZnO grains) is compensated by the ionized, positive donors in the
adjacent space charge (or depletion) regions to achieve charge neutrality. It are these tiny electrostatic potential
barriers B , which control the current flow through the material. Note that these barriers are very thin ( 200nm,
compared to the grain size of 10-20 m) and all the voltage drops occur on the positive biased side of the high
resistive grain boundaries, except in the upturn region, where the finite conductivity of the highly doped ZnO-grains
0.1-1 cm) [Lev 1989], [Cab 2004] starts to add to the voltage drop.
For a good varistor characteristics the potential barrier B(U) should stay high with increasing voltage U to prevent
conduction electrons to be thermally activated over the barrier and to generate a leakage current I(U) or power
loss, respectively (note that: I~exp( B(U) + EF)/kT, for eU >>kT, E F : Fermi energy). If the interface states Ni(E)
indicated in Figure 2.9 have a high density and a suitable energy distribution within the band gap of ZnO, then the
barrier height B(U) hardly changes with voltage and the leakage currents stay low. This is referred to as pinning of
the potential barrier B(U) and eventually even -values <1 can thereby result in the pre-breakdown. If all interface
states Ni(E) however would be filled, the total interface charge Qi ( Qi = Ni(E)dE ) would be constant and B(U)
would decay rapidly for U>0, leading to a poor characteristics. If however filled and unfilled interface states are
available, this decay of B(U) is counteracted by extra electrons being trapped in the unfilled states, Qi(U) will
2
increase and stabilize B(U) at a high level (note that: B(U) ~ Qi /N0 , N0: free carrier density in ZnO). Such a
pinning mechanism for interfacial barriers is also well known for other semiconductors [Gre 1990]. From various
studies the picture evolves that these pinning states are characteristic defect levels of the ZnO crystal lattice
(and/or the intergranular film) and hence are always positioned at the same energy within the energy gap of ZnO
[Gre 1990], [Gre 1986], [Gre 1995]. Due to its chemical nature, ZnO never is fully stochiometric and always
contains a small excess (few ppm) of Zn-atoms (e.g. either via Zn-interstitials or O-vacancies in the crystal lattice).
By varying dopants and the sintering and/or heat treatment in the manufacturing process the defect equilibrium of
ZnO is changed and hence the concentration (but not the energy position) of these pinning states is changed. This
affects the voltage response of the barrier B(U) and thereby different J(E) characteristics will result. A high density
of unfilled states (at U=0) is favorable for low leakage currents (and low power losses), whereas a low density
results in a gradual decay of B(U) and in a higher power loss in the pre-breakdown [Gre 1990], Gre 1986].
Quantitatively the defect equilibrium in ZnO-varistors is still badly understood [Mah 1983], [Suk 1988], [Koh 2000],
[Car 2003], but qualitatively this DSB defect model [Gre 1990], [Gre 1986], together with todays knowledge on
the grain boundary films [Chi 1998], explains why so many different material recipes lead to a varistor behavior and
why there are subtle, but technically important differences in the electrical characteristics depending on the recipe
and process used by the manufacturers.
Next we discuss the breakdown region with its high nonlinearities and a well reproducible switching voltage UB of
ca. 3.2-3.4 V per grain boundary, largely independent on the materials formulation. In the past, several models
were able to explain -values up to ca. 20 [Lev 1989], whereas for good varistors -values well above 50 are
realized today. In the literature often the term varistor is used whenever -values >1 are measured for the J(E)
characteristics, although this is misleading for the present topic. There are various mechanisms in solid state
physics leading to deviations from ohmic behavior, but the real challenge is to explain the high nonlinearities >20.
To achieve such high nonlinearities two ingredients are needed:
i) first a strong pinning of
B(U)
stabilizing
at typically
0.8-1eV in the pre breakdown
ii) second a mechanism leading to a raid decay of B(U) for U > UB , since for eU >>kT
- (eU/kT)d B/dU, i.e. U and d B/dU both have to be high for a high nonlinearity!
In the case of a strong pinning of the Fermi level (or B), very high electrical fields build-up on the positively biased
17
3
side of the grain boundary. For sufficiently high doping of the bulk of the ZnO ( N0 > ca. 10 /cm ) the fields at the
interface reach values as high as 0.5-1 MV/cm, high enough to create hot electrons similar to what is known for
Page 74
other semiconductors with high carrier mobilitys (e.g. GaAs). These hot electrons can create holes in the valence
band by impact ionization as soon as their energy near the edge of the space charge region is above the band gap
of ZnO (ca. 3.2 eV). The positively charged holes will diffuse back to the grain boundary within less than 1 nsec.
There they compensate part of the negative interface charge Qi . As a consequence this will lower B and increase
the current across the barrier - and hence also the number of hot electrons created will increase further. This hole
production above a threshold level typical for ZnO will trigger a positive feedback mechanism, which leads to a
rapid decay of B(U) with increasing U and hence to high nonlinearities ! For a sufficiently high hole generation
rate, the energy gain ( B+eU) of the electrons must be in the range of 4 eV, which explains the observed switchingor breakdown-voltage of typically 3.2-3.4 V per grain boundary ( B(UB) 0.8 eV, details also depend on N0 and
Ni(E) [Bla 1986]). The stabilizing element in this avalanche-type feedback mechanism is the electron-hole
recombination at the interface.
Figure 2.10: Band diagram scheme of the hole induced breakdown mechanism
[Gre 1989]
Page 75
Figure 2.11: Electroluminescence observed under the light microscope [Gre1990],

[Gre 1998]. A surface contact geometry is used with a contact at the top and
bottom of the picture. Each grain boundary lights up by a short line roughly
perpendicular to the current filament connecting both electrodes. Some filaments
can be seen to disappear under the surface and to reappear closer to the other
surface electrode. The material is stressed in the breakdown region U> U B
With this hole induced breakdown model, developed by Pike, Greuter and Blatter [Gre 1990], [Bla 1986], [Pik
1984], most of the unusual breakdown phenomena in ZnO-varistors can be (semi)quantitatively understood, like
e.g. the high nonlinearities ( >>20), the negative small signal capacitance around UB and the electroluminescence
phenomena observed at the switching point [Gre 1990], [Gre 1998], [Pik 1984], [Pik 1985], [Gre 1984]. The
electroluminescence comes from the fraction of holes, which recombine directly with electrons in the conduction
band, thereby emitting light in the UV-region ( h
3.2 eV ). This direct observation of the band-band
recombination is the most direct evidence for the hole induced breakdown model [Pik 1985], [Gre 1984]. Besides
the valence band states, also defect levels in the band gap of ZnO can be ionized by the hot electrons and their
recombination leads to a strong luminescence in the visible range, like the dominating emission at 700nm (red)
from the doping with Co [Gre 1998], [Pik 1985], [Gre 1984], [Glo 1981], [Cor 1990]. When viewed under the
microscope this strong emission can be observed at every grain boundary along a current filament, which each
light up like a small light emitting diode (see Figure 2.11).
With the model developed by Pike-Greuter-Blatter a good and partly even quantitative understanding is achieved
for the pre-breakdown and breakdown region. This is the most powerful and accepted model today for consistently
explaining the different varistor phenomena. Also the dynamic effects of voltage overshoot under fast pulses can
be understood by this model, although some interface parameters (e.g. interface recombination rates) are not yet
known precisely enough to make the model quantitative for this case [Tua 1988]. No effort has so far been made to
calculate the AC large signal response. Qualitatively the model also explains the slightly higher AC-breakdown
voltage compared to the steady state DC-value UB (see Figure 2.5b) and the observed asymmetries in the resistive
current component, which are due to the charge trapping and de-trapping dynamics [Gre 1990].
Next we briefly address the statistical and microstructural effects, which are caused by the network of grain
boundaries inside a varistor element. In the real microstructure the individual grain boundaries are arranged in a
partly disordered 3-dimensional network and the net current density of a MO-element may well deviate from the
Page 76
local current density seen by a specific ZnO-ZnO grain boundary. Electroluminescence pictures as in Figure 2.11
[Gre 1990], [Gre 1998] made, for the first time, directly visible that the current flow through a MO-block is of
filamentary nature. Similar insight also can be gained by new imaging techniques with high speed infrared
cameras, as shown by Wang et. al. [Wan 1998], Figure 2.13. Several groups [Bar 1996], [Voj 1996], [Che 2002],
[Zha 2005], [Lee 1999], [Wan 1998], [And 2003], [Bog 2000] now have performed simulations of such random
networks in 2-dimensions (e.g. of Voronoi-type), considering different types of irregularities. They provide
interesting insights into various questions, which are difficult to access by experiments, like the role of disorder, the
influence of the grain size distribution, local variations in nonlinearity and switching voltage, fluctuations in barrier
heights, local hot spots etc.
Figure 2.12: Local distribution of current in a random network containing varistor-type grain boundaries
for different positions on the U/I-characteristics: a) ohmic region with a homogeneous distribution of the
current density (V=1.5), b) in the breakdown with clear filamentary conduction (V=3.5), c) higher up in
the breakdown region at the transition to the upturn (V=4.3) and d) in the upturn-region where the
current distribution reverts to a more homogeneous situation (V=6) [Bar 1996]. The gray-level
represents the relative value of the current through a grain boundary, normalized to the total current.
Page 77
Figure 2.13: Infrared thermal images taken with a high speed camera for thin slices of low voltage
varistors with large grain size [Wan 1998]
Depending on the position on the macroscopic U/I-characteristics, the flow pattern through the microstructure can
be quite different and far from homogeneous, as is illustrated by Figure 2.12. In the ohmic regions (U << UB and U
>> UB ) the current flow is rather homogeneous throughout the structure, whereas in the high nonlinear regime
strong current filaments can develop and lead to local overheating, as nicely demonstrated in Figure 2.13. Heat
generation and heat spreading then can become inhomogeneous in the microstructure and may lead to local
thermal runaway and local thermo-mechanical stresses [Wan 1998], [Bog 2000]. For a high irregularity in the grain
size distribution it is possible that two or several filaments join into a single one, which increases the risk of
microscopic hot spots if operated at this condition for a long time (see Figure 2.12). Clusters of several large grains,
as an example, are an obvious condition for creating hot spots [Bar 1996], [Voj 1996], [Che 2002], [Zha 2005], [Lee
1999], [Wan 1998], [And 2003]. For thin samples, as typically used for LV-devices, such statistical disorder effects
are even more critical than for larger volume elements [Wan 1998]. In 3-dimensions some of these reported critical
phenomena are less severe due to the higher number of possible paths available for the current filaments.
However, up to now 3D-simulations have not yet been done for nonlinear random networks, but will certainly come
the more the computational power develops.
In the above network simulations often cases are discussed, where a significant fraction of the boundaries are
assumed to be not varistor-active [Bar 1996], [He 2004], i.e. either ohmic with some assumed conductivity, bad
junctions with poor nonlinearities or even being insulating. The secondary phases like Bi2O3, spinel or pyrochlor
and clusters thereof represent such insulation pockets within the microstructure and this certainly has an influence
on the U/I-characteristics, as experimentally shown by artificially generating such inclusions [Gre 1998]. The reports
of non-active ZnO/ZnO boundaries, however, have to be considered with caution, as experimentally it is extremely
difficult to prepare polished surface structures for local measurements without destroying and short-circuiting the
sensitive grain boundaries. Unfortunately, most authors do not check and comment on such possible artefacts.
Based on the recent understanding that the amorphous grain boundary films are wetting all ZnO-interfaces [Chi
1998], it is rather unlikely that some boundaries should not be varistor-active; local variations in the boundary
properties (barrier heights etc), however are more likely and have to be expected.
Page 78
The simulation studies clearly underline that the optimization and homogenization of the microstructure is
important. This probably is one of the efforts common to all varistor manufacturers. Clear progress has been made
in ceramic process technology over the past decades, as can, for example, be seen in the recent comparative
study on the energy handling capability of major varistor manufacturers [Rin 1997], [Rei 2008] and this report.
Besides the microscopic non-homogeneities discussed above there are also non-homogeneities on the
mesoscopic (ca. 100 m, size of spray granule) and macroscopic ( mm-cm ) scale, which have to be controlled in
varistor manufacturing and which affect the overall performance of a varistor block [Gre 1998], [And 2003], [Ste
2004]. Additional materials challenges to be solved are given by the passivation layer (environmental, dielectric and
thermo-mechanical stresses) and the metallization (adhesion, contacting, rim structure) [Per 2003], [Bog 2000],
[And 2000]. The role of macroscopic (mm-cm) electrical non-homogeneities on the energy handling capability has
been studied by simulations [Eda 1984], [Bar 1996], [Nie 1989] and will be addressed in the following section.
2.2.6 FAILURE MODES OF VARISTOR BLOCKS

In qualification testing and in the field the varistor elements have to cope with a variety of stresses like: long term
stability tests, discharge voltage, temporary overvoltage, long duration impulses (1-4 ms square wave), high current
impulses (90/200 s, 4/10 s etc), short circuit behavior (after forced prefailing; shattering test) etc. Most of these
aspects are discussed at other places in this report or in the literature [Gre 1998], [Bar 1996], [Voj 1996], [Che
2002], [Zha 2005], [Lee 1999], [Wan 1998], [And 2003], [Bog 2000], [Bal 2004], [Rin 1997], [Rei 2008], [He 2004],
[And 2000], [Eda 1984], [Bar 1996], [Nie 1989], [Hag 1997], [Voj 1997], [Len 2000], [Mah 2001], [Miz 1983], [Ste
2004].
Here we only briefly discuss the phenomena directly related to the varistor blocks. The different stresses can lead
to a variety of failure modes, like:
-
thermal runaway
puncture from current concentrations followed by local thermal runaway and melting
cracking due to localized heating (with or without puncturing)
cracking due to thermo-elastic stresses during high current impulses (even for a perfectly homogeneous
block)
flashover from high dielectric stresses at the rim or surface of the blocks.
An ideally homogeneous block can only fail either by thermal runaway (heat input faster than cooling) or by
fracturing under high current stresses, where the stresses exceed the mechanical strength of the material. In
reality, however non-homogeneities are always present, be it in the microstructure or on the macro scale of the
block. These imperfections will give rise to local overheating followed by either puncturing or/and
compressive/tensile stresses leading to fracturing of the ceramics. Various reports can be found in the literature on
the different types and degrees of non-homogeneities observed and how they translate to mechanical stresses
[Lev 1989], [Eda 1984], [Bar 1996], [Nie 1989]. Figure 2.14 illustrates by IR-measurements the electrical nonhomogeneities, which can be present in a non-perfect varistor block [Ste 2004].
Page 79
Figure 2.14:
Left: Cross section along the axis of a station arrester block ( 63 mm), viewed by a fast IR-camera
upon exposure to a square wave impulse of a few ms duration and a current amplitude of 100-200 A
[Ste 2004].
Right: light intensity profile proportional to the temperature, which in turn is proportional to the current
flowing through the block.
For a complete simulation of the failure behavior, the electrical, thermal and mechanical properties of an
inhomogeneous varistor block have to be calculated in 3 dimensions in a coupled mode. This is a very demanding
task and has not yet been done with finite element methods. Parts of the problem however have been addressed
and are illustrated in Figure 2.15 and Figure 2.16. Figure 2.15 shows the coupled thermal electrical simulation for
the rim of a varistor block, where the metallization is made with an edge margin of 2 mm. The equithermal contour
plots nicely show that this non-metallized rim leads to a current concentration at the metallization edge, where high
local temperatures can occur and can trigger a puncturing.
In general, puncturing has to be expected, if the local heating is faster than the heat spreading and the ceramic
locally is heated to above the melting point (> 750-850 C), where the melt can be progressively ejected, starting
from the surface of the hot spot. The local heating simultaneously also creates thermo-mechanical stresses and, if
these stresses reach the mechanical strength of the material before the hot spot has reached the melting point,
then mechanical fracturing can occur prior to puncturing. Alternatively cracking can follow the puncturing, if
sufficient energy is deposited in the channel. Both phenomena, puncturing and cracking under long duration
impulse, hence have the same origin, but the outcome will depend on such parameters as the local energy input
rate, size and geometry of inhomogeneity, local stresses generated, fracture work needed etc.
A deeper insight in these coupled electrical-thermal-mechanical phenomena was first provided by Bartkowiak et. al.
by using continuum mechanics and assuming simple failure criteria to study the failure modes for the energy
testing of varistor blocks containing hot spots [Bar 1996]. The hot spots were simulated by assuming a small axial,
cylindrical area with reduced breakdown voltage (-5%) in an otherwise homogenous block. Radial, axial and
tangential stresses were then calculated self consistently on the basis of a theoretical U/I-characteristic for different
current densities and two different block sizes. Although the assumed inhomogeneity is rather high compared to
todays high quality blocks (and for symmetry reasons was located in the center of the block), the model predicts
quite well the regimes for the most likely failure modes to occur: thermal runaway, puncture, cracking under tension
and cracking under compression. The results for a distribution arrester disk are illustrated in Fig. 2.16. Note that
depending on the range of current density, different failure modes can show up on a block.
Page 80
Figure 2.15: Equithermal contour plot for an edge margin of 2 mm of a varistor block as obtained from
coupled thermal electrical simulations [And 2000].
Figure 2.16: a) Time to failure t f and b) energy handling capability of a distribution-class type of MO
disk; the different limiting failure modes are shown [Bar 1996].
For the simpler case, where the temperature field across the block is known, the mechanical stresses have been
calculated by Nied [Nie 1989]. Despite the simplifications made the work from Bartkowiak et.al. provides a rather
Page 81
detailed and useful insight into the overall (3D) behavior of distribution and station blocks during the energy
handling capability tests. Note that local hot spots (or channels) can lead to cracking patterns parallel or
perpendicular to the block axis, depending on the impulse amplitude/duration and/or the block size [Bog 2000], [Rin
1997], [Rei 2008], [Eda 1984], [Bar 1996], [Nie 1989].
The above failure modes for energy stresses in the (sub) millisecond to second range have to be clearly separated
from the failures observed under high current impulses, like the 4/10 s pulse. Here a new type of failure mode
appears, which has been identified [Hag 1997] as being a very special case of a thermo elastic stress generation
resulting from the extremely high heating rates produced by this fast impulse: Heating rates up to 10 7 K/s can be
generated inside a block of a distribution arrester! This temperature rise occurs on a time scale much faster than
the material can adapt in its thermal expansion, which is limited by the sound velocity c of the ceramic (c 4-5000
m/s; < h/c, h=block dimension). Even in a perfectly homogenous varistor block this can lead to very high tensile
and compressive stresses. Depending on the block geometry and block properties, these stresses may reach the
material strength and can cause fracture of the varistor block. Hence this thermo-elastic stress is an intrinsic
limitation for all varistor blocks exposed to such short and energetic impulses. This adds the mechanical strength
as an additional parameter for a good material. Existing non-homogeneities in the block not only limit the
mechanical strength of the material, but they can also create additional thermo-mechanical stresses if they lead to
large current non-homogeneities and temperature gradients inside the material [Per 2003], [Bal 2004], [Hag 1997],
[Voj 1997], [Len 2000]. Analytical calculations in simple 1D [Hag 1997], [Voj 1997] or full 3D-analysis [Mah 2001],
as well as 3D finite element simulations [Len 2000], predict these oscillating mechanical stresses in the varistor
body under high current impulse, see Figure 2.17. With the full three dimensional models, the reflections of the
mechanical stress waves from the different surfaces of the varistor body are included, showing that the stress fields
vary between tensile and compressive stresses in time and space in a rather complex manner. Figure 2.17 also
compares the simple 1D-model [Hag 1997], [Voj 1997] with a 3D-simulation, showing that the reflections cause
even higher stresses than predicted from the 1D model only. If the stresses exceed the mechanical strength of the
ceramics, the blocks will crack. Very characteristic cracking patterns can be observed, like the one shown in Figure
2.17, where due to the short duration of the impulse quite often no signs of any discharges are present.
Figure 2.17:left: 1st principle stresses for 1D and 3D model [Len 2000],
right: typical midplane crack under high current impulse for a distribution block with high aspect ratio
(height/diameter) [Hag 1997], [Voj 1997], [Len 2000], [Per 2003].
From the simulations it is evident that the size and aspect ratio of the varistor block have a clear influence on the
thermo-elastic stresses generated. For varistors with an aspect ratio (height/diameter) less than about 0.5, the
st
st
maximum 1 principle stress is normal to the axis, while for a high aspect ratio the maximum 1 principle stress has
axial direction, in agreement with the fracture modes observed (see Figure 2.17). Minimal high current stresses are
predicted for an aspect ratio of ca. 0.9 [Len 2000], [Mah 2001].
Todays simulations do not yet consider possible influences of electrical non-homogeneities, electrodes, metal
spacers, contact forces, encapsulation etc. as present in the real arrester design. Other minor effects also not
Page 82
considered yet in the simulations of the block performance are the slight, beneficial influence of the small positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) in the grain resistivity in the high current range [Cab 2004] or the pressure
dependence of the U/I-characteristics [Dor 1985].
Very little information is available in the literature on flashover phenomena on single MO-blocks [Rei 2008]. Poor
control of the metallization edges of course is one of the possible origins, besides such parameters like contacting
electrodes, ambient conditions, surface passivation, surface contaminations etc. Also care must be taken by
separating a true dielectric surface flashover from discharges being triggered by near edge puncture (as e.g.
expected at high energies for rim situations like in Figure 2.15).
2.2.7 LONG-TERM STABILITY OF ZNO VARISTORS

