05 Transformer

Regulating Transformers
POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS AND CONTROL (EEEN40550)

Prof. Federico Milano
Email: federico.milano@ucd.ie
Tel.: 01 716 1844
Room 157a - Electricity Research Centre
School of Electrical, Electronic and Communications Engineering
University College Dublin
Dublin, Ireland
Dublin, 2015
Regulating Transformers - 1
Transformer Model
We consider the two-winding transformer first.

Two-winding transformers can be modelled as transmission lines were:
The resulting circuit is:
rL = rT
xL = xT
bL,h = b
gL,h = gFe
bL,k = 0
gL,k = 0
gFe
rT
xT
Observe the b < 0 since the iron case is inductive

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Off-Nominal Tap Ratio Transformers
From the modelling viewpoint, the main difference between transmission lines and
tranformers is that transformers can introduce a complex off-nominal tap ratio:
mej
Under load tap changers (ULTC) have m 6= 1 and = 0
Phase shifting transformers (PHS) have m 1 and 6= 0
Even fixed-ratio transformers allow carying the tap ratio off-line, hence, in general
m 6= 1 in most transformers.
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Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (I)
For simplicity, lets assume a single-phase transformer with nominal ratio 1 : 1 (this is
the common case in a p.u. system).
The off-nominal ratio is thus m : 1, where
0.8 m 1.2.
Lets consider the following equivalent circuit:
vh
i
h
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m:1
vh
h
yT
vk
k
ik
Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (II)
The current injections are:
1 vh
i = 1 yT (
y
v
(
)
=
k)
h
k
h
m
m T m
vh
i = yT (
vk )
vk vh ) = yT (
k
m
where
yT
= yT = (rT + jxT )
(
In vectorial form:
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vh
vh
=
m
and
vk = vk ej
= 0 there is no phase shift)
1
i
h = yT m2
1
i
m
k
1
m
vh
vk
Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (III)
vh
h
i
h
yt
m
1m
T
m y
i
k
vk
m1
T
m y
ej : 1
vk
ik
k
Power injections:
gT
m2 ) vh vk (gT cos (hk ) + bT sin (hk ))/m
bT
vh2 (b + m
2 ) vh vk (gT sin (hk ) bT cos (hk ))/m
vk2 gT vh vk (gT cos (hk ) bT sin (hk ))m
ph = vh2 (gf e +
qh =
pk =
qk = vk2 bT vh vk (gT sin (hk ) + bT cos (hk ))m
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Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (IV)
An alternative circuit model is the following:

vh
vk
vk
m:1
where:
i
h
yT
i
k
i = y (
k ) = yT (
vh m
vk )
T vh v
h
i = m
vk vh )
vk vh ) = m
yT (m
yT (
k
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Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (V)
where
so we have:
yT
yT
= 2 and vk = m
vk
m
i
1
h = yT
i
m
k

m vh

m2
vk
Observe that we assumed that the tap is on the primary winding.

If the tap is on the secondary winding: m
=
then we have:
yT =
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yT
m
2
and
1
m
yT = yT
Technical Insight of a ULTC

Line
HV
Voltage
Varying
Normal
End
Bypass
Switch
Reactors
Vacuum
Switch
Selector
Switch
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
LV
Const
Voltage
Switches can be mechanical ( driven by a motor ) or based on power electronic

devices.
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Symmetric Phase-Shifting Transformer
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Asymmetric Phase-Shifting Transformer
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Control Models of ULTC
The control is necessarily discrete as the tap ratio cannot catch fractional turns of the
windings.
However, if the number of tap positions is high and the v due to a tap variation of
one turn is small, we can use a continuous model.
We can find, in the literature, two kinds of control models:

continuous
discrete
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Simple Discrete Control Model of a ULTC
Neglecting time delays, we have:

(i) = (v (i) , m(i1) , dbv , mmax , mmin )
1,
if v (i) > dbv and m(i1) < mmax
= 1, if v (i) < dbv and m(i1) > mmin
0, otherwise,
where i stands for a generic i-th iteration of a Newton-Raphson method and

