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Photovoltaic Physics and Materials

Lecture Note
2009/2010 Semester 2

WANG, QING
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
National University of Singapore

About this module:


1. Main Reference: The Physics of Solar Cells. J. Nelson. Imperial
College Press, 2003.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Assignments (10%)
Tutorials: recitation/discussion/Q&A (10%)
Project Report (30%)
Final Exam: open book (50%)
I assume you have the basic knowledge of thermodynamics,
semiconductor physics.
7. A web blog will be built for this module (http://blog.nus.edu.sg/
msewq/). You are welcome to write to me for any questions you have
for this module. (EMAIL: msewq@nus.edu.sg)

The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek


(phos) meaning "light", and "voltaic",
meaning electric, from the name of the Italian
physicist Volta, after whom a unit of electrical
potential, the volt, is named. The term "photovoltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell

What we will discuss...


1. Introduction and Characteristics of Solar Cells
2. Photon in, Electron out: Basic Principle of PV
3. Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors
4. Generation and Recombination
5. Junctions and Analysis of p-n Junction
6. Monocrystalline Solar Cells
7. Thin Film Solar Cells (I)
8. Thin Film Solar Cells (II)
9. Photoelectrochemical Cells (I)
10.Photoelectrochemical Cells (II)
11.Over the Limit: Third Generation Photovoltaics (I)
12.Over the Limit: Third Generation Photovoltaics (II)

Lecture 1
Introduction and Characteristics of Solar Cells

References:
1. The Physics of Solar Cells. Jenny Nelson. Imperial College Press,
2003.
2. Photovoltaic Materials, Series on Properties of Semiconductor
Materials, Vol.1, Richard H. Bube, Imperial College Press, 1998.
3. Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page).

Our Energy Challenges


Energy Sources: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

Schollnberger 1998 after Shell International Ltd 1996

At MINIMUM we need 10 Terawatts from some new clean energy source


by 2050. For worldwide peace and prosperity we need it to be cheap.
We simply can not do this with current technology.
Our energy challenges are real and here!

World Solar Energy Map

http://cleantechlawandbusiness.com/

Solar energy supply to the earth: ca 3 million exajoules per year. Current
energy demand of the world is 474 exajoules. This could be fully met by
covering 0.15 % of the earths surface with PV panels having 10% efficiency.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption

Utilization of Solar Energy: Ancient Day

Archimedes Burning Mirror


(Death Ray), 514 A.D.

A Mouchot solar concentrator, Paris, 1880

Power of Light-The Epic Story of Mans Quest to Harness the Sun, Frank T. Kryza, McGraw-Hill, 2003.

The Photovoltaic Effect


Metal

UV light

light

Current
e-

eLoad

Photoelectric effect

Photovoltaic effect

hc
Light is made up of packets of energy, called photons.
E=

Energy of light depends only upon its frequency or color.


Blue or ultraviolet light provides energy for electron to escape from
the surface of a metal---Photoelectric effect.
Built-in asymmetry in photovoltaic device pulls the excited electrons

to the external circuit before they can relax.

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Brief History of Solar Cells


1. Photovoltaic effect was first reported by AlexandreEdmond Becquerel in 1839. The first photoelectrochemical cell.
2. The first solid state photovoltaic devices were
constructed by William Adams and Richard Day in
1876. Pt/Se/Pt
3. The first large area solar cell was prepared by Charles
Fritts in 1894. Au/Se/M
Cu/CuO, Pb/PbS, Tl/TlS
The early cells were thin film Schottky barrier devices.
First revealed by Goldman and Brodsky in 1914, and later during the
1930s, the theory of Metal/Semiconductor barrier layers was
developed by Walter Schottky, Neville Mott and others.

http://www.swiscontrol.com/SWISCONTROL/Mapas%20de%20Bocas%20del%20Toro/PAGINAS%20HTML/HYSTORIA%20PV.html
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Brief History of Solar Cells