In the early period of development, ZnO varistors showed significant degradation in the U/I-characteristics in the
accelerated ageing test under continuous AC or DC operating voltage: the leakage current and power loss
increased with time and applied voltage, either right from the beginning or after passing through a minimum (see
Figure 2.18). As such changes of the characteristics under long term stress affect the thermal stability of the
arrester; the ageing of the varistor elements has to be assessed before performing thermal stability tests.
Instabilities can be the result of an intrinsic behavior of the bulk of the material or can be related to the near surface
areas, where the atmosphere and the passivation are additional points of concern, as illustrated in Figure 2.19.
From the manufacturers point of view, the main variables regarding the long term stability are the recipe and the
thermal processes, which both can have a decisive influence and are not well described in the literature. From the
application side, AC vs. DC operating voltage and the surrounding medium may have a significant effect on the
long term stability of a varistor block. From steady material improvements, most of todays available varistors show
no degradation under AC operating voltage, i.e. a stable or decreasing power loss vs. time in the accelerated
ageing test. Generally, the long term stability is assessed by measuring the power loss at elevated voltage and
temperature (115C) for duration of 1000 h and stability is defined as a stable or monotonically decreasing power
loss versus time curve. Long term stability under DC voltage however is more difficult to achieve than under AC.
The efforts of realizing a varistors with good DC long term stability are higher and for this application often special
DC material formulations and thermal processing means are used.
As mentioned above, the medium surrounding the varistor may also cause additional degradation of the U/I
characteristic. In general, oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere helps for the long term stability, whereas a
reducing atmosphere may have negative effects on the stability of the rim area of a block. Internal partial
discharges in a faulty surge arrester may change the gas composition surrounding the varistor blocks to become of
reducing nature and can trigger degradation. The established approach today to verify performance of varistors
under critical atmospheric conditions is to perform accelerated aging tests under N 2 or SF6 (for GIS-arresters) with
low oxygen concentration (< 0.1%). This ensures that even in the total absence of oxygen, the long term stability of
the varistor can be granted. Similar, application specific tests are needed e.g. for under oil operation in
transformers, which in addition to the surrounding medium, also have to consider possible higher service
temperatures.
A variety of empirical long term test results with different time-evolutions of Pv(t,T,U) are reported in the literature,
but a physics based, microscopic model for the degradation mechanism is still missing [Lev 1989], [Bue 2008], [Gre
1989], ]Per 2003], [Stu 1990], [Gre 1995], [Gup 1990]. The intrinsic ageing behavior of the bulk material is known to
be a grain boundary phenomenon. Migration of charged defects (e.g. Zinc interstitials Zni or Oxygen vacancies VO)
within the space charge regions [Gre 1995], [Gup 1990] and the reduction of the excess oxygen at the grain
boundaries [Stu 1990], [Gre 1995] are expected to take place or have been observed during accelerated ageing
tests. From an electrochemistry point of view, this is not surprising, given the high electric fields present at the grain
boundaries. The charge rearrangements from migrating defects will lead to a time dependent distortion of the
electrostatic potential barriers and can qualitatively explain the observed changes in the U/I-characteristics during
ageing tests [Lev 1989], [Stu 1990], [Gre 1995], [Gup 1990]. For ageing under DC or unipolar impulse stresses the
U/I-curve becomes not only displaced but also asymmetric, with different shapes depending on the polarity [Lev
1989], [Gre 1995], [Gup 1990]. This implies that the space charge regions at the grain boundaries are no longer
symmetric.
Page 83
Note that most of the degradation or polarization phenomena are reversible and can be healed out by heating to
200-300C without applied voltage. Thereby small thermally stimulated depolarization currents are observed [Lev
1989], either due to the migration of the charged defects or the de-trapping of electrons back to their original
equilibrium configurations. Empirically, some dopants are known for their positive or negative influence on the long
term stability [Lev 1989], [Gup 1990], [Fan 1993], [Bin 1993]. It is assumed that they act either directly via forming
migrating or blocking defects or indirectly via their influence on the defect equilibrium in ZnO (e.g. the density of
Zni) and other phases like Bi 2O3 [Gre 1995], [Gup 1990], [Fan 1993], [Bin 1993]. For a more detailed understanding
of the ageing phenomena, certainly more research work is still needed on such electrochemical processes
occurring near the grain boundaries and the adjacent triple point phases.
1.4
1.2
1.2
power loss ratio P / Po
pow er loss ratio P / Po
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
stable
0.4
unstable
stable varistor in air or N2

unstable varistor in air
unstable varistor in N2
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Figure 2.18: Power loss ratio vs. time for

stable and unstable varistors during
accelerated ageing tests at 115C and
slightly elevated AC operating voltage.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
time [h]
time [h]
Figure 2.19: Power loss ratio vs. time

depending on the surrounding medium (air,
N 2 ) during accelerated ageing test at
115 C and continuous AC voltage.
As mentioned above, in the accelerated ageing tests in the early days of ZnO varistors, the materials showed
increasing leakage currents or power losses vs. time. These changes were found to follow, to a good
approximation, an Arrhenius-type law when varying the test temperature [Lev 1989], [Gup 1990]. Based on these
early observations, accelerated ageing procedures were established in the IEC standard 60099-4. An acceleration
T/10)
factor AF was estimated with AFT = 2.5
, a test temperature of 115C was chosen as well as a test time of
1000h. As an example, the lifetime prediction derived from this test would be equivalent to 110 years at 40C
ambient temperature. In the past, this accelerated ageing procedure provided good confidence on life expectancy
of metal-oxide blocks. For applications with higher ambient temperatures (e.g. 65C) in general the test durations
must be extended to demonstrate acceptable equivalent life times under such condition (see Table 1). A further
increase of the test temperature to shorten the test time seems not applicable, as a change of the ageing
mechanisms at higher temperatures cannot be excluded, making the extrapolation from this high temperature
range to near room temperatures questionable. Also an increase of the test voltage, as another acceleration factor,
is quite limited. With test voltages above the reference voltage, self-heating and thermal runaway may occur and
new transport mechanisms come into play (e.g. hole generation, Figure 2.10).
Page 84
Upper limit of ambient temperature
Test duration at 115 C
C
40
65
95
h
1000
2000
7000
Equivalent time at upper limit of

ambient temperature
Years
110
22
5
Table 2.2: Test duration and equivalent time at upper limit of ambient temperature according IEC
60099-4
The problem with the presently used accelerated ageing concept is that most of todays established materials show
a decreasing power loss with time and the decrease normally is higher at higher test temperatures. Hence these
stable materials show behavior just opposite to an Arrhenius-type law, making the standardized test rather
questionable and without a sound physical basis. Presently we do not understand the microscopic origin of the
initially fast and then slower continuous decrease of the power loss observed in most established varistor materials
nor do we have a deeper insight in such cases as shown in Figures 2.18 and 2.19, where the losses go through a
minimum, followed by a steady increase. Such behavior suggests that several mechanisms might be at work on
different time scales. It is well possible that the increase after the minimum corresponds to a mechanism of
instability and perhaps is thermally activated as in the case of an Arrhenius-type mechanism. If this holds then the
standardized test procedure from the early days might still be basically appropriate and only would need some
reformulation. Certainly, further research efforts are also needed here and the existing test procedure should be
kept until an improved understanding puts this sensitive issue on a better founded basis.
2.2.8 TRENDS AND OPEN ISSUES

Overvoltage protection on all voltage levels from electronics to extra high voltages with passive components will
remain a vital technology and further developments will be realized as manufacturing technologies and basic
understanding make further progress. Overall the last decade has seen a decline in fundamental material research,
if we specifically look at the varistor technology. But much progress has been made regarding the process- and
manufacturing-technology of the ceramic as well as in numerical simulation techniques. A variety of new
microscopic characterization methods have been developed, directly probing materials on the atomic scale and we
can expect that these tools will be helpful to further understand the fascinating mechanisms behind the varistor
materials as well. Also varistor research has moved away from solely looking at the electrical function and has
addressed also additional aspects like their mechanical properties [Bal 2004], [Hag 1997], [Len 2000], which are of
concern for new compact designs and for high stress situations. Various new developments have appeared which
are still in the development phase or are currently making their way into new products. As an illustration we add a
few examples:
i)
High field varistor materials and devices, which allow to build more compact components, like e.g. for
GIS-surge arresters, light weight (gapped) line arresters etc.
ii)
Alternative varistor materials have and will be a topic of ongoing research. Examples, where materials
with reasonably high, controlled and reversible nonlinearities have been demonstrated are varistors based
on SrTiO3, CaCu3TiO12, grain boundary doped SiC, SnO2 etc. Much progress has been made in the area
of SnO2-varistors and electrical characteristics approaching the one of good ZnO-materials have recently
been demonstrated [Bue 2008], [Met 2007]. However, ZnO remains an unique material when it comes to
such practical aspects like availability, costs, purity, particle size, electrical transport properties, economic
sintering temperatures etc and it will be hard to beat it for the big volumes of varistor applications.
iii)
Microvaristors as a by-product of the traditional varistor manufacturing have been developed and are
used as a functional filler in polymers, e.g. for field grading in cable accessories [Str 1995], [Str 2001].
iv)
Multilayer varistors: Impressive and hardly published progress has been made for applications in the
electronics area, where these protection devices of (sub)mm-dimensions are produced on highly
automated production lines in huge numbers or were thick-film varistors with substantially improved
characteristics are evolving.
Page 85
v)
Varistor integration: New concepts and ideas have been evaluated and partly demonstrated for
integrating the surge arrester function into other components [Per 2005]. This becomes possible with the
improvements in the design- and simulation-methods as well as the further progress in arrester
manufacturing. In oil filled distribution transformers integrated solutions show very positive field records in
Japan and USA and proof that integrated solutions can be attractive. Further work, in particular on the test
philosophy, however, is needed to gain a broad acceptance of such new approaches.
Regarding the basic understanding of ZnO varistors, several topics still lack a deeper and quantitative
understanding and hopefully will be addressed in future research activities. A very challenging area certainly is the
ageing mechanism, which seems to be closely linked to the poorly understood defect chemistry in ZnO. The latter
also is of interest for understanding the role of individual dopants and the electrical activation of the grain
boundaries. With the recent discovery of p-type ZnO thin film materials, a revival of ZnO-research has started and
this will also add to a deeper understanding of the atomistic phenomena in varistor materials. A puzzling issue,
which is not conclusively treated in the literature, is the true quality and spread in the junction properties within a
varistor ceramic, where a certain fraction of inactive or bad varistor grain boundaries is reported, however without
quantifying the possible artifacts from sample preparation.
For the transport properties, there is quite a good understanding available today for the DC- and small signal ACbehavior. For the large signal AC-response at 50 or 60 Hz however no attempts have been made so far to apply
the existing junction models to describe the capacitive and nonlinear resistive current components in a quantitative
way. The same holds for the different impulse shapes used in the upturn region, where only a preliminary
simulation study on the transient response has been made so far [Tua 1988]. A related field is the more frequent
use of varistor elements in power electronic circuits, where very steep transients with modest energy stresses, but
very high repetition rates, are typical and only limited knowledge is available today from experiments and from
modeling.
Page 86
2.3 Design of surge arresters

Authors in charge: Volker Hinrichsen and Bernhard Richter
2.3.1 FOREWORD
Latest by end of the 1980s MO arresters had definitely been established as state of the art, since their technical
and commercial benefits are quite evident. MO arresters offer low protection levels, high energy absorption capabilities, and stable operation even under severe pollution conditions and lifetimes which easily may exceed thirty
years. Knowledge about principal design of conventional porcelain housed MO arresters can be presumed;
therefore this technology will not be addressed here. However, the very simple structure of an MO arrester the
active part basically consists of a stack of cylindrical MO resistor elements supported the development of polymer
housed arresters at a very early stage. They were introduced for the first time in the mid-1980s in the distribution
voltage level. After about 15 years of development some few basic design principles of polymer housed arresters
can be distinguished with a variety of individual sub-solutions. While there are less basic design variants for
distribution than for HV arresters (only cost effective, no "high tech" solutions are applied), the variety of subsolutions is much larger, one reason for this given by the fact that there are far more manufacturers of distribution
arresters on the market than in HV. Accordingly, more design variants had to be created in order to avoid patent
conflicts. As mentioned, for HV arresters at least one more basic design principle is applied the use of composite
hollow core insulators but there are not so many sub-solutions, as there are not too many manufacturers of HV or
EHV polymer housed arresters worldwide. Therefore a classification of today's polymer housed HV arrester
designs is comparatively easy. It must be mentioned, though, that there still does not exist any official
nomenclature. Designations like "Type A" or "Type B", as they are used in this contribution, must not be mixed up
with other emerging classifications. For instance, the new IEC document 37/317/CDV on arrester short-circuit
testing [IEC 37] has introduced "Design A" and "Design B" arresters. These designations have different meanings,
as they serve for classification with regard to short-circuit performance only.
This contribution exclusively focuses on constructional design principles. Other important design aspects such as
the different performance characteristics can be looked up in [Hin 2003].
2.3.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF POLYMER HOUSED HV ARRESTERS

"HV" actually ranges from Us = 72.5 kV up to Us = 800 kV (higher levels do exist but do not play an important role
so far). This wide range may be further sub-divided into two parts where different philosophies govern the decision
process for an arrester purchase. In the voltage levels up to Us = 300 kV, i.e. the lower transmission and the subtransmission levels, in most cases just technical standard requirements apply. There is only little need for special
features like extra-high mechanical strength or safety considerations. These are the voltage levels of standard
applications, where more and more the same criteria as in distribution systems are applied and not too much time
or money is spent to optimize the arrester layout for a particular location. It is the domain of "low cost" (in its
positive meaning) arresters. For the EHV levels, Us = 360 kV and more, requirements especially on mechanical
characteristics play an increasingly important role, which cannot easily be fulfilled by the "low cost" designs.
Further, users are less willing to take any risk of possible arrester failures. The electrical and mechanical
requirements on the arresters are often evaluated by system studies, and in many cases the user has detailed
knowledge and information about the system configuration and clear ideas about the optimal arrester for his
particular application. This is the domain of "special feature" arresters. Both types of arresters are available today in
polymer housed design.
2.3.3 THE MECHANICAL SUPPORTING STRUCTURE

Figure 2.20 gives a classification of the mechanical design principles of arresters, which is not only limited to
polymer housed arresters. According to this suggestion a differentiation is made between designs using a hollow
core insulator with an intentionally enclosed gas volume and such designs, where the housing is put onto the MO
column without any intentional internal gas volume. With respect to the polymer housed arresters, the mechanical
designs can be characterized as follows:
Type A: This design the "tube design" is a more conventional approach, looking quite similar to that of a
porcelain housed arrester as shown in Figure 2.21. The stack of MO resistor elements is mechanically supported
by an internal cage structure, for example made from FRP rods. This insert is clamped between the end flanges by
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help of compression springs. Additional supporting elements (not shown in the figure) may be necessary to fix the
insert in radial direction. What is important and sometimes criticized is the fact that this arrester due to its enclosed
gas volume needs a sealing and pressure relief system. This has in fact to be designed and manufactured with the
same care as it is the case with porcelain housed arresters. But just for this reason this does not constitute a real
problem for an experienced manufacturer of HV arresters. There are numerous makes of HV arresters on the
market, which have an excellent service record (over twenty years or even more) also with respect to their sealing
systems. Therefore, whether this arrester design has problems with moisture ingress or not is a matter of the
manufacturer's know-how and production quality, as it has always been with porcelain housed arresters and by
the way as it is also with the other designs of polymer housed arresters, which by far are not all inherently leak
age sealed.
Porcelain;
Polymer Type A
Polymer Type B1b
Polymer Type B1a
Polymer Type B2
MO column
Gas
FRP supporting structure
Solid/semi-solid material
Outer housing
Metal end fittings
Type A: gas volume enclosed, separate sealing system, pressure relief vents
Type B: no intentional gas volume included
...1: wrapped mechanical structure or tube
... a: FRP material directly wrapped onto the MO blocks
... b: FRP tube with distance to the MO blocks, gap filled by other material
... 2: cage design
Figure 2.20: Classification of basic arrester designs; cross sectional side and top views
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Top cover plate

Flange with venting outlet
Sealing ring
Pressure relief diaphragm
Compression spring
MO resistor column
Composite
hollow core insulator
(FRP tube/ rubber sheds)
Figure 2.21: Polymer housed arrester Type A

Another question in this context is if vapor could permeate directly through the sheds and walls of the housing or
through the bonding area between flanges and FRP tube [Hin 1994]. Both investigations and service experience
(first arresters of this design have been installed in 1990) have shown that this is not the case. The amount of
moisture ingress due to these mechanisms is below the quantities which can pass through a good sealing system.
Thus this is no issue, since these quantities can easily be controlled by internal desiccants, as it is done in nearly
every HV device in the electric power system. Actually, some research is being done in order to better understand
these mechanisms and to derive minimum design requirements on composite hollow core insulators used for
arrester applications.
Quite evidently, the Type A arrester cannot be cheaper in production than a comparable porcelain housed arrester,
since composite hollow core insulators are still far more expensive (on the market) than porcelain housings. The
Type A arrester is therefore the typical "special feature" arrester, which in most cases offers technical advantages
both over the "low cost" polymer housed and the porcelain housed arresters and which have to be paid for. Some
of the potential benefits of the Type A design are extremely high mechanical strength, the safest possible shortcircuit performance, or the possibility of making tall units which can serve as single-unit arrester up to 300 kV
system voltage. It will greatly depend on the market price development of composite hollow core insulators if this
arrester design will be mainly limited to EHV or not in the future.
Type B1a: this type, which is often called the "wrapped design", was basically the very first design principle of
polymer housed arresters, when they were introduced in distribution in the mid-1980s. It has then be extended to
HV arresters and can be found in HV also for another reason: one possible (and occasionally implemented) way of
building an HV arrester is to connect a large number of distribution arresters in parallel and in series. Common to
all Type B1a arresters is that the FRP mechanical structure is directly wrapped onto the MO resistor elements (in
some cases applying a thin intermediate foil between the MO stack and the wrap). It can be imagined that this may
be done in nearly infinite ways, and a large variety of sub-solutions has been brought to the market for technical,
commercial and patent reasons. Without being complete, Figure 2.22 gives an idea about some of the main differences.
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MO column
FRP wrap
main orientation of glass fibers
Figure 2.22: Internal designs of Type B1a arresters
Figure 2.23: Internal design of Type B2 arresters