(i)
v (i) = vk v ref .
The tap ratio is updated as follows:
m(i) = m(i1) + (i) m.

and dbv is a dead band to avoid unnecessary fluctuations of the tap.
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Detailed Discrete Control Model of a ULTC
e(v(t), m(t t), dbv , mmax , mmin )
1,
if v(t) > dbv and m(t t) < mmax
= 1, if v(t) < dbv and m(t t) > mmin
0, otherwise,
c(t t) + t, if e(t) = 1 and c(t t) 0

c(e(t), c(t t)) = c(t t) t, if e(t) = 1 and c(t t) 0
0, otherwise,
1, if e(t) = 1 and c(t) > (t)

f (e(t), c(t), (t)) = 1, if e(t) = 1 and c(t) < (t)
0, otherwise.
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Detailed Control Scheme of a ULTC (Discrete Model)
mmax
v ref
dead band
LTC &
Network
vk
time delay
mmin
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About the Time Delay in the Discrete Model
In some ULTC models, the time delay is constant:

(t) = 0 = constant
However, in most practical implementations, the higher v , the faster the tap ratio
changes.
The most accepted model is thus with a time varying time delay:
dbv
(t) = 0
|v|
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About the Time Delay in the Discrete Model
To avoid numerical issues in the case of v = 0
0 dbv , if |v| > dbv

|v|
(t) =
0 , otherwise.
However, observe that since no action is taken for |v| < dbv , the value of is
constant in the case |v| dbv
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Alternative Discrete Control Model
An alternative control model varies the tap ratio in order to maintain the voltage within
a certain range, say v min v v max :
(i) =
(v (i) , m(i1) , dbv , v max , v min )
1,
if vk v max > dbv and m(i1) < mmax
= 1, if vk mmin < dbv and m(i1) > mmin
0, otherwise.
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Continuous Control Model of a ULTC
mmax
Kd
v ref
v
+
+
Ki
Kd + s
LTC &
vk
Network
mmin
m
= Kd (m
1) + Ki v
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Hybrid Control Model of a ULTC

1
mmax
Kd
v ref
v
+
+
Ki
mc
1
Kd + s
mmin
LTC &
vk
Network
dead band
mc = continuous tap ratio

md = discrete tap ratio
The differential equation is:
m
c = Kd (mc 1) + Ki v
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Hybrid Control Model of a ULTC
The switching logic of the tap ratio is as follows:
and:
(t) = (mc (t), md (t t), dbm )
1, if mc (t) md (t t) > dbm

= 1, if mc (t) md (t t) < dbm
0, otherwise,
md (t) = md (t t) + (t)m
The actual tap ratio of the transformer is m = md .
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Remarks on the Hybrid Control Model
The differential equation accounts for the delay. A heuristic rule gives: 0
3
Ki .
The switching logic works for power flow as well as for time domain analysis.
The dead band dbm has a different meaning as dbv . In fact dbm allows mapping mc
into md .
Observe that mc is an auxiliary variable (not used outside the ULTC).
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Remarks on the Hybrid Control Model
The discrete model is closer to the real behavior of the ULTC control, but introduces a
time delay (difficult to implement) and a discrete variable. Observe that if we have
discrete variables, defining eigenvalues is not possible.
The continuous models is easier to handle and allows defining the stability of the ULTC
controller through the eigenvalue analysis. However, its behaviour is not that of the real
controller, which is discrete.
The hybrid model is slightly more complex but takes the best parts of the discrete and
continuous models.
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Comparison of the Discrete and Continuous Models
The
transformer
with ULTC is that

connecting buses
4 and 9
The simulation illustrates line 2-4 outage of the IEEE 14-bus system.
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Comparison of the Discrete and Continuous Models
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Behaviour of the Hybrid Model
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Comparison of the Discrete and Hybrid Models
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Qualitative Definition of PV Curves