4. The first silicon p-n junction solar cell was reported by Bell Lab
researchers D.M. Chapin, C.S. Fuller and G.L. Pearson in 1954.
5. In the 1950s, CdS, GaSe, InP, CdTe p-n junction photovoltaic
devices were studied experimentally and theoretically.
6. In 1958, the first PV-powered satellite (Vanguard I) was launched,
despite the production cost of ~$200 per Watt.
7. In the 1970s, the energy crisis led to intense interest for R&D of
photovoltaics. Various strategies and routes for cheaper and more
efficient photovoltaics were explored. Our understanding of the
science of photovoltaics is mainly rooted in this period.
8. In the late 1990s, by expanding the production scale photovoltaics
first became competitive in contexts where conventional
electricity supply is most expensive.
9. Benefitted from the advances of silicon technology for the microelectronics industry, silicon remained and remains the foremost
photovoltaic material.

http://www.swiscontrol.com/SWISCONTROL/Mapas%20de%20Bocas%20del%20Toro/PAGINAS%20HTML/HYSTORIA%20PV.html
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41.6% @364X

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Global Solar Cells Production


Cost and production
of PV modules

Source: JRC PV Status Report 2009

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Global Solar Cells Production

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Types of Solar Energy Converter


Photovoltaic converter:
Means of charge separation
excited state
Convert the incident radiant energy
mainly into electrochemical potential
energy.
Eg
h
Absorption of photon promotes
electron to higher energy (excited
ground state
state), which should be separated
from the ground state by an energy
Solar thermal converter:
gap (e.g. band gap in
The radiant energy absorbed is converted
semiconductors).
mainly into internal energy and raised the
Charges are separated, collected and temperature of the cell.
extracted to external circuit and do
It operates as a heat engine and does work.
electrical work.
It utilizes the full range of solar wavelengths.
It extracts solar energy only from
It is thermally insulated from the ambient.
photons with energy sufficient to
Photochemical converter:
bridge the band gap.
radiant energy absorbed results in a
It is designed to be in good thermal The
permanent increase in chemical
contact with the ambient.
potential. e.g. photosynthesis.
The excited electron population drives a
chemical reaction.

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A Comparison with Battery

BATTERY

Solar Cell:
EMF: Temporary change in
electrochemical potential
caused by the light.
Power delivered depends on
the incident light intensity.
Never exhausted since it can
be continually recharged with
light.
Current generator

Voltage

Battery:
EMF: Permanent electrochemical
potential difference between two
phases in the cell.
Power delivered to a constant load
is relatively constant.
Exhausted as it is completely
discharged. It can be recharged for
rechargeable batteries.
Voltage generator

SOLAR CELL

battery e.m.f.

RL

Increasing light intensity


RL

Current

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Some Important Definitions

Current Density, J

Open Circuit Voltage (VOC): The voltage developed as the terminals are
isolated (or with infinite load resistance).
Short Circuit Current (ISC): The current drawn as the terminals are connected
(or with zero load resistance).
SOLAR CELL h
JSC
Jm
RL

Vm
Bias Voltage, V

VOC

For any intermediate load


resistance RL, the cell develops a
voltage V between 0 and VOC, and
delivers a current I with

V = IRL

Both I (photocurrent) and V (photovoltage) are determined by the illumination


and the load.

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


Photocurrent and Quantum Efficiency
Relation between photocurrent density and quantum efficiency:

J SC = q bs ( E )QE ( E ) dE
bs(E): the incident spectral photon flux density. The number of photons
of energy in the range E to E+dE which are incident on unit area in unit

time.
QE(E): the quantum efficiency. The probability that an incident photon
of energy E will deliver one electron to the external circuit.
QE depends on the absorption coefficient of the solar cell material,
the efficiency of charge separation and efficiency of charge
collection. It is a key quantity in describing solar cell performance.

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


Photocurrent and Quantum Efficiency
1240 nm
E=
(eV )

Incident Photo-to-Electron Conversion Efficiency (IPCE) Spectrum/Action


Spectrum

J SC = q bs ( E )QE ( E ) dE

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


Dark Current and Open Circuit Voltage
Dark current: in the opposite direction to the photocurrent, generated by a
potential difference developed between the terminals of the cell in the
presence of a load. Analogue to the current Idark (V) which flows across the
device under an applied voltage V in the dark.