Possibly the most economical variant is shown on the left. Fiber glass rovings soaked in uncured epoxy resin or
pre-impregnated ribbons are wound crosswise around the MO stack, and the module is then cured in an oven. The
resulting rigid ribbons provide the required mechanical strength. They do not fully overlap and thus form rhombic
"windows". These are important, technically for short-circuit performance and commercially for minimizing the
amount of material (which is also a technical concern in order to minimize the amount of inflammable material). If
the windows are too large, however, the mechanical strength of the module may become insufficient.
In the middle of Figure 2.22 a variant is shown, where no windows remained open, implemented by full overlapping
of the ribbons or by using pre-impregnated FRP mats with appropriate orientation of the glass fibers. This gives
high mechanical strength but forms a closed tube, in which internal pressure can be built up in case of overloading,
possibly leading to violent breaking of the housing. In order to improve the short-circuit performance slots can be
provided on the surface, which function as predetermined breaking points.
The variant on the right hand of Figure 2.22 also shows a design, which is completely closed, realized by a preimpregnated mat wound around the MO stack. But in this case the glass fibers are nearly exclusively arranged in
axial direction. This is also a possible means to improve the short-circuit performance: if carefully designed the tube
will easily tear open in case of an internal pressure build-up.
Arrester Type B1b is quite similar to the closed tube variants of Figure 2.22. The difference is in the manufacturing
process. The tube is not produced by wrapping FRP material onto the MO column. Instead, a pre-fabricated FRP
tube is used, which must have a diameter larger than that of the MO column, of course, in order to push it over.
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The resulting gap between MO and FRP material is then filled by solid or semi-solid material. Again, slots may be
provided on the surface in order to improve short-circuit performance.
Type B2: this is a completely different design concept and usually called the "cage design". While the mechanical
strength for Type A and Type B1 arresters is exclusively provided by the FRP structure (closed or partly open tube)
this is done by the MO resistors themselves with Type B2. For this purpose, they are clamped between the metal
end fittings by FRP loops or rods, applying an enormous axial pre-stress in the range of 100 kN [Ste 2003]. The
basic mechanical design is shown in Figure 2.23. The left variant is designed with loops, which are fixed in notches
in the end flanges. This design was first introduced for distribution arresters [Sch 1996] and then extended to HV. A
sub-variant (Figure 2.23, middle) uses an additional bondage from polymeric material in order to achieve the
mechanical and short-circuit characteristics required for application in HV and EHV [Sky 2002]. Also the other
variant of Type B2 arresters (Figure 2.23, right) was first realized in distribution arresters and then further
developed for HV. Here, FRP rods are applied, which are mechanically fixed in holes in the end flanges by a
proprietary clamping system. Figure 2.24 shows photographs of real arrester modules as they are produced by two
different manufacturers. Main technical advantages of the cage designs are that they offer comparatively high
mechanical strength combined with an inherently good short-circuit performance.
Sealing
Bonded
by
molding
process
Gap filled
by solid
material
Figure 2.25: Possible implementations

of sealing
Figure 2.24: Internal mechanical

structure of Type B arrester
Left: loop design, Right: rod design
With regard to the commercial aspects it is impossible to give any statement here on production cost, which greatly
depends on the total manufactured quantities, the degree of automation and process optimization, the quality of the
applied materials, the degree of type diversification and so on. However, it can be noticed that the Type B arrester
in general constitutes the most economical way to produce an arrester. At the same time it offers a technical
performance, which in most cases ranks between comparable porcelain and polymer housed Type A arresters. The
Type B arrester is therefore the typical "low cost" arrester mentioned earlier, one of the reasons for the success of
this design on the market.
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2.3.4 OUTER HOUSING AND SHEDS

As for the mechanical design, there are numerous possibilities to implement the outer housing and sheds. With
regard to material, however, with only few exceptions there has been a clear tendency towards SR (silicone
rubber). All other materials, such as EPDM (ethylene propylene diene copolymer), EPDM/SR blends, EVA
(ethylene vinyl acetate), which are widely used in distribution and may perform well there, are usually not being
accepted in HV or even EHV. The reason is quite obvious: only SR offers hydrophobicity (i.e. the ability to repel
water from its surface), which lasts for decades, and from its chemical structure it is inherently least sensitive to
solar radiation, because its basic component poly-dimethyl-siloxane has bonding energies above the intrinsic
energy of UV light, the main aging factor for polymeric materials. Again this is a benefit, which has to be paid for.
Market prices for SR may be in the range of two times the prices for an EPDM.
For Type A arresters there has never been an alternative to SR, for production as well as for performance reasons,
since these arresters mostly belong to the family of "special feature" arresters, where traditionally "high-end"
materials have been used. From a production point of view, the only way to cover a hollow core tube is by using
SR. One of the very first designs used an insulator with sheds from HTV (high temperature vulcanizing) SR individually slipped over the FRP tube [Hin 1994], but today's composite hollow core insulators are in the majority
covered by a direct molding process, using RTV (room temperature) SR or LSR (liquid silicone rubber). The latter
obviously will be the material of the future, offering some important benefits in production, i.e. a reasonable
compromise between ease of handling, process temperatures and pressures and vulcanization time (not to forget
the market price!).
The same applies for the Type B2 arresters, which only can be covered by a direct molding process. All common
types of SR can be found with the actual arresters of this design on the market.
Most alternatives exist for the Type B1 design, where the housing basically can be produced either by direct
molding or by pre-fabricated housings slipped over the modules. The latter concept offers highest flexibility in
production [INMR 2002], but special care is required for its implementation. Since most of the Type B1 designs do
not have a smooth surface, a sealing material (e.g. a silicone compound) must be put between the internal parts
and the outer housing. This has to be done in a way to ensure absolute freedom from internal voids, which would
affect the long term performance (potential locations of partial discharges and moisture). Further, an appropriate
sealing system at the end fittings must be provided. Figure 2.25 shows possible ways of implementation. The
alternative shown on the right, which inherently offers the best reliability due to the chemical bonding of the housing
to the end fittings, can only be achieved by direct molding and is therefore reserved to the SR insulated designs.
It should finally be recalled that it is impossible to create a good housing from poor materials, but that it is easily
possible to make a poor housing even when applying excellent materials. In other words: besides the discussion of
materials it should never be forgotten that the final performance of the product is also, if not mainly, influenced by
the design and in the long term by the production quality. Only the first aspect might be evaluated by
accelerated aging tests (e.g. the "weather aging test" under salt fog). The latter, however, bears a remaining
permanent risk and should carefully be considered.
2.3.5 DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF POLYMER HOUSED MV ARRESTERS

For distribution arresters the designs can be grouped according to the manufacturing technique and the internal
structure, similar to the differentiation of the design principles of HV arresters. In the distribution field only very few
designs have a type A (tube design), and if, for special applications only. The designs of distribution arresters are
differentiated as follows:
Group I: The polymeric material (e.g. silicon) is directly molded onto the internal parts: the MO-resistors and the
mechanical structure. A primer is used to ensure chemical bonding of the different materials with the silicon. End
caps are not needed.
Group II: The insulating housing is pressed or slipped over the separately manufactured active part. The materials
are only attached mechanical one to the other. A sealing system with end caps is needed.
Group III: As Group II, but with considerable internal gas space. This gas space may be intended, due to the
design, or not intended due to an uncontrolled manufacturing process.
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The differences in the design differentiation of HV and MV arresters are due to the fact that in HV the mechanical
strength of the design is of more importance, while in the MV field the production process is of higher importance
(for cost reasons). The design principle B2 for HV arresters is almost identical to Group I for MV arresters.
Figure 2.26: Principle designs of medium voltage arresters

Left: design group I, middle: design group II and III, right: example for design group I before molding in
silicon
2.3.6 CONCLUSION
Polymer housed HV arresters actually have a market share of roughly 30%. First installations have been made
around 1990, and so far there is no indication that they will not show the same good performance as MO arresters
in general or polymer housed distribution arresters, which have successfully been in service for nearly 20 years
now. The technology can be considered mature. Thus it can be predicted that the share of polymer housed
arresters in HV will continuously increase, because they usually offer economical as well as technical advantages
over porcelain housed designs.
Different design principles have emerged in the meantime, which basically can be divided in Type A arresters
("tube design"), Type B1 arresters ("wrapped design") and Type B2 arresters ("cage design"). The Type B designs
usually have lower and the Type A designs higher market prices than comparable porcelain housed arresters.
These different designs normally serve different market segments, which can be classified as "low cost" or "price
orientated" on one hand and "high performance" on the other. Primarily this is a matter of the system voltage level.
In systems of 72.5 kV Us 300 kV ("HV" systems) mostly the "low cost" variant is preferred, since this is the
domain of standard applications where no exceptional requirements on electrical or mechanical performance exist.
The majority of polymer housed arresters have been optimized for this market. The arrester designs coming into
question here are the Type B designs, where in general the B2 variant offers higher mechanical strength.
In systems of Us > 300 kV ("EHV" systems) mechanical requirements usually favor the Type B2 or even the Type A
designs. Especially with the latter nearly any required mechanical, electrical or safety feature can be achieved,
which has its price, however.
Page 93
2.4 Special designs of surge arresters

Author in charge: Roger Perkins
2.4.1 SEPARABLE AND DEAD FRONT ARRESTERS
2.4.1.1General Comments
These two distribution-type arrester are similar in that each is typically used to protect connections between
underground cables and ground-mounted (pad-mounted) or underground transformers. As such they are usually
directly attached to the cable connectors on each phase and between high potential and earth. In this sense they
offer optimal protection of the cables and the transformers since the protection distance (between arrester and
equipment) is very small. It is worth noting that the installation enclosures can easily become submersed during
flooding or other events.
Appropriate standards for separable connectors, of which these arresters form a sub-group, are IEC 60502-4, IEC
61442 and IEE 386. These contain related test procedures. Appropriate arrester standards are IEC 60099-4 and
IEEE 62.11. They contain definitions for separable and/or dead front arresters as follows:
-
IEC an arrester assembled in an insulated or screened housing providing system insulation, intended to
be installed in an enclosure for the protection of distribution equipment and systems. Electrical connection
may be made by sliding contact or by bolted devices; however, all separable arresters are dead-break
arresters.
IEEE an arrester assembled in a shielded housing providing system insulation and conductive ground
shield, intended to be installed in an enclosure for the protection of underground and pad-mounted
distribution equipment and circuits.
Note: these arrester types are often referred to as elbow arresters, with reference to their characteristic form or
shape.
2.4.1.2 Differences between Arrester Designs

Figure 2.27 shows an example of a dead front arrester that illustrates the major elements of the design. Critical are
the insulation material, which is typically either EPDM or silicone rubber, the internal arrangement of MOV disks
and the methods by which they are contained, the separable high-potential contact system and its termination, the
earth connection, and the internal and external shields that are made of typically graphite-containing and therefore
semi conducting EPDM or silicone rubber.
Figure 2.27: Appearance and internal design of a typical dead front, separable metal-oxide arrester. In
this example the connector is also equipped with load-breaking capability.
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Various methods are used to contain the MOV disks within the housing. They may be contained by composite
elements similar to those used in overhead distribution arresters. Alternatively they may be directly bonded to each
other with appropriate conducting adhesives. Less favorably they may only be contained within and by the housing
itself and its ground termination elements.
The major difference between these two arrester types lies in the presence or not of a screened or earthed shield
that provides solid protection whilst deliberately or accidentally making contact with the device whilst under
potential. The external screen is either a discrete element separately molded onto the insulated housing or simply
but less favorably painted onto this housing.
2.4.1.3 Special Test Conditions

The characteristics of separable and dead front arrester are fundamentally the same as those for any other metaloxide surge arrester. Correspondingly they are generally subjected to the same conditions of routine and type
tests. However there are differences in the operating conditions of these arrester types that require consideration in
their test methods and these will be described in the following.
Environmental and Accelerated Aging Tests
As stated above these arrester types are usually contained within enclosures that contain other types of electrical
equipment, usually transformers. For this reason the maximum ambient temperature of the arrester is usually
higher than that in other distribution arresters, there is little air-flow and there is little direct exposure to atmospheric
conditions. The upper limit of the ambient temperature is usually elevated to +65C. During the accelerated aging
test the ambient temperature is retained at 115C but the condition of elevated ambient is given special
consideration in that the test duration is extended from 1000h to 2000h. Of course, the test samples for this test
must be contained within a housing equivalent to that in the actual device; this should include the screen, if used.
The applied voltage during the aging test should represent the maximum that the MO resistors will experience in
the application. Especially for screened arresters this may require special determination e.g. field calculations, to
ensure representative aging conditions.
The elevated ambient temperature should be given consideration during other tests such as both the high-current
short-duration and low-current long-duration impulse withstand test, as well as the operating duty and temporary
overvoltage withstand tests.
An environmental test of the type necessary for outdoor equipment is not required for separable and dead front
arresters. Neither salt-fog tests nor exposure to UV radiation tests are necessary. Whilst the familiar multi-stress
tests applied to outdoor arresters are also not suitable for those considered here, it is certainly necessary to
consider equivalent tests that achieve the same purpose of combining a variety of severe application conditions
that place extraordinary stress on the device. Such tests can include immersion in a high-conductivity liquid
medium at elevated temperatures and voltages for extended periods of time. Whilst these tests are not yet
established in the relevant standards, they are used by qualified manufacturers who wish to ensure good field
performance of their products.
Insulation withstand tests
This testing is carried out on the arrester housings without active internal components. It is particularly important for
separable and dead front arresters because of the particular electrical stresses existing in the relevant enclosures,
the short inter-phase separation of the devices and, in the case of the dead front design, the high internal stresses
generated by the proximity of the ground plane to the conducting parts. High potential withstand testing must be
extended to include partial discharge testing.
Short circuit tests
This test is very important for the type of installations and arresters considered here. This is because of the
importance of the equipment contained within the enclosures and the necessity to prevent both collateral damage
to it and major electrical breakdown and associated system interruptions.
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For this reason, in cases where the fault currents can be high i.e. in low-impedance earthed systems, the failure
mode during short circuit testing is required to be benign with respect to the immediate surroundings. This usually
means that the housing of the device may either not vent any debris at all or it may only do so in a downward
direction away from the neighboring phases.
HCSD test
The conditions of this test are very similar to those for other arrester designs (apart from the ambient temperature).
However it is worth noting that generally high current impulses do to penetrate underground systems to the same
extent as overhead systems. The rated high-current short-duration impulses should therefore be lower. For
example, 40kA 4/10 s may be considered adequate where an overhead system requires 65kA 4/10 s.
For dead front-installations this test is more severe than for live-front. The reason is that the proximity of the shield
or ground plane increases the electrical stresses on the outer edges of the MOV disk to much higher values that
can cause it to fail, where it would otherwise withstand the same impulse current conditions in a live-front
assembly. This means that the dead front arrester must be HCSD tested with a sample (model) representing the
same electrical situation as in the final
2.4.2 UNDER-OIL ARRESTERS
2.4.2.1 General Comments

This type of arrester, also referred to as liquid-immersed arrester in the standards, is typically mounted inside the
tank of a transformer (most typically MV but also HV) and therefore exposed to the higher temperature and
potentially corrosive nature of its fluid Kno 1985, Kno 1986, Hen 1989 . An example is shown in Figure 2.28. Its
particular benefit is its proximity to the transformer core windings and therefore the optimal protection to
overvoltage, and in particular to steep transients, that it offers them. Experience shows that failure rates of both
arresters and transformers are significantly lower. Further advantages are correction of capacitive effects, a space
saving assembly, factory testing of complete system, reduction of on-site assembly cost and increased personal
safety. However, there are other benefits worth mentioning. In particular the influence of environmental conditions
typically afflicting outdoor arresters is absent. There is also usually no outdoor-type housing, which removes a
performance-influencing variable. Potential problems are cover retention during fault currents, testing and failure
detection.
Figure 2.28: Appearance and internal design of a typical under-oil metal-oxide arrester.
The under-oil arrester has been employed since 1980 in the USA, with more than 500000 units installed, and since
1987 in Japan with an even larger quantity. They have in each case demonstrated excellent reliability as devices
Page 96
and have significantly reduced the lighting-related damage to transformers. In the case of Japan, this has been
impressively documented [Ish 2004].
2.4.2.2 Special Test Conditions

Special Note on Transformer Test Precautions
Since the under-oil arrester is factory-mounted inside the transformer tank it must be fitted with a bypass or
disconnect switch in order to isolate it from the overvoltages used during testing of the transformer. If this is not
done the arrester will certainly be damaged!
Elevated Ambient Temperature
As mentioned above the typical ambient temperatures experienced by the under-oil arrester are significantly
higher. A maximum ambient temperature of +95C and a maximum temperature of the device +120C are usually
assumed in the relevant standards. Both IEC 60099-4 and IEEE C62.11 specifically address these arresters.
The elevated ambient temperature and the immersion liquid should be given consideration during other tests such
as both the high-current short-duration and low-current long-duration impulse withstand test, as well as the
operating duty and temporary overvoltage withstand tests. It should be noted that no special test models are
defined in the standards but they should meet the general requirements regarding similarity to the final device with
respect to the surrounding medium and to the thermal equivalence. For instance the HCSD test is done in the liquid
at 75C 5C during and after test at MCOV, whilst the LCLD and duty cycle conditioning are carried out in the
liquid at 20C 5C during the shots and 120C 5C prior to 19 th shot. Similarly the temporary overvoltage, TOV,
test also requires to be done at 120C 5C
Environmental and Accelerated Aging Tests
Accelerated aging test are carried out at 115C 2C, which is the same as for other arrester types. However the
duration of energization at MCOV is 7000 h whilst heated in mineral insulating oil meeting ASTM D3487-00
requirements. This is considerably longer than is usually the case for other arrester types but is necessary not only
because of the higher ambient temperature but also because of the exposure to the transformer or other fluid. So
this test takes the place of environmental tests.
Short circuit tests
A particular requirement of the under-oil arrester is that it should be specifically designed and tested to provide
either a failure mode of either open-circuit or closed-circuit during short circuit conditions. This must be specified by
manufacturer. The reason for this is that the conditions of application must allow for this difference. For example, a
fail-open design will mean that should the arrester fail, it will no longer provide overvoltage protection and will in
addition not easily be identified as failed (since it is not visible from outside). In contrast a fail-short design will both
short-out the installation and subject it to full fault currents. The installation must allow this to occur without
collateral damage.
The short circuit test must be carried out in the actual application condition, which means inside the transformer
tank. This is necessary to ensure that the installation fails safely in the event of a short-circuit caused by the
arrester.
The conditions of the test are similar to those for other arrester types in that a thermal failure is generated by
application of a suitably sustained power-frequency overvoltage. It should be noted that no interruption capacity is
expected from the arrester.
Page 97
2.5 SF6 gas insulated MO surge arresters

SF6 gas insulated MO surge arresters (GIS arresters) are nowadays used in sub transmission and transmission
systems up to the UHV range of Us = 1100 kV.
Main advantage of GIS arresters over air insulated designs are their favorable performance under seismic stress
and the excellent behavior under pollution conditions, the very high availability and the possibility to be integrated
into the SF6 substation for optimized protection of the equipment [Pry 1998].
SF6 gas insulated substations (GIS) are normally well protected by arresters installed at the line entrance only,
whereas large stations must be protected by additional arresters installed at suitable locations inside the GIS.
Traditionally, the arresters that are installed inside the GIS have a similar rating as those arresters installed at the
line entrances.
Figure 2.29: Typical installation of a GIS arrester at the line entrance of a gas insulated substation (Us =
420 kV), example Siemens.
For GIS arresters a main engineering target is a compact, space saving design [Sch 1992]. GIS arresters
principally consist, as all other MO arrester designs, of one or more parallel columns of MO resistors installed within
a housing, in this case an earthed metal vessel filled up with SF6 gas. The individual columns are built up by
connecting MO resistor elements in series. In order to achieve an economical and space saving design and to
minimize the impact of stray capacitances to the earthed vessel often a meandering mechanical design of the
active part has to be used. This reduces the overall physical length of the active part and additionally contributes to
1
reduced self-inductance . Insulating plates of extreme high electric withstand have to be applied in order to insulate
the layers of MO resistors from each other. Figure 2.30 shows the principle design of the active part of an EHV GIS
arrester. Each of the insulating plates is electrically stressed by the voltage drop across eight MO resistors.
The self-inductance per unit length of GIS arresters is typically assumed as 0.3 H/m, while air insulated designs have a
typical value of 1 H/m.
Page 98
insulating plates
MO resistors
current path
Figure 2.30: Design of the active part (mechanically three columns, electrically one column) of an EHV
GIS arrester using conventional MO resistors.
Due to the very short radial distance between the active part on high voltage potential and the earthed vessel a
relatively high capacitive stray current is flowing, which leads to an unfavorable axial voltage distribution along the
active column of MO resistors. For this reason countermeasures such as metallic grading elements (hoods or rings)
or capacitive grading elements have to be taken. Figure 2.31 shows the principle design of GIS arresters for
different system voltages if standard MO resistors with 200 V/mm are used. For systems up to 170 kV system
voltage GIS exist with only one phase or with all three phases in one metallic enclosure. Accordingly, the GIS
arresters are designed in the same way. Up to a system voltage of Us = 170 kV the MO column consists typically of
a linear column. For higher system voltages generally a mechanically three or four column design is used [Gh
2006].
insulator
electrical connection,
high voltage
pressure relief device
grading hood
MO column
vessel
ground plate
Figure 2.31: Design of GIS arresters (principle) for different system voltages. Left: single phase design for
system voltage up to 170 kV. Middle: Three phase design up to 170 kV. Right: single phase design for
system voltages above 170 kV with electrical one phase, but mechanically three columns of MO
resistors, courtesy Siemens.
Page 99
Actually, there are two major directions of MO resistor development: increasing the energy handling capability (in
terms of kilojoules per cubic centimeter of volume) and increasing the field strength (in terms of volts per millimeter
of height). Typically, a MO resistor for high-voltage arrester applications has a field strength of 200 V/mm at a direct
current of 1 mA. But MO resistors of 400 V/mm have successfully been developed in the mid-1990s [Ima 1984] [Shi
1997] and are commercially available, and MO resistors with 600 V/mm are reported [Fuk 2012].
The benefit of this progress can less be utilized for air insulated arresters as the high field strength causes severe
dielectric stress across the external surface and the heat after energy injection cannot be dissipated to the ambient.
But GIS arresters, where dielectric problems along the active part do not occur due to the high electric strength of
the surrounding SF6, and where the heat transfer is much better than in air, take advantage from the fact that the
overall length of the MO column can be drastically reduced when using high field MO resistors. With the new high
field MO resistors GIS arresters for application in voltage systems up to 550 kV can be built using a simple linear
stack of MO resistors instead of the meandering mechanical design.
Figure 2.32 shows the difference in dimensions of a GIS arrester containing an active part built up with MO
resistors with normal field strength (200 V/mm) and three column meandering design (left), and designs using
high field MO resistors of 400 V/mm (middle) 600 V/mm (left). All of these designs are for application in 550 kV
systems and have the same energy rating. Besides the simpler and space saving design the SF6 volume is
reduced drastically, which is an important argument in the todays discussion about greenhouse gasses.
Figure 2.32: GIS arresters for 550 kV systems with MO resistors with normal field strength (left) and
high field MO resistors of 400 V/mm (middle) and 600 V/mm (right), courtesy Toshiba.
GIS arresters with meandering mechanical design using high field MO resistors are designed to reduce the arrester
height and increase the mechanical strength against seismic stresses even in horizontal installations, which gives
more flexibility in positioning of the arresters in an optimized GIS layout, see Figure 2.33.
Page 100
MO resistors of 200 V/mm
MO resistors of 400 V/mm
Figure 2.33: GIS arresters for 550 kV systems with MO resistors with normal field strength of 200
V/mm and 400 V/mm in a mechanical meandering design, courtesy Mitsubishi.
Page 101
2.6 Integrated Arrester Systems

Author in charge: Roger Perkins
Surge arresters have developed considerably in the period since the first CIGR Technical Brochure TB 60 in
1991. There were two characteristic developments in this period. The first was the polymer-housed arrester made
possible by the use of improved fiberglass-reinforced components that could be reliably used as structural support
of the device when a polymeric housing should be used that in itself could not generate this capability whilst still
providing safe pressure relief in the event of failure. The second major development was the increasing
performance and reliability of the metal-oxide resistor itself.
A characteristic consequence of these facts is the emergence during this period of continually more complex
devices with a greater degree of integration with other electrical transmission and distribution installations; in other
words devices or apparatus with more than one primary function or capability. Documented examples of these that
incorporate surge arresters are:
-
Supports, Post Insulators

Bushings, Cable Termination, Connectors
Disconnectors
Transformers and Reactors
Cutouts
Fuses
There are various potential attractions of these devices; for example reduced cost or size, both increasingly more
important requirements. Improved reliability, improved overvoltage protection, improved environmental protection
have all been claimed as well. However, most likely the major benefits have still to be demonstrated, since the
increasing freedom of the above developments afford the engineer more opportunity for innovative design.
However, integrated arrester systems bring special concerns with them; not the least of which is how to effectively
test a device with multiple, sometimes interrelated functionality. These and other special considerations have been
reviewed in a recent publication of this Working Group [Per 2005].
Perhaps the most obvious of dual applications for MO surge arresters is the use as post or suspension insulators,
given their high cantilever strength and dielectric withstand. In Figure 2.34 and Figure 2.35 examples are given.
Figure 2.34: MO arresters used as post insulators in a 420 kV substation (left, example Siemens) and as
suspension insulator/line arrester in a medium voltage trial line in Norway (right, example ABB).
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Figure 2.35: MO surge arresters with porcelain housing and modified grading ring integrated in a center
break disconnector. System voltage 420 kV, example Siemens.
Arresters have a limited spatial protection range due to travelling wave effects. A lightning impulse voltage may
reach twice the value of the related arresters lightning impulse protection level at the terminals of the device to be
protected, depending only on the steepness of the incoming overvoltage and on the distance between arrester and
the device. This protective zone or separation distance is typically in the range of several ten meters in high
voltage applications down to only a few meters in distribution systems. Therefore, the integration of MO surge
arresters directly into other equipment of the substation improves naturally the protection of the substation. This is
of course an additional very important benefit besides the space saving for the substation.
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3.
Energy handling capability of MO surge arresters
Authors in charge: Volker Hinrichsen and Max Reinhard
3.1 Summery
This part of the Brochure covers energy handling capability of MO resistors and arresters. It starts with an
introduction and a short subsumption of the different aspects of energy handling, basically divided into "thermal"
and "impulse" energy stress. It then reviews the state of knowledge by evaluating some of the most important
published literature on this subject. Cigr WG A3.17 has initiated an experimental research program on energy
handling, which is being performed at Technische Universitt Darmstadt. It is the most comprehensive investigation
on this subject performed so far. Though this project is still going on, some important results can just be
summarized. Several thousand MO resistors from different manufacturers worldwide were tested. The test
specimens were of approximately 60 mm diameter and 45 mm height, as typically applied in HV arresters, and of
approximately 40 mm diameter and 45 m height, as used in high duty distribution arresters. Energy was injected by
long duration and double exponential current impulses, among them also the new "lightning discharge" impulse
(sine half-wave of approximately 230 s base time, resulting in an impulse current 90/200 s) that was recently
introduced to the standard IEC 60099-4 (Annex N). Furthermore, alternating current stress was imposed as well, in
order to investigate the impact of this kind of stress, but also to check if this test approach can be favorably applied
in the future. A very important aspect was the introduction of a "complex failure criterion", which means that the MO
resistors were not only stressed up to visible mechanical damage, but that also deterioration of the electrical
characteristics was considered. The investigations have basically confirmed the typical dependence of energy
handling capability from current density, as published before. But there are exceptions at extremely high current
densities, where in many cases the coating of the resistors would fail. A general increase in energy handling
capability, expressed in terms of 50 % failure energy, by 20 % in average and up to 70 % in some cases, compared
with values published in the late 1990s, can be observed. The "complex failure criterion", however, leads to more
pessimistic statements, as it turns out that the MO resistors for distribution applications typically (but with
exceptions) show remarkable degradation of their electrical characteristics before they fail mechanically. Finally,
this chapter ends with a critical review of the existing arrester standards with regard to energy handling definitions
and test procedures. Some lacks are identified and suggestions for improvement are given. Based on the actual
and updated knowledge of energy handling capability it should be possible to improve the standards in their next
revisions accordingly in order to better fulfill the requirements and expectations from manufacturers and users of
MO surge arresters.
3.2 Introduction
Since simple spark gaps for overvoltage protection were replaced by surge arresters, the arresters' energy
handling capability has become an important issue. While in series gapped SiC-arresters, especially in the EHV
systems, the energy during charge transfer to ground is shared among the arcs burning in the gaps and the series
connected SiC-resistors, this energy has to be dissipated exclusively by the MO-resistors in case of gapless MOarresters. On one hand, this results in high requirements on the non-linear resistors, which have to act as nearly
perfect "insulators" under normal operating conditions and as high-performance overvoltage limiting "energy sinks"
under overvoltage stress. On the other hand, one should expect that energy handling definitions, specifications and
test procedures would have become simpler, as only one element the MO-resistor has to be considered. When
looking to the published literature and to the actual surge arrester standards, one will find that this is obviously not
the case. There is still a certain lack of general knowledge and theoretical understanding about some energy
handling capability aspects, for instance the impact of the way the energy is injected or degradation effects caused
by multiple or repeated energy stress. Of course, the theoretical background has been improved, simulation tools
have been developed which allow many effects to be modeled and simulated, and finally thirty years of experience
with MO arrester application have given a high degree of confidence in their reliable performance. However, the
fact should not be underestimated that MO resistor manufacturing requires a rather complex technology, and
therefore the final products' performance will always strongly depend on production technology and quality. With
respect to the MO arrester standards: they had to be developed in a time when MO technology was quite new and
still emerging, and it took about ten years after introducing the first MO arresters to the systems that first related
2
With assistance of Maximilian Tuczek, TU Darmstadt

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standards were published. Till now, the standards do reflect this situation. In terms of energy handling issues, one
still recognizes historical approaches from the gapped SiC arrester era. It is, therefore, the time to think about new
definitions of energy handling capability and about revised, appropriate test procedures, based on actual
knowledge and most recent findings. Besides others, this was the task given to Cigr WG A3.17: to check the
actual literature and standards about energy handling issues, to contribute to some of the open questions by a
comprehensive practical research program, and to work on proposals for energy handling issues in future revisions
of the international arrester standards. The basic results of this work are reported below.
3.3 The different aspects of energy handling capability

Energy handling capability of MO arresters has many different aspects, which are only partly or not at all reflected
in the actual standards. At least, though this list may not be complete, they have to be divided into
-
"thermal" energy handling capability,

"impulse" energy handling capability,
o "single" impulse stress,
withstand values (deterministic approach),
values related to a certain failure probability (statistical approach),
o "multiple" impulse stress, i.e. impulses in time intervals too short to obtain an approximately
uniform temperature distribution in the MO resistors,
o "repeated" impulse stress, where the time interval between impulses is sufficiently long to obtain
cooling of the MO resistors close to their initial temperature (this includes durability and
degradation aspects).
3.3.1 THERMAL ENERGY HANDLING CAPABILITY

Thermal energy handling capability can only be considered for complete arresters, as besides the MO material
properties it is mainly affected by the heat dissipation capability of the overall arrester design. The situation is
schematically depicted in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: About thermal energy handling capability of an MO arrester

An arrester's heat dissipation capability (heat flow; measured in Watts) is determined by thermal conduction,
convection and radiation. In the interesting temperature range (operating temperature below 250 C) it increases
non-linearly but moderately with the temperature difference to ambiance. Electrical power losses under normal
operating conditions are usually very small, in the range of tens of milliwatts per kilovolt of rated voltage for
distribution arresters up to several hundreds of milliwatts per kilovolt for line discharge class five (LD 5) arresters.
However, due to their temperature dependence, the power losses are much higher at higher temperatures, e.g. by
Page 105
a factor of ten to twenty at 150 C compared with 20 C. This power loss characteristic is specific to a particular MO
material and make.
Under continuous operating conditions, an arrester will adopt an operating temperature slightly above ambient
temperature, and the generated heat can easily be dissipated to the ambiance: the arrester adjusts itself to a stable
operating point (left intersection of the two curves in Figure 3.1). However, once a high amount of energy is injected
into the arrester under overvoltage conditions, the arrester temperature will be increased in form of a step function,
with typical values of temperature increase under nominal energy stress up to 100 K or even more. The operating
point will instantaneously jump to the right on the electrical power loss curve. As long as it remains left of the
second intersection point of the two curves, the generated heat can still be dissipated to the ambiance, and the
arrester will cool back to its normal operating temperature within five of its thermal time constants. But if the right
intersection point the limit of thermal stability is reached or even exceeded, the arrester will generate more heat
than can be dissipated and electrical power losses will further increase and finally destroy the MO material by
excessive heat (puncture at several hundred Degrees Celsius).
It is evident that, on one hand, the thermal stability limit depends on the overall arrester design. Arresters with MO
resistors directly covered by a polymeric housing, for instance, will have a thermal stability limit at higher
temperatures than conventional porcelain housed arresters, since they can better transfer heat from the MO
resistors to ambiance. On the other hand, also the MO material properties (electrical power losses and their
temperature dependence) have an effect, because the more pronounced the increase of power losses with
temperature is, the more will the right intersection point of the two curves be shifted to the left, i.e. to lower
temperatures. As well, the curve of electrical power losses versus temperature is affected by possible impulse
degradation, i.e. it will be shifted upwards [Hei 2001], which again changes the limit of thermal stability to lower
temperatures.
However, definition and verification of the thermal energy handling capability is a comparatively easy task. Injected
energy per volume and temperature increase are simply linked by the heat capacitance, which has a non-linear
dependence of temperature, and can, acc. to [Lat 1983], be calculated as
W
V
2,59
J
J
0, 0044
cm K
cm K
(equation 3.1)
where W is the contained energy in J, V is the MO volume in cm and

dependence is shown in Figure 3.2.
is the MO temperature in C. This
Energy
per volume in J/cm
Energie/Volumen in J/cm
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Temperature
Temperaturin
in C
C
Figure 3.2: MO resistor energy per volume vs. temperature, acc. to [Lat 1983]
In order to verify thermal energy handling capability, energy may thus be injected into the arrester by any suited
method that will rise its temperature to a value related to the specified energy, because the only purpose of this
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verification is to demonstrate that the arrester is able to cool back afterwards. Of course, the operating conditions
(applied power-frequency voltage) must be specified, and possible electrical aging of the MO material, e.g. by
current impulse stress, must be considered by appropriate conditioning procedures.
3.3.2 IMPULSE ENERGY HANDLING CAPABILITY

At first glance, impulse energy handling capability may easily be defined as well: it is just the energy, which is
injected into the arrester by one single impulse, and if a limit value is exceeded, one or several MO resistors will
mechanically fail as exemplarily shown in Figure 3.3, finally leading to an overall arrester failure.
Figure 3.3: Examples of MO resistors, mechanically failed by single impulse energy overload. Left: failed
by thermo-mechanical cracking; Right: failed by flashover of the coating.
When looking deeper into the details, however, the matter is more complex. One issue is the definition of a
"failure". Not in all cases will the MO resistors fail so obviously as to be seen in Figure 3.3. There may be only
some small punctures in or at the edge of the metallization, but furthermore the MO resistor may look intact. In
other cases, no damage at all might be seen by a visual examination, but the MO resistor is pre-damaged and will
not pass any further energy input. Or its electrical characteristic may be dramatically changed such that if this
happened in a complete arrester the arrester would become thermally instable.
At this point it shall be noted that in general use of any impulse energy handling capability higher than the "thermal"
energy limit can be made only if the arrester is not applied to an operating voltage close to its continuous operating
voltage, since otherwise the arrester would suffer a thermal runaway even if its MO resistors were able to handle
the excessive impulse energy input.
Another point that has to be addressed is if "withstand" capability shall be specified in a deterministic way
meaning that no single failure is allowed when the MO resistor is stressed by its withstand energy or if a statistical
approach is more appropriate, in the same way as for the dielectric strength definition of external insulation (in
which case "withstand" voltage stands for a "10 % flashover probability" voltage). Verification of a withstand energy
is a difficult task anyway, as even for the statistical approach acceptable failure rates of individual MO resistors in a
complete arrester at "rated" energy handling capability are in the range of only 0,1 % or less. This shall be
demonstrated by the following example. An arrester for a 420 kV system is made up from approximately n = 65 MO
resistors. If each resistor has a failure probability of 0,1 % (p = 0,001) at its "rated" energy, the full arrester, at the
n
same rating, will have a failure probability of P = 1 (1 p) = 0,063 or roughly 6 %, respectively. Higher failure
probabilities for the full arrester are hardly acceptable! Vice versa, if the full arrester shall have a failure probability
of only 1 % (P = 0,01) at its "rated" energy the individual MO resistors in this case must have a failure probability
1/n
-3
p = 1 (1 P) = 0,15510 or approximately 0,015 % only.
But so far, there is no effective test procedure to reliably verify failure probabilities of only 0,1 % or even less.
The observation that the actual failure rate of high-voltage arresters in service is obviously close to zero can be
explained by one or more of the following reasons. In general, the energy stress in real service may be far below
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the actual impulse energy handling limits that are verified during type tests. Energy of the "withstand" level may be
injected only few times during the arrester's life time. The actual failure probability at "rated" energy may be much
lower than can be verified by the type tests. The type tests as actually specified therefore obviously ensure good
operational performance in service, but they may cause overdesign of arresters, and they will not give any
information about the real limits of energy handling capability.
Furthermore, the question comes up how helpful to the user the information is that an arrester passes one single
energy input, but not a second one a certain time later on. This might be interesting in only some few special
cases, but in general, the expectation will be that an arrester can be stressed by its "withstand" energy several
times during its total service life. But what is the meaning of "several": three times, ten times, eighteen times (the
actual number of energy stresses in the long duration current impulse withstand test according to [IEC 2009]), or
even, e.g., one hundred times? It is assumed to date that energy handling capability decreases with the number of
stresses, but in an actually unknown dependence (this is being investigated in a follow up research program of
Cigr WG A3.25 and will be published later). It is also questionable how meaningful a type test on three MO
resistors by eighteen energy injections each is (this is again the long duration current impulse withstand test
according to [IEC 2009]), as the impulse withstand capability is not only a material issue but depends at least to the
same degree on production quality.
Finally, multiple stress (i.e. energy injections in time intervals of only a few milliseconds, as it may happen by
multiple lightning strikes) has turned out to result in interesting effects, which are not only related to the MO
material properties but to the overall system of the MO resistor and the arrester [Dar 1998].
Thus, definition of impulse energy handling capability is by far not trivial, and the same is true for appropriate test
procedures. Users have become familiar, for instance, with the line discharge classes of [IEC 2009]. These are
very helpful and easy to apply in standard applications. But more and more users have very special system
configurations, and in many cases, by means of system analyses they are in a position to give detailed information
on the energy duties from the system. However, none of the to dates arrester standards gives satisfying answers
and information on the various different aspects of energy handling, and it must be the objective of any research on
MO arrester energy handling capability to give better guidance on this matter in the near future.
3.4 State of knowledge about energy handling of MO arresters

In the following, a short overview about the most relevant literature on energy handling capability of MO arresters
and resistors, respectively, will be given, and the chapter will be finalized with a report about recent findings of an
energy handling research program that was initiated and scientifically accompanied by Cigr WG A3.17.
3.4.1 A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE

3
In a comparison between SiC and ZnO arresters, Sakshaug [Sak 1989] concluded that ZnO resistors in general
have a higher energy handling capability than SiC resistors. He gave a value of (170200) J/cm for the thermal
capability and mentioned at the same time that under alternating current stress up to mechanical failure values of
(450700) J/cm were observed.
Eda [Eda 1984] performed one of the very first methodical experimental investigations about energy handling
capability of MO resistors. For this purpose, he produced resistors of (10110) mm in diameter and of (120) mm
height, i.e. he worked with non-commercial test specimens. He reported about two different failure modes under
impulse energy stress, that is to say cracking and puncture. Flashover as a possible failure mechanism was not
observed on these specimens. Most of his published results are related to small discs of only 1,3 mm height. He
found an impulse energy limit value of 750 J/cm for discs of 1,1 cm diameter. For discs of 2,76 cm diameter, he
found an energy limit of 520 J/cm when stressed by a 2 ms impulse and of 615 J/cm for a 20 s impulse. These
findings indicate two important tendencies: energy handling capability decreases with increasing diameter and
volume, respectively, which can be explained by a worse homogeneity of the ceramic material with larger diameter
and volume, and it increases with shorter impulse durations or, in other words, with higher current densities. Any
3
All MO resistors are basically made from ZnO. In the beginning, "ZnO" arrester and resistor was a common terminology. To
date, one usually speaks exclusively of "MO" arresters and resistors in this context.
Page 108
further interpretation of the results and comparison with modern MO resistors seems problematic as Eda used very
thin discs where the contact system assumedly had strong influence on the experimental results (e.g. due to a
comparatively high amount of heat transfer). Furthermore, it is not for sure that self-made resistors of 114 mm
diameter and 10 mm height can really be compared with to dates commercial products of the same dimensions.
Studies of Martinez and Zanetta jr. [Mar 1996] basically confirmed Eda's findings.
One of the best known systematic investigations was performed by Ringler et al. [Rin 1997]. Ringler's group
investigated 350 commercially available MO resistors from three different manufacturers. Their diameters were in
the range of (6264) mm, and their height was (2324) mm. The rated voltage was approximately 3 kV. Energy
stress tests until mechanical failure were performed with very long duration current impulses and with 60 Hz
alternating current on a batch of (25...50) specimens each at current amplitudes of 0,84 A up to 35 kA,
corresponding to current densities of (0,031130) A/cm.
Failure energies varied from approximately 460 J/cm at a current density of 0,03 A/cm up to nearly 1700 J/cm at
a current density of 1130 A/cm. There was a distinct increase of energy handling capability with increasing current
density and thus decreasing stress time duration. These findings basically correlate with those reported by Eda in
1984.
At this point it must be recalled that failure energies (e.g. related to 50 % failure probability) are of course far
beyond those energies that are the basis for an arrester specification. The latter are in the range of only 200 J/cm,
for reasons that were explained above. One finding of Ringler et al. by statistical evaluation was that varistors with
a 50 % failure probability of more than 400 J/cm may have a failure probability of still 1 % at 200 J/cm.
When the average current amplitude during energy stress is plotted as a function of the average time to failure in a
double logarithmic scale, this gives a linear dependence in form of a sloping straight line over five orders of
magnitude. This relationship (log I = const. log t) was published by Ringler et al. for the very first time and since
then belongs to the basic knowledge about energy handling capability of MO resistors. The failure charge for
Ringler's investigations was (1117) As, corresponding to failure charge densities of (0,350,55) As/cm.
Ringler et al. reported furthermore that under alternating current stress the resistors would mainly fail by puncture
close to the edges. Under impulse current stress up to 35 kA they reported about little holes on the surface of the
metallization, including the edges. This may have been caused by the quality of the metallization edge. It is well
known today that energy handling capability can be increased by optimization of the metallization. In most cases
the investigated resistors failed by puncture or by some kind of "tracking" along the outer coating. In only few cases
mechanical cracking was reported to be the failure mechanism.
Another important observation of Ringler et al. was that none of the considered distribution functions Normal,
Weibull and Gumbel could be given a preference. Failure probabilities of MO resistors cannot consistently be
described by any of these distributions. All these distribution functions covered the observations with deviations in
different details, but the final outcome (e.g. in terms of 50 % failure energy) was comparable for all of them.
Therefore, it was suggested to apply the Normal distribution as a generally known function and acceptable
approximation when results about failure energies shall be compared.
Boggs et al. [Bog 2000] investigated energy handling capability depending on how the metallization is
implemented. It was the objective of these investigations to find out if the metallization should preferably be applied
exactly up to the edge of the MO resistor or if a certain clearance to the edge should be kept, and how this would
affect energy handling capability. Performed simulations indicated a distinct temperature increase directly at the
edge of the metallization. It was finally proposed to keep a distance of (0,30,6) mm to the edge of the MO resistor
in order to get an optimized energy handling capability. For smaller distances, it was stated that dielectric strength
would be affected (risk of external flashovers). This conclusion has not generally been accepted. Many MO resistor
manufacturers have successfully implemented a metallization exactly up to the edges. This has to be seen not only
from the point of optimized energy handling capability; it is also a concern of manufacturing technology, since
implementation of a metallization up to the edge is difficult. However, Boggs' investigations have shown that the
way of metallization does have an influence on energy handling capability. If the metallization ends too far away
from the MO resistor's edge local current densities may reach values that increase the risk of puncture of the MO
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material. Also the quality (smoothness) of the edge on a microscopic scale has effect on the overall energy
handling capability.
Bartkowiak et al. [Bar 1996a] worked intensely on the simulation of energy stress and energy handling limits. Two
different kinds of MO resistors were considered: one with a diameter of 32 mm and a height of 45 mm,
representative for medium-voltage (distribution) arresters, and the other with a diameter of 63 mm and a height of
23 mm, typically applied in high-voltage (station) arresters. Apart from the different typical applications, these MO
resistors thus differ distinctly in their aspect ratios, i.e. their ratios of height over diameter, which was considered in
particular and which has influence on the failure mode as could be demonstrated by Bartkowiak at al.
With regard to failure mechanisms, it was distinguished between puncture, cracking and thermal instability (where it
has to be noted that thermal instability is not an impulse energy failure mechanism as such; it just starts a process
that finally leads to puncture of the MO resistor by overheating). Only heat dissipation in radial direction was
considered, as it is the case in a real arrester (apart from its ends). Material inhomogeneity was modeled by a
straight small channel in the center of the MO resistor, having a varistor voltage reduced by 5 % compared with the
overall characteristic. Energy injection was simulated by a direct current, heating the material. A further boundary
condition was the possibility of free movement of the material in any direction. It must be critically noted that in real
arresters this is not always the case. In many designs the MO columns are mechanically clamped by extreme
forces in the range of 100 kN or even more. Therefore, in a real arrester any thermal expansion of the MO material
may be limited or even totally suppressed, which may result in different distributions of pressure and tensile forces
in the material. This must be kept in mind when interpreting the simulation results.
Some more details about the simulation are explained in [Bar 1999]. Following preconditions were assumed to
result in failure of the MO resistor:
-
a tensile force larger than 480106 N/m in axial direction will cause cracking,
a tensile force larger than 140106 N/m in radial direction will cause cracking,
an average overall temperature above 190 C will cause thermal instability,
a temperature of the center channel above 800 C will cause puncture.
The performed simulations showed that the minima of energy handling capability depend on the failure mode. For
the distribution MO resistors, the minimum was found to be 310 J/cm at a current density of approximately
1 A/cm. The related failure mode is "cracking". Energy handling capability then increases with current density. For
"puncture", the minimum failure energy is found at a current density of 1 A/cm as well, but at a higher level of
about 600 J/cm. For the failure mode "thermal instability" the failure energy is about 980 J/cm at extremely low
current densities of less than 0,0001 A/cm, and it then reaches a nearly constant value of 580 J/cm over the full
range of current density from 0,001 A/cm up to 50 kA/cm. For distribution MO resistors the minimum of energy
handling capability thus will be found at current densities of about 1 A/cm, for puncture as well as for cracking.
This is not the case for the high-voltage resistors. For the failure mode "puncture" the minimum was calculated to
be 420 J/cm at a current density of about 0,1 A/cm, while for "cracking" the minimum energy is slightly higher
500 J/cm but at much higher current densities of about 20 A/cm. These findings, however, could not all be
verified by recent experimental investigations, as will be reported later in section 3.4.2.
Bartkowiak also modeled the behavior of an MO resistor on the basis of a two-dimensional, randomly generated
4
Voronoi network [Bar 1996b] [Bar 1006c]. The network is made up from three components: "good" grain
boundaries with extremely non-linear voltage-current-characteristic, "bad" grain boundaries with poor non-linearity
and "ohmic" grain boundaries.
An interesting recent publication is from China [He 2007]. He and Hu report about tests on two different makes of
commercial varistors: type A with a height of 10 mm and 32 mm in diameter; type B with a height of 10 mm but a
diameter of 52 mm. For energy tests with long duration current impulses of 2 ms and 8 ms time duration they quote
cracking and puncture as dominating failure mechanisms. For the MO resistors of 32 mm diameter they give
surprisingly low failure energy values of only (216575) J/cm. Such low values for these comparatively small
4
Voronoi polygons acc. to the Russian mathematician Georgi Feodosjewitsch Woronoi (1868-1908). Voronoi polygons are
applied in material sciences to simulate a random crystal constellation in polycrystalline materials.
Page 110
resistor elements are interesting, as they show that though MO resistor technology is considered to be mature, one
has always to be aware that products will come to the market that do not fulfill the general expectations on energy
handling capability. It is thus once more important to have clear definitions and related test procedures in future
arrester standards that allow an easy and simple evaluation of energy handling capability of a MO resistor.
Another publication is surprising as well [Ver 1992]. Energy handling tests on commercially available MO resistors
are reported there. The resistors were of 22 mm height and 53 mm in diameter, they had a continuous operating
voltage of 2,5 kV and a nominal discharge current of 10 kA. Unfortunately, no absolute values of energy handling
capability is given, the information is limited to general tendencies which, however, are remarkable. While all
reports published so far indicate an increase of energy handling capability with current density, the contrary is the
case here: energy handling capability decreases with increasing current density. Compared with all other findings
and to date's knowledge, this has to be judged as an error, for which reason ever.
Darveniza et al. [Dar 1998] investigated the performance of distribution arresters under multiple impulse stress
which is motivated by the nature of lightning flashes5. They tested 21 porcelain housed arresters from six different
manufacturers. Additionally, they investigated MO resistors with different coating systems of one manufacturer, and
further MO resistors of other manufacturers in different surrounding media. Impulse currents 8/20 s at amplitudes
from 5 kA to 11 kA were applied, as well as 4/10 s impulses from 40 kA to 100 kA. The 8/20 s impulses were
multiple impulses at time intervals of (15150) ms. No information of the energy handling capability is published,
but an interesting observation is reported. The MO resistor stacks flashed over. Tests with surrounding gases
modified for different dielectric strengths (air at normal density, air at lowered pressures, SF6) resulted in the same
behavior. Thus, obviously, the flashover under this kind of multiple impulse is initiated not outside the resistor but
directly underneath or within the coating, a phenomenon that has also been observed for the new lightning current
impulse 90/200 s (see later in section 3.4.2).
Dengler [Den 1998] intensely investigated electrical degradation of MO resistors
(in terms of watt loss and leakage current increase) under an extremely high number (up to 400 impulses) of
lightning impulse current stresses at amplitudes around nominal discharge current and finally derived online
monitoring procedures from his findings. He investigated two different kinds of MO resistors (material A: height
46 mm, diameter 38 mm, nominal discharge current 5 kA; material B: height 40 mm, diameter 74 mm, nominal
discharge current 20 kA). Besides the impact of current amplitude and front steepness, he also investigated
recovery effects at different temperatures or time intervals between the individual impulses. As cause of electrical
degradation, he suggests migration of negative oxygen ions towards the inner region of the ZnO grains. This
changes the oxygen ion concentration at the grain boundaries and has effect on the barrier voltage. Recovery may
take place under certain conditions by negative oxygen ions travelling back to the boundaries.
Klein [Kle 2004] investigated changes of material properties by impulse currents, expressed by changes of leakage
current, reference voltage and power loss. He also looked very closely to fine cracks on the resistor surface. As a
good approach for generalization, he introduced a common reference current density of Jref = 0,12 mA/cm
(according to the standards, manufacturers are free to specify their reference current in any suited way).
Unfortunately, in case of asymmetries in polarity (which is typical after unipolar impulse current stress), he used the
average of positive and negative current amplitudes for the determination of the reference voltage, which makes
comparison of similar results difficult that are found according to the definitions in the standards.
The contributions cited so far dealt with the particular aspects of impulse energy handling capability. Only few
publications can be found on thermal stability issues. First studies were performed and published by [Lat 1983] [Lat
1985], where the thermal behavior and thermal stability limit of individual MO resistors and MO distribution
arresters was investigated and simulated by means of a transient network analysis. St.-Jean et al. [StJ 1990]
reported about a similar approach for high-voltage arresters up to 120 kV rated voltage, were the MO temperature
is approximately evenly distributed along the arrester axis as well. The problem becomes more complex, however,
if high-voltage arresters of several meters in height are considered, since they represent structures of distributed
parameters with a spatial distribution of all electrical and thermal quantities. In [Hin 1987], [Hin 1989] and [Hin
1990] approaches and performed simulations on such arresters are reported. They were also based on a
5
In 55% of all cases lightning flashes are composed of two or more individual strikes [And 1980].
Page 111
comparatively coarsely structured distributed parameter network. Though further progress has been made in this
field for instance [Hin 2008] reports about successful coupling of a three-dimensional non-linear electroquasistatic and a thermal field problem for UHV arresters till now really satisfying approaches to simulate thermal
stability limits under special consideration of the axial temperature distribution in HV-, EHV- and UHV arresters
have not been published.
3.4.2 RESULTS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION INITIATED BY CIGR WG A3.17

When Cigr WG A3.17 started their work on surge arresters, the investigations on energy handling capability of
Ringler et al. [Rin 1997] dated back more than ten years. With this background, the following goals for the first part
of a research program on energy handling capability were formulated:
-
Confirm and update the test results of [Rin 1997];

extend the investigation to MO varistors of dimensions that are commonly applied today in station and
distribution arresters (different diameters, larger height);
extend the investigation to samples of several manufacturers worldwide;
make use of standard impulse currents as usually applied for arrester testing;
also investigate the impact of 4/10 s high current impulses and of the new lightning impulse discharge
current (approx. 90/200 s) according to IEC 60099-4, Annex N [IEC 2009];
extend the failure criterion to general significant changes of the material properties, instead of mechanical
failure only.
In a second part of the program (in the work frame of Cigr WG A3.25) issues such as durability (impact of number
of impulses) and the problem of single versus multiple impulse stress will be addressed as well as statements on
failure risk (failure probability versus absorbed energy), and finally the impact of uneven axial temperature
distribution in high-voltage arresters on the thermal stability limits. This will allow deriving rated energies for specific
applications of surge arresters. Finally, better energy definitions and simpler test procedures for future revisions of
the arrester standards shall be derived and suggested.
Results were published so far in [Rei 2008a] [Rei 2008b] [Tuc 2009] [Hin 2009] and are including some new and
most recent results summarized below.
3.4.2.1 Test specimens and test currents

Commercially available MO resistors from eight well established American, European and Japanese manufacturers
(named as S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z) were tested. Two basically different sizes of MO resistors were considered. The
first size, denominated as "Size 1", is typically applied in 10 kA station class arresters of line discharge class 3.
Their height is 40 mm to 45 mm (except for one make of only 26 mm) and their diameter around 60 mm. The
second size "Size 2" is typically applied in 10 kA distribution class arresters. Their height varies from roughly 30
mm to roughly 40 mm, their diameter is around 40 mm. Eight different types of current stress were applied for
testing: alternating current (50 Hz) at three levels of current amplitudes 10 A, 100 A, 300 A, long-duration
current impulses of about 1 ms, 2 ms and 4 ms time duration, high current impulse 4/10 s and lightning impulse
discharge current 90/200 s (time parameters 10%). For each test series 40...50 samples were tested. For some
tests the sample number was even increased up to 80. From the total number of MO resistors that have been
announced and delivered, respectively, for the test program, more than 3000 pieces have been tested. This has
thus been the most extensive investigation on MO energy handling capability so far.
Different from other test programs standard impulse current shapes were used, except for the alternating current
stress, which is not specified in any arrester standard. Reason for the latter is that when testing up to mechanical
failure each alternating current stress will contribute directly to a failure energy distribution, whereas impulse tests
(each impulse results in "passed" or "not passed" for the test sample) requires higher statistical efforts in
determining a mean failure energy (i.e. an energy that would lead to 50 % failure probability), and it is more difficult
to give statements about very low failure probabilities. It was one of the objectives of this test program to show if
alternating current stress can be favorably applied for this purpose. Another reason was that applications do exist
where alternating current stress is imposed (e.g. overvoltage protection of series capacitor banks) and it is
interesting to know if energy handling capability is affected in any direction by this kind of energy input.
Page 112
It was for the first time, as well, that a systematical investigation with the new 90/200 s impulse ("lightning impulse
discharge" acc. to [IEC 2009]) was performed.
3.4.2.2 Test setup

A pneumatic test fixture allowing a rapid change of the test specimens was especially developed. It consists of a
pneumatic actuator, a fixed and a moving contact electrode consisting of copper foil and two heat insulating blocks.
The air pressure of the pneumatic actuator was adjusted for each type of varistor to ensure a pressure of p = 3,0
N/mm on the electrodes. This value results in a comparatively high contact force and was chosen to prevent any
bouncing of the electrodes during the tests with high-current impulses (4/10 s). The heat insulating blocks prevent
axial heat flow during the tests. They are made from fiber silicate with high compression strength and low thermal
conductivity. To ensure identical contact conditions for each test and to avoid flashover problems as a result of
damaged electrodes, two new aluminum electrodes (discs of 5 mm thickness with rounded edges) were used for
each test. The diameter of the electrode discs was adopted for each type of varistors such that the electrode
diameter was (1...2) mm was smaller than the diameter of the varistor, in order to avoid any dielectric problems.
3.4.2.3 Test procedure

A further difference to former investigations on energy handling capability, where test were performed up to
mechanical failure of the samples, was the introduction of a "complex" failure criterion. This was to take into
account the fact that not only visible mechanical damage but also non-visible pre-damage or deterioration of the
electrical characteristic would constitute an arrester failure in a real system (because the arrester would not pass
any further energy input or degradation effects would cause thermal instability).
At the beginning of a test series an initial measurement procedure was performed to acquire the electrical
characteristics of the MO resistors (see Figure 3.4). During these initial measurements a "characteristic" voltage
Uch (per definition similar to the reference voltage) in the leakage current range of the U-I-characteristics was
measured at a current Ich corresponding to a peak current density of 0,12 mA/cm, five seconds after voltage
application. Then the residual voltage was measured at nominal discharge current of 10 kA, 8/20 s.
After the initial measurement, the energy stress test was carried out. Thereafter, the MO resistors were visually
inspected to determine mechanical failure such as cracking, puncture or flashover. If there was no obvious
mechanical failure the MO resistors were again tested for their electrical characteristics after cooling to ambient
temperature. These measurements were performed exactly in the same way as the initial measurement, with one
exception: one additional impulse current Imd for check of mechanical pre-damage, shape 8/20 s at an increased
discharge current corresponding to a current density of 1,5 kA/cm, was applied after the residual voltage test with
10 kA.
The following set of failure criteria was specified for the impulse current tests (the alternating current tests were
performed until mechanical failure, see below, and thus did not require these special considerations). First criterion
was mechanical integrity, determined by visual inspection. If the MO resistor passed mechanically the exit
measurements were performed. If the characteristic voltage Uch had changed by more than 5 % the MO resistor
was considered as failed. This criterion was introduced since such change in the voltage would clearly constitute a
change of the material characteristics. If a mechanical failure such as cracking, puncture or flashover occurred
during the exit impulse current tests (two impulses 8/20 s, first at In = 10 kA and then at Imd corresponding to 1,5
kA/cm) the MO resistor was considered as failed as well. Both of these additional criteria had to be introduced
since in many cases apparently sound but actually severely pre-damaged MO resistors could be identified only this
way. As an example, eventually the metallization of the MO resistors was punctured at the edges or within the
electrode surface. Only the Uch and the Imd criteria allowed to decide if these MO resistors still performed
satisfactory or not. Finally, changes of the residual voltage were evaluated. If the residual voltage had changed by
more than 5 % the MO resistor had failed.
A drawback of this extended and very sensitive evaluation procedure is that it is rather time consuming.
Page 113
Initial measurements
Uch,1 at Jch = 0,12 mA/cm (after 5 s)
Ures,1 at I = In
Impulse test
(energy injection)
Visual inspection:
mechanically failed?
yes
no
Measurement of characteristic voltage
Uch,2 at Jch = 0,12 mA/cm (after 5 s)
Exit measurements
95% U ch,1
105% Uch,1 ?
Uch,2
no
yes
Measurements at lightning current impulse
Ures,2 at I = In
Imd at J = 1,5 kA/cm
Visual inspection:
mechanically failed?
yes
no
no
95% Ures,1
105% Ures,1 ?
Ures,2
yes
OK
Figure 3.4: Flowchart of the test and evaluation procedure
Page 114
defect
Some of the energy test series for station class MO resistors were performed at alternating current stress. In this
case, due to restrictions of the test setup, voltage was applied until mechanical failure of the MO resistor.
Therefore, no initial or exit measurements had to be performed for this test series. After failure of the MO resistor
the short circuit current of the transformer was interrupted by a vacuum circuit breaker. Since the transformer short
current was flowing for a time of up to 40 ms, it was not in all cases possible to exactly determine the failure mode
of the MO resistor.
3.4.2.4 Test results and discussion