V
JSC

Jdark

Most solar cells behave like a diode in the dark and show rectifying behavior
since an asymmetric junction is needed to achieve charge separation. For an
ideal diode,
qV
J dark (V ) = JO exp
1
kB T
JO is reverse saturation current, kB is Boltzmanns constant (1.3810-23 JK-1).

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


qV
J dark (V ) = JO exp
1
kB T

Dark Current and Open Circuit Voltage


Superposition approximation:

At open circuit voltage VOC, no current flows


across the cell, for an ideal diode,

Light Current
Current

J = J SC

qV
JO exp
1
kB T

ISC

VOC

k B T J SC
=
ln
+ 1
q JO

Here voltage is defined so that the photovoltage


occurs in forward bias, where V>0.
h
At V<0, the device acts as a photodetector,
consuming
power to generate a photocurrent.

Light dependent/bias independent.


At V>VOC, the device acts as light emitting
JSC
diode, again consuming power.

VOC

Dark Current
Bias Voltage

+
V
Jdark

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


Efficiency of Solar Cells
The cell power density is given by

P = JV

Efficiency of the cell: the power


density delivered at operating point
as a fraction of the incident light
power density Ps.

J mVm
=
PS
Relating to JSC and VOC,

JSC
Current Density, J

P reaches a maximum at the cells


operating point or maximum power
point at Vm and Jm. The optimum
load
has resistance of Vm/Jm.

Maximum Power Point

Jm
Power Density

Vm

VOC

Bias Voltage, V

J SCVOC FF
=
PS

FF is the fill factor describing the squareness of the J-V curve, defined as

J mVm
FF =
J SCVOC

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


These four quantities: JSC, VOC, FF and are the key performance
characteristics of a solar cell. All of these should be defined for particular
illumination condition.
Performance of the Mainstream Solar Cells
Cell type

Area (cm2)

Voc (V)

Jsc (mA/cm2)

FF

Efficiency (%)

crystalline Si

4.0

0.706

42.2

82.8

24.7

crystalline GaAs

3.9

1.022

28.2

87.1

25.1

poly-Si

1.1

0.654

38.1

79.5

19.8

a-Si

1.0

0.887

19.4

74.1

12.7

CuInGaSe2

1.0

0.669

35.7

77.0

18.4

CdTe

1.1

0.848

25.9

74.5

16.4

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


Parasitic Resistance
For a real cell, two parasitic resistances used to account for the power
dissipation through the resistance of the contacts and through leakage
currents around the sides of the device. One is in series (RS) and one
is in parallel (Rsh) with the cell.
Rs

Rsh
JSC

J = J SC

Jdark

q(V + JARS ) V + JAR


S
J 0 exp
1


kB T
ARsh

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


Effect of Parasitic Resistance

Rs increasing

Bias

Current

Current

The series resistance arises from the resistance of the cell material to
current flow, a particular problem at high current densities. The parallel
or shunt resistance arises from the leakage of current through the cell,
a problem in poor rectifying devices.

Rsh decreasing

Bias

Both RS and Rsh reduce the fill factor of the cell. For an efficient cell, RS
should be as small and Rsh should be as large as possible.

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Characteristics of Solar Cells


Non-ideal Diode Behavior
In real device, it is common for the dark current to depend more weakly on
bias. The actual dependence on V is quantified by an ideality factor, m.

J = J SC

qV
JO exp
1
mk B T

The ideal diode equation assumes that all the recombination occurs via band
to band or recombination via traps in the bulk areas from the device (i.e. not
in the junction).
The presence of other recombination mechanisms renders the deviation of
m from 1. Typically, 1<m<2.

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Solar Cells, Modules and Systems

The solar cell is the basic building block


of solar photovoltaics.

To produce useful dc voltage, the cells


are connected in series and encapsulated
into modules.

String

+V

0V

+12V

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Solar Cells, Modules and Systems


PV
generator

Power
conditioning

Load

Storage
Battery-dc/Grid-ac

Residential grid-connected PV system

Grid Tie with Backup Power (battery based)

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Summary

History and current status of solar cells.


Equivalent circuit of solar cells.
Some important parameters for solar cells: dark current,
short circuit current, open circuit voltage, maximum
power point, fill factor, efficiency, quantum yield,
parasitic resistance, PV module.
Diode equation.

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