The station class MO resistors "Size 1" were tested with the following impulses: lightning impulse discharge current
90/200 s, long duration current impulse (1, 2, 4 ms) and alternating current of 10 A, 100 A and 300 A (peak).
The impulse tests were carried out at energies related to approximately 50 % failure probability. The alternating
current tests were carried out until MO resistor breakdown.
The distribution class MO resistors "Size 2" were tested with high current impulses 4/10 s, lightning impulse
discharge currents 90/200 s and long duration current impulses (1, 2, 4 ms). As for the "Size 1" samples, the
impulse tests were carried out at energies that would lead to approximately 50 % failure probability.
Figure 3.5 shows, for the station class MO resistors "Size 1" of six different manufacturers, the mean failure energy
of the failed samples as a function of current density amplitudes. For comparison, the failure energies published in
[Rin 1997] are also included. It has to be noted that the alternating current and the impulse current measurements
cannot directly be compared, as different failure criteria were applied for both of these test series. If the alternating
current tests had been interrupted before mechanical failure (which was not possible for practical reasons) and the
"complex" criterion of the impulse tests had been applied, the failure energies would have been lower. Vice versa,
the mean impulse current failure energies would be higher if the tests had been performed up to mechanical failure.
This is shown for one make of MO resistors in Figure 3.6. In Figure 3.5, a direct comparison (in terms of absolute
values) with the results of [Rin 1997] is, therefore, only possible for the alternating current tests.
The following can be concluded from Figure 3.5:
1. Mean failure energies approximately vary from 400 J/cm up to 1200 J/cm, for very fast impulses even up to
1700 J/cm.
2. Energy handling capability increases with current (density) amplitude basically in the same way as reported in
[Rin 1997]. From the alternating current tests, where the same failure criteria were applied, one can see that
the mean failure energy is increased by up to 70 % (in average by at least 20 %) compared with the
investigations of [Rin 1997]. This probably reflects the continuous improvements industry has made over the
last decade in processing, material formulation and MO resistor design. And evidently, cost pressure on the
market has not resulted in lower qualities. However, the wide spread by a factor of 1,7 among the different
makes is remarkable.
3. Application of the "complex" failure criterion (in this case applied for the impulse current tests) results in
approximately 50 % lower mean failure energy values than if tests were carried out up to visible, mechanical
failure. For further investigations it is therefore important to discuss if the "complex" failure criterion shall
generally be applied, and if yes, what may be considered as acceptable limits of changes in the U-Icharacteristic.
4. Not all investigated makes of MO resistors exhibit the expected increase of energy handling capability for
extreme values of current densities. Two makes show an unexpected decrease of the failure energy down to
values of only 500 J/cm. The reason is a different dominant failure mechanism: resistors "S" and "U" would fail
by a dielectric failure of their coatings, finally resulting in a flashover. It is thus not a material problem of the
bulk ZnO but a characteristic of the coating system. The situation will probably not improve when the MO
resistors are directly covered by a polymeric housing, as the flashovers develop from a breakdown of the
coating material and/or the interface between ZnO and coating, respectively. Assumedly, this problem will be
Page 115
solved in the near future. Actually, MO resistors have not been optimized for the extreme current stress of the
lightning current test as specified in Annex N of [IEC 2009].
Figure 3.5: Mean failure energy vs. amplitude of current density for Size 1 MO resistors
For make "T", tests at long-duration current impulse stress were also performed up to mechanical failure (rather
than to apply the "complex failure criterion"). It can be seen from Figure 3.6 that in this case the mean failure
energy follows the expected dependence of current density. This demonstrates that the differences in Figure 3.5
between the a.c. and the impulse current tests are not related to the different current shapes but only to the
different applied failure criteria. It further allows concluding that energy handling test can also be made with
alternating current stress if this is considered more convenient. The only difference to impulse current testing will
then be the lower failure energies due to the lower achievable current densities, which, however, can easily be
taken into account by correction factors.
Page 116
1800
Diameter 60 mm
Heigth 40..45 mm
1600
mean failure energy in J/cm
1400
1 ms
1200
2 ms
100 ms 4 ms
1000
8s
T, complex failure criterion
800
Ringler 97, until mechanical failure

600
T, until mechanical failure

90/200 s
400
AC
200
0
0,1
10
100
1000
10000
peak current density in A/cm
Figure 3.6: Mean failure energy vs. amplitude of current density for Size 1 MO resistor of make T;
comparison of failure criteria until mechanical failure and complex for the long-duration current
impulse stress
The linear dependence between logarithm of current (density) and logarithm of time to failure could basically be
verified, see Figure 3.7 (for the impulse tests the prospective impulse time is used for the time scale; this is due to
the test conditions, as the test was performed with standard current impulses and not with an impulse current
lasting up to mechanical failure of the sample). It is interesting with this kind of depiction that for the short impulse
times and high current densities, respectively, the different failure mechanism of resistors "S" and "U" (flashover
instead of breaking) can clearly be identified by a change of the rate of rise of the curve but only if the curve is
carefully interpreted. One may also (erroneously!) conclude that the same linear log-log dependence is valid over
the full covered range, as the dramatically decrease of the energies at the left end of the curve looks quite
"harmless" in the logarithmic scale and can easily be ignored. In general, this way of depiction points out general
dependencies, but is too coarse for quantitative evaluations.
Page 117
Figure 3.7: Mean values of current density amplitude vs. time to failure
Figure 3.8: Mean failure energy vs. amplitude of current density for Size 2 MO resistors
Page 118
The results on the distribution MO resistors "Size 2" from six different manufacturers are shown in Figure 3.8. The
following can be derived from this picture:
1. For the long duration current impulses, mean failure energies are in the range of (6001000) J/cm, with
increasing values for increasing amplitudes of current density. These values can be directly compared with
those of Figure 3.5 which are typically in the range of (8001200) J/cm. The distribution MO resistors
thus have (1525) % lower energy handling capability. This is explained by the different dominating failure
mechanisms, as will be shown later in more detail. In general, the "Size 2" resistors would much more often
fail due to a change of the U-I-characteristic, which can only be found with the help of the "complex" failure
criterion.
2. Except for one make ("X"), beginning with a current density of several hundred A/cm, the mean failure
energy does not increase any more but even decreases, down to values of only (150650) J/cm at high
current impulse stress. This is, of course, again due to the application of the complex failure criterion. For
tests carried out up to mechanical failure an increase would have been expected in this range.
At this point some details about the typical failure mechanisms shall be given. Figure 3.9 shows the failure
mechanisms depending on the impulse shape for the station class MO resistors "Size 1", makes "S", "U" and "X".
Figure 3.10 gives the same information for the distribution MO resistors "Size 2", makes "S", "U", "V", "W" and "Y".
Figure 3.11 gives an idea about the meaning of failure mechanisms "cracking" (CR), external "flashover" (FO),
"puncture" (PU) and the special characteristic of a "flashover" in case of the 90/200 impulse current stress, which
originates from a puncture of the coating.
Page 119
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
0
CR
BR
FO
B
PU
DU
MF Uch
Uref Ures
Ures
20
4 ms
2 ms
1 ms
90/200 s
4 ms
2 ms
1 ms
90/200 s
0
CR
FO
PU
MF Uch
Ures
V
100
100
80
%
80
60
60
%
40
40
4 ms
20
4 ms
2 ms
1 ms
90/200 s
20
2 ms
1 ms
CR
BR
FO
B
DU
PU
CR FO
90/200 s
MF
Uch
Uref Ures
Ures
100
100
PU
MF Uch
Ures
80
80
60
60
40
40
4 ms
2 ms
1 ms
90/200 s
20
0
CR
BR
FO
B
20
DU
PU MF Uch
Uref Ures
0
CR
FO
PU MF
Uch Ures
4 ms
2 ms
1 ms
85/180 s
Failure mechanisms:
CR Cracking
FO Flashover
PU Puncture
MF Mechanical failure during exit measurement

Uch ... Change of "characteristic" voltage
Ures... Change of residual voltage
Figure 3.9: Failure mechanisms of Size 1 MO resistors
Page 120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
4 ms
1 ms
4/10 s
Uch Ures
Uref
Ures
FO
1 ms
PU
MF
Uch
U ref
MF
4/10 s
Ures
PU
DU
MF
FO
B
BR
CR
CR
BR
4 ms
0
DU
20
Ures
100
100
80
80
60
%
60
40
%
40
20
0
CR
BR
B
FO
DU
PU MF Uref
Uch Ures
Ures
4 ms
1 ms
4/10 s
20
0
CR
BR
B
FO
DU
PU
MF Uref
Uch Ures
4 ms
1 ms
4/10 s
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
4 ms
2 ms
1 ms
90/200 s
4/10 s
20
0
CR
FO
PU
MF Uch Ures
20
2 ms
0
BR
CR
4/10 s
B
FO
DU
PU
MF
Uref
Uch Ures
Ures
Failure mechanisms:
CR Cracking
FO Flashover
PU Puncture
MF Mechanical failure during exit measurement

Uch ... Change of "characteristic" voltage
Change of residual voltage
Ures...
Figure 3.10: Failure mechanisms of Size 2 MO resistors
Page 121
Figure 3.11: Failure mechanisms (from left) cracking (CR), flashover (FO), puncture (PU) and
flashover (FO) in the special case of 90/200 impulse current stress
For the "Size 1" MO resistors, main failure mechanism of make "S" is change of the characteristic voltage and
cracking; only at the 90/200 s impulse, it mainly failed by flashovers. For make "X" the dominating failure
mechanism is cracking, and even in case of the 90/200 s impulse it is much more the change of the characteristic
voltage than flashover. It is also interesting that in general puncture obviously is not a common failure mechanism,
a finding that is in contradiction to what was published in [Rin 1997] (see section 3.4.1). Another important
observation is that change of the residual voltage (by more than 5 %) is not a concern at all. This criterion is often
used in the arrester standards and has to be questioned for further revisions.
For "Size 2" MO resistors, the dominating failure mechanisms are change of the characteristic voltage and
flashover. This is not only the case for 4/10 s and 90/200 s, where this might have been expected, but also for
the long duration current impulse stress in one example. Particularly for the "Size 2" resistors one can identify a
typical failure mechanism pattern of a certain make. Here again, change of the residual voltage does not take
place, and puncture is not a relevant failure mechanism, either.
Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13 give detailed information about the change of the characteristic voltage for the "Size 2"
distribution voltage MO resistors, depending on the 4/10 s impulse current peak value and the related injected
energy.
Current peak value in A
5
40.000
0
60.000
80.000
100.000
120.000
140.000
160.000
180.000
200.000
220.000
Change of U ch in %
-5
-10
S
U
V
W
X
Y
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
Figure 3.12: Change of characteristic voltage vs. 4/10 s impulse current peak value
Page 122
Energy in J/cm
5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1.000
Change of U ch in %
-5
-10
S
U
V
W
x
Y
-15
-20
-25
-30
"Size 2"
Diameter 40 mm
Height (30..40)
-35
-40
Figure 3.13: Change of characteristic voltage vs. energy injection by 4/10 s impulse current
The differences among the different makes of MO resistors are impressing. Only two of them "V" and "W"
exhibit a change of less than 5 % in the characteristic voltage after one 100 kA current impulse 4/10 s, which is
the standard test impulse during the operating duty test on distribution arresters according to [IEC 2009]. The other
three makes are at 5 % and at 15 % for this current amplitude. Interesting as well is the fact that some makes
are obviously optimized for minimum impulse current degradation. "V" reaches the 5 % limit at a current of 150
kA, and "W" has a decrease in the characteristic voltage of only 7 % at a current amplitude of 190 kA, the slope of
the curve being extremely flat. From Figure 3.12 it can be seen that all investigated resistors easily reach energy
handling values (without mechanical failure) of (700900) J/cm assumedly even higher, but the impulse current
generator was at its limits. This example demonstrates how important the introduction of a "complex" failure
criterion is. It is acknowledged that all of the investigated MO resistors will perform well in a complete distribution
arrester because the decrease of the characteristic voltage (for practical applications this might be the reference
voltage) of (5.15) % at 100 kA current amplitude is taken into consideration for the dimensioning of the arresters
all of them are designed to pass the operating duty test. However, deterioration of the material has definitely
taken place (showing a linear dependence from the current amplitude), and it may just be discussed if, for instance,
a change of 10 % in the characteristic voltage should be used in the complex failure criterion rather than 5 %.
This would result, e.g. for make "Y", in an increase of the failure energy from actually 200 J/cm to 300 J/cm, see
Figure 3.13.
For the first time, mechanical shock waves in MO resistors under high current impulse stress, so far only
theoretically predicted by simulations (see section 2.2), could be measured in this investigation. Figure 3.14 shows
the calculated temperature increase acc. to Equ. 3.1 in an MO resistor of 40 mm diameter and 45 mm height under
100 kA high current impulse stress and under assumption of a homogeneous temperature distribution in the
material. Temperature increases by nearly 110 K within a time of 12 s. This adiabatic step increase causes
extreme thermo-mechanical stress, and mechanical shock waves will travel through the material.
Page 123
140
350
Temperaturanstieg
in K
Temperature increase
Current
in kA
Strom
Energy in J/cm
Energie
120
300
100
250
80
200
60
150
40
100
20
50
Energie in
in J/cm
J/cm
Energy
Temperaturanstieg
in kAin kA
Temperature
increaseininKK/ Strom
/ Current
0
-2
10
12
14
Zeit in s
s
Time
7000
140
6000
120
5000
100
4000
80
3000
60
Kraft
Forcein N
Strom
Current
in kA
2000
Strom in
Current
inkA
kA
Force
kN
Kraft in N
Figure 3.14: Calculated energy injection and temperature increase under 100 kA high current impulse
stress on an MO resistor of 40 mm diameter and 45 mm height
40
1000
20
0
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Zeit in
Time
ins
s
Figure 3.15: Current and force measured on an MO resistor 40 mm diameter and 45 mm height
The result of an actual force measurement on such MO resistor under this kind of stress is shown in Figure 3.15. It
must be noted, however, that the diagram shows the uncompensated output signal of the force sensor, which may
be affected by the test setup, especially the supporting structure and the force sensor itself. Therefore, the result
has to be carefully interpreted and the general validity to be further verified.
The propagation speed c of an acoustic shock wave in MO ceramics can be calculated as
100 GPa
5420 kg/m
4300
m
s
4, 3
mm
s
(equation. 3.2)
where E is the module of elasticity and is the density (values taken from [Len 2000]. Thus for MO resistors of 27,8
mm height and of 37 mm height, respectively, especially cut to these heights for this investigation, the required time
for travelling two times along the height would be 12,9 s and 17,2 s, respectively. This is quite well correlated
with the comparative measurements shown in Figure 3.16. These investigations will be continued.
Page 124
120
Strom in
Current
in kA
kA
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
35
40
9
17,3 s
Force
in kN
kN
Kraft in
9,1 s
Hhe 37
Height
37 mm
mm
Height
27,8 mm
mm
Hhe 27,8
11,6 s
6
5
4
6,3 s
3
-5
10
15
20
25
30
Time
s
Zeit inins
Figure 3.16: Current and force measured on MO resistors of different heights

Finally, an important result of the tests with alternating current stress shall be discussed here. It was one of the
goals of this research project to find a simple test procedure allowing statements on very low failure probabilities
below 1% even if only a comparatively small batch of MO resistors is tested. This was one reason for introducing
the alternating current test to the research program. Figure 3.17 shows two examples of statistical evaluations (in
form of a Normal Distribution), for a current impulse test series (left) and for a test series at alternating current
(right). For the impulse test case, each particular point in the depiction represents at least 10 individual impulse
tests. Therefore, in sum the result of about at least 40 individual impulse tests is evaluated. For the alternating
current tests, each measuring point represents one energy stress up to mechanical failure; thus in sum the
evaluation is made for about 50 individual tests. The benefit of the test at alternating current up to mechanical
failure is obvious: the 95 % confidence intervals are smaller, and a reasonable statement about a 1 % failure
probability is possible from a test on only 50 samples. This is not the case for the impulse tests on approximately
the same number of samples, which can only give reliable information on the 50 % failure energy. It is thus
worthwhile thinking about tests at alternating current stress. If these tests, however, shall be performed with
application of the "complex" failure criterion, which would require a test setup that is able to interrupt the test
current at a specified injected energy level before mechanical failure, there is no difference to the impulse test any
more. On the other hand, a conversion factor from "test with complex failure criterion" to "test up to mechanical
failure" could be taken from Figure 3.5. This is open for discussion in the future. However, failure probabilities of
0,1 % or less will remain difficult to determine.
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99,8
99,5
99
98
95
95
90
90
Wahrscheinlichkeit in %
99,8
99,5
99
98
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Probability in %
Probability in %
Wahrscheinlichkeit in %
Mepunkte
Measuring
points
Treppenkurve
Step curve
Verteilungsfunktion
function
Distribution
Vertrauensbereiche
Verteilung
Conf.
interv. distribution
Vertrauensbereiche
Quantile
Conf.
interv. quantile
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
5
Verteilungsfunktion
function
Distribution
2
1
0,5
Verteilung
Vertrauensbereiche
Conf. interv. distribution
Vertrauensbereiche
Quantile
Conf. interv. quantile
0,2
1470
1570
1670
1770
2
1
0,5
0,2
1870
810
860
910
Energie in
in J/cm
Energy
J/cm
960
1010
1060
Energiein
in J/cm
Energy
J/cm
Figure 3.17: Examples of statistical evaluations (Normal Distribution) of impulse current tests (left) and
alternating current tests (right) with 95 % confidence intervals
1,8
Mean failure energy in p.u.
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
6 cm
8 cm
10 cm
0
0
10
12
Amplitude of current density in A/cm
Figure 3.18: Mean failure energy (incl. standard deviation) vs. current density amplitude for MO
resistors of same make and same height but different diameters
Since tests at alternating current up to mechanical failure can be made at comparatively low effort, this procedure
might be given preference in certain cases. Figure 3.18 shows an example. Here, the objective was to compare the
influence of the MO resistor diameter on energy handling capability. Each measuring point represents energy tests
at the given current density amplitude on about 50 MO resistors of the given diameter. Such test program can be
performed in comparatively short time.
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The interesting finding here is not that failure energy increases with current density (which has been expected) but
that it decreases with diameter. This can only partly be explained by statistical (volume) effects as it is
demonstrated in the following example:
The probability P (W') of failure at a given specific energy W' for n MO resistors in parallel, each having a
probability p(W') of failure at the same specific energy is
P W'
1 p W'
(equation 3.3)
Solving equation 3.3 to p(W') leads to
p W'
1 P W'
(equation 3.4)
where p(W') is the required failure probability of an individual MO resistor at the specific energy W' in order to
achieve the overall failure probability P(W') when a number of n resistors are connected in parallel. The number n
of parallel resistors can also be a volume factor of a larger diameter resistor.
When looking at the mean (or 50%) specific failure energy (where p = 0,5) of a resistor of 60 mm diameter, the
same specific energy injected into a resistor of the same make, but of 100 mm diameter (i.e. 2,8 times larger
volume at the same height; or n = 2,8), the failure probability acc. to equation 3.3 would be P = 0,856. If, vice versa,
the failure probability of the larger resistor shall be P = 0,5, the related failure probability of a 60 mm resistor
(volume factor = 1/2,8) would be, acc. to equation 3.4, p = 0,22.
From Fig. 3.16 (right) the 22% specific failure energy is approximately 4% lower than the 50% specific failure
energy. One might thus expect that a 100 mm diameter resistor has an approximately 4% lower mean specific
failure energy than a 60 mm resistor of the same make. Fig. 3.17, however, shows that the difference is much
bigger, i.e. in the range of 10%.
Therefore, the decrease of specific failure energy with diameter cannot be explained by statistical (volume) effects
alone. An additional influence may be the (in)homogeneity of the material. The larger the diameter the more difficult
it is to achieve homogeneity. However, the effect is not too much pronounced and particularly covered by the wide,
overlapping deviations from the average values. It may, anyway, be concluded that a diameter of 60 mm evidently
represents a kind of optimum where change of the U-I-characteristic under high current densities (compare Figures
3.5 and 3.8) and the effects of material in homogeneities at low current densities both have minimum impact on
energy handling capability.
Another outcome of this investigation is shown in Figure 3.19. Typically, in a test series of several hundred
specimens with energy injection up to mechanical failure there will be one or more "outliers", i.e. MO resistors that
fail at extremely low energy levels. Such performance of a batch was found for all investigated makes of MO
resistors, and it shows that there will always remain a certain unavoidable risk when going to the limits of specified
energy handling capability. This is less a concern for standard applications, where an arrester is made up from
comparatively few MO resistors and is very likely never stressed to its limits, but it is definitely an issue for the large
arrester banks for overvoltage protection of series capacitors. These outliers, by the way, can better be found with
this way of testing, i.e. test at energy stress up to mechanical failure. In an impulse test with a standard longduration current impulse, where the outcome of each individual energy stress would be only be "passed" or "failed",
the information about the low failure energy of sample number 32 in Figure 3.19 is usually not available (unless the
actual failure energy during each impulse is measured and evaluated).
Page 127
1200
Energie
in J/cm
Failure
energy
in J/cm
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
Test
and sample number
Versuchsnummer
41
45
49
53
Figure 3.19: Example of failure energies at alternating current tests up to mechanical failures
3.4.2.5 Conclusions and Outlook
In this experimental investigation a statistically significant number of station and distribution class MO varistors from
eight well established American, European and Japanese manufacturers was tested to probe the energy limits for
different impulse and alternating current stresses. A major part of the test program is concluded and some general
observations and conclusions can right now be formulated:
-
Compared to an earlier comparative study [Rin 1997] an increase of up to 70 % and in average of at least
20 % in energy handling capability can be seen for the materials studied here (only the alternating current
tests are directly comparable, where the same failure criteria were applied), despite the fact that MO
resistors of larger (about two times) volume were tested, which in doubt would result in lower energy values
due to volume effects. This probably reflects the continuous improvements industry has made over the last
decade in processing, material formulation and block design. And evidently, cost pressure on the market
has not resulted in lower qualities.
So far no new, emerging suppliers of MO varistors could be included in the study. However, recent
references (e.g. [He 2007]) indicate that substantial differences might exist in the performance of such
materials, which should be studied further.
For the first time a "complex" failure criterion was introduced, which allows very sensitive evaluation of
different failure mechanisms. Since also changes of the U-I-characteristic are evaluated it allows
considering the impact of impulse energy stress on thermal stability issues. Some aspects of this failure
criterion might be further discussed, e.g. which alterations of the U-I-characteristic may be accepted as a
pass criterion, but basically this procedure has proven to be effective. Its application is, however, time
consuming.
For the first time such a comparative study included MO resistors designed for distribution and station
arresters. They differ mostly in their geometrical dimensions (cross-section, aspect ratio) and also show
distinctive differences in their performance, presumably due to the fact that different features are optimized
for the two different applications.
Energy stresses caused by fast impulses 90/200 s as they are specified for line arrester applications in
[IEC 2009] were as well evaluated for the first time in this study. Flashover or significant alterations in the
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U-I-characteristics show up as the major failure modes when reaching the energy limits under these fast
impulses. It has thus been found that the rule "increase of failure energy with higher current density"
(published by [Rin 1997] for the first time and basically confirmed by this investigation) must be confined,
as at a certain current density stress level the performance of the coating system may become dominant,
or in other words: it has not been optimized for this kind of stress. Practical implications of these findings
for specific applications in medium or high voltage arresters have to await further discussion.
-
Tests at alternating current stress have turned out to be suited for fast comparison of material properties
(benchmark tests), when the "complex" failure criterion shall not be applied. They allow statements on
failure probabilities down to approximately 1 %, which is not possible by impulse current tests. But it is still
an open problem how to reliably specify energies that would result in 0,1% failure probability or less.
MO resistors of approximately 60 mm diameter may constitute an optimum with regard to impulse energy
handling capability.
The change in residual voltage after energy absorption is not an issue and should be removed as failure
criterion in the standards. Change of power loss would be a sensitive failure criterion but is not sufficiently
reproducible. Change of the reference voltage could be considered for this purpose, instead.
One final general remark is important: all comparisons among different makes presented in this study are based on
mean failure energies (50 % failure probability). For these figures the statistical confidence is high, and they can
thus preferably be used for benchmark purposes. The mean failure energies, however, should not be mixed up with
the design energies, which are in the range of only 200 J/cm and thus far below the values reported here. No
reliable and serious statement can be given on, e.g., a 0,1 % failure energy, for reasons explained before, and
there is definitely no basis for any comparison of the investigated makes at such low probability failure energy
values. One should therefore be very careful with rash conclusions that a certain make might be "better" or "worse"
than another one, only based on this study. All investigated samples came from well-established manufacturers of
excellent reputation, and it is well known that failure rates of real arresters in the systems are only a few percent in
distribution and close to zero in transmission applications.
As the next steps the ongoing measurements will be completed. Thereafter, further studies might be necessary on
topics such as multiple impulse stress, durability, and impact of aspect ratio, probabilistic aspects in energy
handling, high gradient MO resistors or low performance makes.
3.5 Energy handling capability in international arrester standards

3.5.1 GENERAL
This section critically reviews the many different aspects of MO surge arresters' energy handling capability in
international standards, with main focus on IEC 60099-4 [IEC 2009] and IEEE C62.11 [IEE 2005]. Some national
standards have additionally been checked for differences to these standards. Requirements as well as test
procedures have been evaluated, and suggestions for future improvements are made. This was first published in
[Hin 2007] and is summarized and extended here.
The basic definitions of energy handling capability the different aspects of impulse energy and the thermal energy
are not distinctly specified in [IEC 2009], the most important international arrester standard. Instead, energy
handling capability is only indirectly described by means of the line discharge class. But the switching surge
operating duty tests (Cl. 8.5.5 of [IEC 2009]), based on this classification, is only a thermal stability test. The longduration current impulse withstand test (Cl. 8.4 of [IEC 2009]) could give valuable information on the durability of
the MO arresters if it were to be performed at higher energy levels. Thus, though not mentioned in any standard,
virtually all arrester manufacturers specify a long-duration current withstand capability, usually (but not always)
based on the test procedure of the long-duration current impulse withstand test (i.e. stress by 18 consecutive
impulses in a given test sequence), but at a fixed time duration of the current impulse of e.g. 2 ms and at the
maximum permitted current amplitude at this time duration. Problem with this approach is the definition via a
current amplitude, which does not take into account differences in the injected energy caused by the wide
Page 129
tolerances of the impulse current parameters. An improvement therefore would be to also state charge transfer (in
As) or specific energy in kJ per kV of rated voltage.
The high current impulses during the high current impulse operating duty test on distribution arresters and lightduty station arresters (Cl. 8.5.4 of [IEC 2009]) represent a considerable energy stress for this class of arresters, but
are not a good basis for an energy handling capability specification either as the injected energy may vary strongly
when utilizing all allowed tolerances. Historically, this test has been introduced primarily as a dielectric withstand
test for the gapped SiC arresters, rather than an energy handling test.
This situation in the standards may have been sufficient for "classical" arrester applications. But with state-of-theart MO arresters many new applications have become possible and usual. Examples are line arresters, arrester
banks for protection of FACTS (particularly series compensation capacitors), shunt capacitor and reactor
protection, arresters in HVDC applications and others. Their application require a more sophisticated consideration
of energy handling capability, and an increasing number of users has profound knowledge about the arising energy
stresses and specify requirements on energy handling capability. But today's definitions and tests do not give
sufficient guidance in this respect. Therefore, activities have been started in IEC as well as in IEEE to improve the
arrester standards in this respect.
3.5.2 ENERGY HANDLING ISSUES IN STANDARD IEC 60099-4
3.5.2.1 Line discharge class of an arrester

The line discharge (LD) class is besides the nominal discharge current the actual determining characteristic of
a high-voltage arrester. Presently it is the only possible way of specifying the energy handling capability of an
arrester in accordance with the IEC standard. It focuses only on the aspect of thermal stability, and the meaning of
the LD class may be difficult to understand for an uninformed user. Its definition is based on the assumption that a
long transmission line, charged to a certain overvoltage during de-energization, will discharge into a connected
arrester in the form of a travelling wave. The current will flow at a value that is determined by the overvoltage value
and the surge impedance of the line, for a duration given by twice the length of the line and the propagation speed
of an electro-magnetic wave. Ideally, the resulting current is a rectangular (long-duration) current impulse. This
process is simulated in the laboratory in a line discharge test, where the current impulse is generated with the help
of a distributed constant impulse generator. Five different LD classes are defined with increasing demands from
LD 1 to LD 5, in which line discharge parameters are established, and the resulting energy content has to be met in
the test (Table 3.1). These parameters are derived from typical characteristic values of high-voltage transmission
lines (see also IEC 60099-1, Table C.1 or [IEC 2000] or Table 3.2).
LD class
Surge impedance of the

line Z, in
Virtual
duration of
peak T, in s
Charging voltage
UL, in kV (d.c.)
4.9 Ur
2000
3.2 Ur
2.4 Ur
2000
3.2 Ur
1.3 Ur
2400
2.8 Ur
0.8 Ur
2800
2.6 Ur
0.5 Ur
3200
2.4 Ur
Ur = rated voltage of the test sample as an r.m.s. value in kV
Table 3.1: Test parameter for the line

discharge test [IEC 2006]
Page 130
LD class
U s (kV)
245
300
420
550
800
Table 3.2:
Recommended line
discharge classes
depending on system
voltage
Figure 3.20: Specific energy injection (by two consecutive line discharges) during switching impulse
operating duty test in kJ/kV of rated voltage dependent on the ratio of switching impulse residual
voltage U res to the r.m.s. value of the rated voltage U r of the arrester (in accordance with [IEC 2009])
As no direct conclusions about the energy stress can be drawn from this table, Figure 3.20 depicts the converted
energy in a test object during the switching impulse operating duty test (injected by two line discharges), with
reference to its rated voltage. This energy is not a fixed value, but depends on the arrester's switching impulse
residual voltage. The higher the residual voltage, the less energy the arrester absorbs during the line discharge.
With the help of Figure 3.20 a typical problem related to the LD class definition shall be explained. If a design is
applied with a given amount of specific thermal energy handling capability, then the arrester can, depending on its
actual residual voltage, be assigned to different LD classes, as shown in the following example (red dashed lines in
Figure 3.20): when using a design that can absorb an energy of 4 kJ/kV during the operating duty test, the arrester
is of LD 2 at a ratio of Ures/Ur = 2. However, it can also be assigned to LD 3 at the ratio of Ures/Ur = 2,35. But the
apparently "better" LD 3 arrester might possibly be worse for the intended application, since its protective level is
higher. In order to reach LD 3 while maintaining a ratio of Ures/Ur = 2, a design must be used with a thermal energy
handling capability of almost 6 kJ/kV, as indicated by the blue dotted lines in Figure 3.20, that would mean
application of MO resistors with greater diameters. Inversely, one can only draw conclusions from the LD class in
connection with the residual voltage as to the (thermal) energy handling capability of an arrester, and thus about
the used MO resistors.
For standard applications, one can simply count on recommendations in the application guide [IEC 2000], based on
the system voltage level (Table 3.2). In practice, however, users often tend to select the next higher LD class,
respectively, in the table. That leads to the problem that the current highest LD 5 can frequently not meet the
demands of the extra-high-voltage systems with Us > 550 kV. In fact, at this voltage level, and sometimes even at
the 550-kV-level itself, MO resistor diameters and/or parallel connections of resistors are used, which have much
higher energy handling capability than specified by LD 5. This is also a particular problem of the emerging 800 kV
d.c. and 1100/1200 kV a.c. applications, where specific energy handling values of (2550) kJ/kV of rated voltage
will be required at switching impulse protective levels in the range of only 1,85 or even less [Ric 2007]. It can easily
be seen from Figure 3.20 that LD 5 is by far not sufficient for these applications: an LD 5 operating duty test will
inject only (2550) % of the required energy. For UHV arresters, the test procedure has therefore to be modified.
For instance, energy could be injected by more than two long duration current impulses. It could also be discussed
if other test parameters, such as the time duration of the impulses, may be changed. Summarizing, at least three
work items can be identified for a future revision of the standard: the possible replacement of the LD system by a
purely energy based rating system, clear definitions and differentiation of different kinds of energy handling
capability, and specification of higher energy handling values than today and the related test procedures.
Page 131
3.5.2.2 Long-duration current impulse withstand test

The long-duration current impulse withstand test as per clause 8.4 of [IEC 2009] is a durability test at least it
covers one possible aspect of durability. The test consists of eighteen discharge operations divided into six groups
of three discharges each. Time interval between individual discharges shall be fifty to sixty seconds and between
the groups such that the sample cools to ambient temperature. The following critical remarks seem adequate:
-
The relevance of a number of eighteen current impulse applications is questionable: eighteen impulses
each on three samples results in 54 energy stresses. This, even if identical characteristics of each of the
three samples are assumed in the best case, cannot validate a failure probability of less than
p = 1/(318) = 0,0185 or 1,85 %, respectively, a value totally insufficient for real arrester applications, see
also section 3.3.2. Furthermore, it does not seem sufficient to specify such test as type test only, as energy
handling capability is also or distinctly a matter of production quality.
As the test sample temperature has effect on the test result, the thermal conditions of the test setup and
the test procedure should be better specified.
The injected energy per line discharge is usually less than the long-duration current withstand values
specified by the manufacturers; higher values should possibly be specified. It must be noted, however, that
not all manufacturers clearly specify how the long duration current withstand values are defined and
determined; therefore, comparisons with the line discharge currents have to be made with reservations.
The maximum allowed change of 5 % in residual voltage after the test should be subject to discussion, as
such extreme changes are only seldom observed, while other relevant regions of the voltage-currentcharacteristics (e.g. reference voltage) react more sensitively to impulse degradation; see also section
3.2.5.
While in case of 10-kA- and 20-kA arresters the long-duration current impulse shall be a line discharge as
defined by the parameters shown in Table 3.1, for 2,5-kA- and 5-kA arresters (i.e. mainly distribution
arresters), the relevant current impulses shall be only (50 A / 500 s) and (75 A / 1000 s), respectively.
These values are in fact too low to inject any notable energy even into a light-duty distribution arrester. The
applied MO resistors for these arresters are usually specified for much higher values to date, e.g. in the
range of (200 A / 2 ms). Therefore, this requirement should be discussed as well.
3.5.2.3 Operating duty tests

The operating duty tests cover the aspect of thermal energy handling capability. They shall demonstrate the ability
of an arrester to cool back to normal operating temperature after a specified energy injection and under various
worst case assumptions, in other words: that it is not subject to thermal runaway under any circumstances. Though
the final thermal stability test itself looks quite simple, the whole test procedure is rather complex. The following has
to be done in the given order:
a) calculate (simulate) the arrester's axial voltage distribution and derive an appropriate power-frequency test
voltage for the accelerated aging test;
b) perform an accelerated test for thousand hours and derive corrected power-frequency test voltages for the
thermal stability test;
c) pre-condition the test samples by different kinds of current impulse stress in order to provoke worst case
degradation of the voltage-current-characteristic;
d) perform the thermal stability test, which consists of pre-heating, energy injection and a following application
of power-frequency voltages: U Ur for ten seconds, then U Uc for thirty minutes.
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Procedures a) and b) are covered quite well in the actual version of the standard, latest since the accelerated aging
test has been extended to the case that part of the arrester is stressed by voltages higher than the reference
voltage of the MO resistors. Item c), however, is questionable: the application of twenty lightning current impulses,
superimposed to an applied power-frequency voltage, originates from the era of gapped SiC arresters and served
for preconditioning of the series gaps, which had to interrupt the power-frequency follow current each time. For
today's MO arresters the test procedure in its actual version seems meaningless, and as this test is particularly
difficult to perform it should be simplified in the future by removing the requirement for a superimposed powerfrequency voltage.
The operating duty tests shall be performed on prorated arrester sections that represent the electrical and thermal
characteristics of the full arrester (Cl. 8.5.3.2 of [IEC 2009]). But the requirements on these sections are partly
contradictory, in that thermal equivalence is required on one hand and use of the same material and dimensions for
the housing as for the real arrester on the other. A revision of this part of the standard has therefore to make the
requirements more consistent. Furthermore, since the high-current impulse applications also impose mechanical
and dielectric stress to the sample, presence of the mechanically supporting structure should be required.
3.5.2.3.1 High current impulse operating duty test

This test according to clause 8.5.4 of [IEC 2009] applies to all 1,5-kA-, 2,5-kA, 5-kA arresters, to 10-kA LD 1
arresters and to "high lightning duty arresters" (specified in Annex C of the standard). In the majority, these are
actually the arresters in distribution systems. As a first critical comment, it does not seem appropriate to test a
10-kA LD 1 arrester according to this procedure. An arrester that has been designated an LD class should be
tested by a switching surge operating duty test (see next section). In the high current impulse operating duty test,
which has to be performed at a current amplitude of 65 kA on 5-kA arresters and at 100 kA on 10-kA
LD 1 arresters, the two high current impulses inject energy at the limits to the test samples. Furthermore, they may
cause a temporary impulse degradation (to a great extent reversible under applied continuous operating voltage
stress) with an increase in power loss by a factor of around two, and the residual voltage across the terminals is in
the range of 1,7 to 1,8 times the lightning impulse protection level. Thus additional dielectric stress is imposed,
which, historically, has been the main intention of this test. Particularly for distribution arresters that make use of
MO resistors of a high aspect ratio (ratio of height over diameter), also the stress due to thermally induced
mechanical shock waves will be extreme. The test therefore results in a very meaningful test of the overall design.
It should nevertheless be noted that an arrester, even when tested at high current impulses of 100 kA, cannot
survive a direct lightning strike of 100 kA, because this will have a much longer time duration than the standard
high current impulse 4/10 s.
There is a particular problem when specifying energy handling capability by the high current amplitude. This is due
to the permitted tolerances in the time parameters T1 = (3,5...4,5) s, T2 = (9...11) s and the amplitude
= (90...110) % of its nominal value, as well as the usual tolerances of the arrester's U-I-characteristic (the
protection level may vary by 10 % for distribution arresters of the same rated voltage). These tolerances highly
affect the amount of energy injected during high current impulse application. There is a factor of about 1,7 in
energy injection when the upper or the lower limits of all allowed tolerances are accordingly combined. This
problem can easily be overcome in a future revision of the standard by specifying a minimum charge requirement;
the current amplitude has then to be adjusted accordingly. In general, energy related tests should never be
specified by current amplitudes alone but (also) by transferred charge or injected energy.
3.5.2.3.2 Switching surge operating duty test

This test according to clause 8.5.5 of [IEC 2009] applies to 10-kA arresters of LD classes 2 and 3 and to 20-kA
arresters of LD classes 4 and 5, i.e. to virtually all high-voltage station arresters (and should generally apply to all
arresters that have an LD class, as discussed earlier). The test procedure differs from that of the high current
impulse operation duty test in that the specified energy is not injected by the high current impulse applications
(which in this case only serve for dielectric validation and impulse degradation of the electrical characteristic) but by
two line discharges. These line discharges shall exclusively heat up the MO resistors, without any additional
extensive dielectric stress or impact on the voltage-current-characteristics. It may therefore be asked if the test
Page 133
procedure could not be simplified by allowing to inject the energy by any kind of long duration current impulses
without requirements on virtual duration of the peak and amplitude, as long as the energy requirements are fulfilled.
For instance, the test could in general be performed with two or even more (in case of extra-high energy injection
requirements) rectangular impulses of variable amplitudes. The main uncertainty to answer this question namely
the different reactions of the test sample expected for different virtual durations of the peak and different current
densities, respectively has been clarified by the energy handling research program reported in section 3.4.2.
However, if more than two impulses shall be allowed for energy injection, possible cooling of the sample between
the individual impulses should be taken into account by correction factors for the required energy input.
3.5.2.4 High current impulse operating duty test on high lightning duty arresters
This test according to Annex C of [IEC 2009] is intended to be performed only on 20-kA high lightning duty
arresters, especially applicable for high lightning density areas with highest system voltages in the range
1 kV Us 52 KV. The energy stress is imposed by three impulse currents 30/80 s of 40 kA peak value, one
minute apart without cooling. After the third impulse thermal stability has to be verified as in the other operating
duty tests. No published information is available about the severity of this test compared with the switching surge
operating duty test. Obviously, there is only little need for this test as this kind of arrester seems to be quite
uncommon. And in fact, Annex C is unknown to many of the users. It may thus be asked if it can be totally removed
in a future revision of the standard.
3.5.2.5 Test procedure to determine the lightning impulse discharge capability

The "test procedure to determine the lightning impulse discharge capability" (Annex N of [IEC 2009]) was
introduced to the standard in 2006 and is intended to close the gap between tests at lightning impulse currents
8/20 s and line discharges in the range of some milliseconds. It is applicable to high-voltage (Us > 52 kV)
transmission line arresters (TLA) only.
Background of this test is that TLAs are expected to divert currents having a duration of several tens of
microseconds for arresters applied on shielded lines and several hundreds of microseconds for arresters on
unshielded lines, which considerably differs from waveforms specified in the operating duty test and in the long
duration current impulse test. An impulse duration of (200230) s has been considered as a suitable compromise
to cover both the typical TLA applications and also the effect of multiple strikes. It has sometimes been criticized
why not the existing 10/350 s current impulse has been adopted. However, this would require very special test
generators, quite common for low voltage surge protective devices, but unrealistic for high-voltage MO resistors.
The 200 s current, in contrast, can be generated with the equipment available in a standard high-voltage arrester
test laboratory.
The test is performed on single MO resistors (three samples) in still air and is thus an impulse energy handling test,
not considering any thermal stability issues. In order to not exceed the thermal stability limit, the specified impulse
energy must not be higher than the total energy injected during the operating duty test. If this is not the case, the
operating duty test has to be repeated with increased energy to cover the claimed energy rating.
The test procedure is the same as for the long-duration current impulse withstand test. The rated lightning impulse
discharge capability of the arrester is then the combination of the following:
-
the lowest average peak current,

an energy value lower than or equal to the lowest specific energy and
a charge value lower than or equal to the lowest average charge
for any of the three test samples. Energy and charge values are taken from tables with standard values. These
tables give steps of rated energy values up to 20 kJ/kV(Ur) and charge values up to 10 J (for comparison: a typical
LD 5 arrester has a thermal energy handling capability of about 13 kJ/kV(Ur) and a single impulse (2 ms) energy
handling capability of about 8 kJ/kV(Ur)). For transmission line arresters, which are commonly of LD classes 2 to 4,
Figure 3.21 shows the current amplitudes which inject the same energy to the sample as the respective line
discharge, resulting in peak values up to about 15 kA (and two times this value if the same energy shall be injected
as by two line discharges in the operating duty test).
Page 134
impulse current 85/180 (kA)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
LD 2
590 A / 2000 s
LD 3
720 A / 2400 s
LD 4
880 A / 2800 s
Figure 3.21: Required 90/200 impulse current amplitudes for injecting the same energy into an MO
resistor as by one line discharge equivalent to LD classes 2 to 4
It is a new approach of the IEC arrester standard to specify an arrester's energy handling capability by three
different parameters. Background is that, depending on application and system voltage level, charge transfer
capability, energy handling capability or current carrying capability may be of higher importance. As gapless line
arresters represent a comparatively new application it is actually difficult to make a commitment exclusively for one
of these parameters. Thus this set of three parameters has found international consensus. Considering the fact that
energy handling capability of MO resistors depends on current density and impulse time duration, respectively, this
new test procedure is a reasonable approach to verify TLA performance under short-duration, high-amplitude
current stress. The results of the energy handling research program clearly indicate that there are distinct
deviations from the expected energy handling capability for this current impulse (see, e.g., Figure 3.5). Together
with the existing long-duration current test two important extremes of current parameters are thus covered by the
standard.
3.5.2.6 Power-frequency voltage-versus-time characteristic of an arrester

Resistance of an arrester against temporary overvoltages (TOV) is an often raised question. The standard [IEC
2009] specifies a "procedure to verify the power-frequency voltage-versus-time characteristics of an arrester" in
Annex D, which is basically formed by the last part of the operating duty test. The test procedure starts with the
step "preheat to 60 C", i.e. no pre-conditioning is required. Application of a voltage equal to the rated voltage for
ten seconds is replaced by application of the claimed overvoltage for the claimed time duration. This procedure
follows the general approach of the standard to specify worst case conditions: the start temperature is 60 C, and
the injected energy is the same as in the operating duty test. However, in most cases users are interested in further
information, e.g. for lower start temperatures and for lower (or no) injected energy. Some manufacturers therefore
offer this information in addition, for instance by publishing different U-t-curves for different start temperatures or
injected energies.
3.5.2.7 Additional energy handling information from the manufacturers

Users require arrester parameters that are easier to compare than it is actually the case. Future standards have to
serve this demand. It has been mentioned before that manufacturers usually give additional information on energy
handling capability, exactly for this reason. One widely-used parameter is the long-duration current withstand
capability. Its advantage over all other kind of energy handling information is that it allows a direct conclusion to the
applied MO resistors' diameter and quality. While two to three different LD classes can be covered by one single
type of MO resistor, depending on the actual protective level (see section 3.5.2.1), a long-duration current value is
strictly related to a certain MO resistor diameter and quality. It can therefore much better be used for comparison of
different arrester makes. Most, though not all, manufacturers apply the same test procedure as in the long-duration
current impulse withstand test (i.e. stress by 18 current impulses, thus making this test a kind of durability test), with
one basic difference: the parameters of the current impulses are not derived from the line discharge class
Page 135
requirements. Instead, a fixed current amplitude and a fixed time duration are chosen, which in most cases lead to
higher stress than the standard long-duration current impulse withstand test. It has just been addressed and
motivated in section 3.5.1 that a charge transfer capability or a specific energy handling capability would be a better
definition for this purpose.
Anyway, it cannot be excluded that other manufacturers specify, for instance, a single impulse energy handling
capability with the same term (probably leading to higher current values). Thus the problem with this kind of nonstandardized energy handling definition becomes evident: the test procedure is not specified and in many cases
not even explained in the manufacturers' catalogues, the time duration of the current impulse may be chosen to
different values, and any current value may be specified, leading to a "battle of catalogue values". The actual
situation is thus not satisfying, and such kind of a well-defined energy impulse handling specification should
officially be adopted in the standard and become mandatory.
3.5.3 ENERGY HANDLING ISSUES IN STANDARD IEEE C62.11

Though IEEE standards are national standards, they serve a huge (also non-American) market and are therefore
also of international relevance. The actual version of the IEEE arrester standard C62.11 dates from 2005 [IEE
2005]. In comparison to the IEC standard, it follows a different approach in at least two aspects: firstly, it covers
gapless as well as gapped MO arresters. Therefore, when comparing energy handling tests with those of the IEC
standard, one has always to recall that also the gap performance shall be validated. Secondly, the IEEE arrester
classification is application oriented, whereas the IEC classification is based on the nominal discharge current and
the line discharge class. The different arrester classes can only roughly be compared, as it is done in Table 3.3.
Further comparisons of the standards can be found in [Ham 1992] [Ost 1992].
ANSI/IEEEC62.11
IEC 60099-4
Light duty distribution
2,5 kA
Normal duty distribution
5 kA
Heavy duty distribution
10 kA, LD 1
Intermediate
5 kA, LD 1 or 2
Station 10 kA
10 kA, LD 3 or 4
Station 15 kA
20 kA, LD 4 or 5
Station 20 kA
20 kA, LD 4 or 5
Table no. 3.3: Comparison of arrester classes acc. to IEEE and IEC standards
3.5.3.1 High current short duration withstand test
This test (clause 8.12 of [IEE 2005]) has to be performed on a complete arrester or an arrester section, i.e. the
housing is included. Two high current impulses shall be injected, followed by application of power-frequency
recovery voltage6 for at least thirty minutes. The intention is to demonstrate the design's dielectric strength as well
as thermal stability. This may be well achieved for distribution arresters, which are tested at current amplitudes of
40 kA, 65 kA or even 100 kA. But it imposes neither a notable dielectric nor energetic stress on intermediate and
station arresters that have to be tested at amplitudes of 65 kA only. For these arresters, the test seems
meaningless. Also the following is doubtful:
the current wave shape shall be 4/10 s (0/+50%), which causes the same problem of an undefined
energy injection level as in the high current impulse operating duty test of [IEC 2009];
no tolerance at all is given for the current amplitude, which is unrealistic for practical testing;
Voltage that causes the same watt losses in the actual MO resistors as a voltage equal to MCOV would do in aged resistors of
the same make and of the highest specified watt losses.
Page 136
the allowed time interval of five minutes between impulse application and energization at power-frequency
voltage is too far away from real service conditions; thermal stability cannot really be demonstrated by this
test procedure.
3.5.3.2 Low-current long-duration withstand test

This test is a combination of a durability and a thermal stability test. Eighteen long-duration current impulses are
applied to the test sample a section including housing arranged in three groups of six applications. After heating
to 60 C two further impulses are applied, and thermal stability is verified by application of power-frequency
recovery voltage for at least 30 minutes. For distribution arresters, the long-duration current is specified at
amplitudes between 75 A and 250 A and at a time duration of two milliseconds (clause 8.13.2 of [IEE 2005]), which
is more meaningful than the IEC long-duration current impulse withstand test requirements (see section 3.5.2.2,
last item). For intermediate and station arresters, the long-duration current shall be a transmission line discharge
(clause 8.13.1 of [IEE 2005]). Different from the IEC approach, the requirements are based on the system voltage
level rather than on energy handling demands. The following items are worth a discussion:
-
the test generator must be very carefully adjusted for each transmission line discharge level, making
testing rather complicated (the IEC standard, instead, only requires that the energy and time values
resulting from the test parameters given in Table 3.1 are met, which allows less precise adjustment of the
test generator);
placing the impulses in three groups of six applications each may lead to unnecessarily severe (and
unrealistic) thermal stress to the MO resistors;
the requirements for system voltage levels above 400 kV are to weak, leading to the strange situation that
an arrester in a 362 kV system is specifically less stressed than an 800 kV arrester; reason is that for EHV
systems the charging voltage of the line has been set to only 2,0 p.u. of the system voltage, whereas for
the lower system voltage levels 2,6 p.u. are assumed;
a time interval of five minutes between injection of the last impulse and power-frequency application is too
long
possible impulse degradation by high-current impulses is not considered.
3.5.3.3 Duty-cycle test

This test (clause 8.14 of [IEE 2005]) is again a combination of durability and a thermal stability test. Twenty
lightning impulse currents having a peak value of the classifying current are applied to the test sample, which is a
section including housing, while at the same time the duty cycle voltage is applied. All twenty impulses are injected
one minute apart, leading to notable thermal stress during the conditioning phase. The test is then continued at a
given start temperature of 60 C. Two further lightning current impulses are injected, and thermal stability is verified
by application of power-frequency recovery voltage (within five minutes after the last impulse application) for at
least 30 minutes. While the conditioning phase may be meaningful for gapped arresters but not for gapless types
the thermal stability part is irrelevant in any case, as the two lightning impulse current applications will lead to
only negligible temperature increase, and the power-frequency voltage is applied too late, as previously discussed.
Keeping this test for gapless MO arresters is questionable at all, and for gapped type arresters at least the thermal
stability part needs consideration.
3.5.3.4 Temporary overvoltage (TOV) test

Different to the IEC approach, the IEEE standard requires a temporary overvoltage test as a mandatory design test
(clause 8.15 of [IEE 2005]). It is also more stringent in that it requires a test for five time ranges (IEC: three) on five
samples each (!), and for intermediate and station arresters a "prior duty" test besides the "no prior duty" test. The
test procedures are adequate, but the test effort (number of tests and samples) seems extremely high for the
intended purpose.
Page 137
3.5.4 ENERGY HANDLING ISSUES IN OTHER NATIONAL STANDARDS

When looking for further international arrester standards, one will find the European standards (EN), published by
CENELEC. However, they are identical with the IEC standards, with some national exceptions to be found in
special Annexes. From the arrester standard series, only IEC 60099-6 [IEC 2002] was not adopted by CENELEC.
Only very basic information on some national arrester standards can be given here. The Japanese standard JEC2371 [JEC 2003] is, with regard to energy handling issues, very similar to the IEC standard. The test procedures
are the same, but the test parameters are partly different.
The Australian standard AS 1307.2 [AS 1996] is also very close to the IEC standard, with some additional
requirements. It contains e.g. an optional "Multipulse lightning impulse current operating duty test" (Appendix O;
informative) and thus takes into consideration the observations reported in [Dar 1998].
The Chinese standards on MO arresters are GB 11032 [GB 2000] for gapless MO arresters in general and
equivalent to IEC 60099-4:1991, JB/T 8952 [JBT 2005] for polymer housed gapless MO arresters, based on IEC
60099-4:2001, and DL/T 815 [DLT 2002] for polymer housed gapped and gapless transmission line MO arresters.
They are all basically identical to the IEC standard 60099-4. But, to mention a difference with respect to energy
handling requirements, [GB 2000] addresses the long-duration current impulse withstand of 5-kA, 2,5-kA and 1,5kA arresters in a more appropriate way, i.e. the requirements are higher than in the IEC standard (see section
3.5.2.2, last item).
The Canadian standard CAN/CSA-C233.1-87 [CAN 2004] represents a mix of the IEC and the IEEE standards.
Basically the material for this standard originates from IEEE/ANSI Standard C62.1-1967 and IEC Publication 991A-1965 as well as IEEE/ANSI Standard C62.11 and IEC draft documents on MO arresters prior to 1987. It was
thus prepared in the transition period from gapped SiC to gapless MO arresters, with a latest reaffirmation in 2004,
however.
3.5.5 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

It took a long time to publish the first standards on MO arresters, more than ten years after the first MO arresters
appeared on the market. One has to keep in mind that writing a standard on power system equipment based on a
totally novel technology is challenging. Admittedly, the outcome has been more than satisfying. MO arresters
tested to these standards belong to the most reliable devices in electrical power systems today. However, the time
has come to reconsider requirements and tests that were considered necessary and appropriate twenty years ago.
Knowledge on MO arresters has increased, allowing for improving the standards today. The need for changing
some of the requirements and test procedures is obvious. The question is less if these issues have to be
reconsidered than how they should be addressed. A verification of energy handling capability should take into
account aspects of durability, impulse degradation and thermal stability. The complicated approach of transmission
line discharges should be replaced by a simple requirement on energy handling capability under long duration
current impulse stress. A first new proposal in this direction has been presented by an IEEE/SPDC Working Group
and will be further developed in cooperation with the responsible group within IEC TC37. In this context, it is seen
as an important progress that standardization is being more and better harmonized at least among IEC and IEEE.
As most of the national standards refer to either the IEC or the IEEE standards it should be possible to introduce
new, internationally agreed MO arrester energy handling requirements and test procedures in reasonably short
time.
Page 138
4. Summ ary
MO arresters are nowadays installed in all kind of electrical power systems from low voltage up to UHV. They are
intended to protect equipment and installations against overvoltages. Due to the various applications the MO
arresters have to withstand severe stresses from the electrical system, from lightning and from ambient. In this new
TB the different types of stresses are listed and severe stresses, e.g. winter lightning, seismic stresses and severe
pollution of polymeric housings, are shown and examples for test procedures are given.
Main focus is given on the progress in arrester technology and application in the past 20 years.
For understanding the interaction of the modern MO surge arresters with the system conditions and the ambient
stresses, the basics of the MO material and the various designs of MO arresters on the market are given in detail.
The working group engaged in a critical review of the applicable standards and initiated a research program with
international participation on energy handling withstand capability of MO resistors and arresters. The results show
that the impulse withstand capability has increased by app. 20% for the manufacturers participating in this study,
compared to previous investigations. However, differences exist in the mean failure energy and the failure modes
depending on the type of impulse stress. Unfortunately, materials from emerging countries were not available for
this study when it was initiated.
For clarity it should be noted, that the observed mean failure energy of the MO resistors is three to four times
higher than the design energy of the MO arresters as proved in the relevant operating duty tests. This gives a good
safety margin and confidence in the todays designs and materials. However, with increasing system voltage the
number of MO resistors easily reaches several hundreds of blocks per arrester, and then statistical evaluations
may have to be considered.
For a more sensitive evaluation of the MO resistors in this study, a new complex failure criterion was developed
and used, including the change of the electrical characteristic of the MO resistors in addition to the simple failure by
cracking or flashover.
The different types of failure modes depending on the different current wave shapes can lead to further
improvements of the MO resistors.
The results from the research project and the review of the existing standards, together with new applications,
leaded to a new classification of the energy capability of MO surge arresters. The new classification concept,
charge transfer classes instead of line discharge classes, is introduced in Rev. 3.0 of IEC 60099-4. The same
concept is adapted for instance in EN 50 526-1, which is a test standard for MO surge arresters to be used in d.c.
traction systems.
MO arresters are applied more and more for insulation coordination reasons and not only for protection of a single
high voltage equipment against overvoltages. This is especially the case for UHV a.c. and d.c. systems. The
development of MO resistors and arresters is ongoing with the goal of size and cost reduction but in the same time
keeping the high quality and reliability. This leads to the development and use of MO resistors with increased field
strength to reduce the size of the complete design, e.g. in GIS applications. Further on, with the very tall arresters
for UHV systems, which are easily taller than 10 m, the question of how to test complete arresters comes up.
Simulations may help to reduce testing. These questions and ongoing research on the energy withstand capability
of MO resistors and arresters are dealt with in working group A3.25 of SC A3 and will be published in a separate
Technical Brochure.
Page 139
APPENDIX 1
Following Technical Brochures of Cigr are dealing with surge arresters and their application:
TB 60 Metal Oxide Arresters in AC Systems
by WG 06 of SC 33, 1991
TB 287 Protection of MV and LV Networks against Lightning. Part 1: Common Topics
by CIGRE-CIRED JWG C4.4.02, 2006
TB 441 Protection of MV and LV Networks against Lightning. Part 2: Lightning protection of Medium
Voltage Networks
by CIGRE-CIRED JWG C4.4.02, 2010
TB (XXX) Protection of MV and LV Networks against Lightning. Part 3: Lightning protection of Low-Voltage
Networks
by CIGRE WG C4.408, to be published 2013
TB 440 Use of Surge Arresters for Lightning Protection of Transmission Lines
by CIGRE WG C4.301, 2012
TB 455 Aspects for the Application of Composite Insulators to High Voltage ( 72 kV) Apparatus
by CIGRE WG A3.21, 2011
This TB addresses the special case of surge arresters with composite insulators.
Page 140
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MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

Stresses on Surge Arresters ...................................................................................................................................... 11

Functional parameters and design of MO Surge Arresters ........................................................................................ 62

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

Energy handling capability of MO surge arresters .................................................................................................. 104

4. Summary .................................................................................................................................................................... 139

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

thermal energy handling capability

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

Energy handling capability increases with current density.

The outcome of WG A3.25 will be given in an up-coming Technical Brochure.

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

Stresses on Surge Arresters

1.2 Stresses from three phase systems

1.2.2 TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

1.2.3 SLOW FRONT/SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES

1.2.3.1 Line Reclosing

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

1.2.3.2 Capacitive Loads

1.2.3.3 Inductive loads

1.2.3.4 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) Devices

1.2.4 CB AND DS TRVS

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

1.3 Stresses from HVDC networks

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

The CIGRE guideline is divided into 7 chapters:

1.3.2 STRESSES ON SURGE ARRESTERS

1.3.2.1Continuous operating voltages

ideal no-load direct voltage (IEC 60633)

maximum value of Udio

Operation with large delay angles increases the commutation overshoots.

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

1.3.2.2.1 Slow-front and temporary overvoltages

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

1.3.2.2.2 Fast-front, very fast-front and steep-front overvoltages

1.3.3 CREEPAGE DISTANCE AND CLEARANCE IN AIR

1.3.4 OVERVOLTAGE LIMITING CHARACTERISTICS OF ARRESTERS

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

PCOV peak continuous operating voltage

Figure 1.2: Operating voltage of a valve arrester, rectifier operation

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures

1.3.5 SURGE ARRESTERS IN A CONVERTER STATION

Figure 1.3: Different types of surge arresters in a HVDC converter station

Earth fault d.c. pole

Lightning from d.c. line

Slow-front overvoltage from d.c. line

Lightning from earthed electrode line

Earth fault a.c. phase on valve side

Loss of return path, monopolar operation or commutation failure

Earth faults and switching operation, a.c. side

Lightning from a.c. system

Station shielding failure (if applicable)

Table 1.1: Events stressing the different arresters

MO Surge Arresters-Stresses and Test Procedures