1
2
jxL
v1 + j0
p2 + jq2
The power flow equations are:

v2 v1ref
sin 2
p2 =
xL
v22
v2 v1ref
q2 =
cos 2
xL
xL
Dublin, 2015
Lets manipulate the power flow equations to obtain v2 (p2 ):

v22 (v1ref )2
2
=
sin
2
2
xL
4
v22
v22 (v1ref )2
2
2 v2
cos
2
=
q2 2 + 2q2
2
xL
xL
xL
4
v22
v22 (v1ref )2
2
2 v2
0 = p2 + q2 2 + 2q2
xL
xL
x2L
p22
That can be rewritten as:

v
s
u

2
u
ref
ref
2
2
(v )
v )
t
q2 xL 1
x2L (p22 + q22 )
v 2 = q2 xL 1
2
2
Dublin, 2015
Lets assume, for simplicity, that q2 = p2 tan(2 ) (constant power factor):

r
q
v2 = a a2 x2L p22 (1 + tan2 (2 )
where:
(v1ref )2
a = p2 tan(2 )xL
2
The other way round, we can obtain p2 (v2 ):
s
tan(2 ) + tan2 (2 ) 1
v22
p2 =
xL
1 + tan2 (2 )
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(v1ref )2
v22
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Voltage Dependent Load Model
A typical and well-accepted load model is the following:

ph
qh
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p0
v
v0
p
q0
v
v0
q
Effect of Load Models on the PV Curves
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Example: Load Fed by a ULTC
xTh
vTh
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m:1
xL
pL0 vLp + jqL0 vLq
vL
If we assume p = q = 2 (constant impendance),

then we have: rL + jxL . Hence:
m(rL + jxL )
vL = vTh 2
m rL + j(xTh + m2 xL )
where:
xL = xT + xL
The maximum voltage is obtained for:
s
m =
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xTh
p
2 + (x )2
rL
L
The maximum voltage is:

max
vL
where
a
b
c
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r
2 a rL
= vTh
2xTh
2
1 + b ( 1 + c2 c)
xL
rL
xL
rL
Static Characteristic of a Load Fed by a ULTC
2.0
=2,
=2
=1,
=1
=0,
=0
Voltage reference
Voltage [pu]
1.5
1.0
u.e.p
s.e.p
0.5
0.0
0.0
Dublin, 2015
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.5
Tap ratio [pu/pu]
2.0
2.5
3.0
Effect of Tap Changer Dynamics on Transient Analysis
Dublin, 2015
Control Scheme of a Phase-Shifting Transformer (Continuous)

max
pref
Kp s + Ki
s
PhST
Network
pk
min
pmes
1
Tm s + 1
mes
p
p
k
+ Ki (pmes pref )
= Kp
Tm
p ref
Dublin, 2015
pk pmes
=
Tm

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Regulating Transformers

POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS AND CONTROL (EEEN40550)

We consider the two-winding transformer first.

The resulting circuit is:

Observe the b < 0 since the iron case is inductive

Off-Nominal Tap Ratio Transformers

Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (I)

The off-nominal ratio is thus m : 1, where

Lets consider the following equivalent circuit:

Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (II)

The current injections are:

= 0 there is no phase shift)

Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (III)

qk = vk2 bT vh vk (gT sin (hk ) + bT cos (hk ))m

Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (IV)

An alternative circuit model is the following:

Equivalent Circuit of a ULTC (V)

Observe that we assumed that the tap is on the primary winding.

Technical Insight of a ULTC

Switches can be mechanical ( driven by a motor ) or based on power electronic

Symmetric Phase-Shifting Transformer

Asymmetric Phase-Shifting Transformer

Control Models of ULTC

We can find, in the literature, two kinds of control models:

Simple Discrete Control Model of a ULTC

Neglecting time delays, we have:

= 1, if v (i) < dbv and m(i1) > mmin

where i stands for a generic i-th iteration of a Newton-Raphson method and

m(i) = m(i1) + (i) m.

Detailed Discrete Control Model of a ULTC

e(v(t), m(t t), dbv , mmax , mmin )

= 1, if v(t) < dbv and m(t t) > mmin

c(t t) + t, if e(t) = 1 and c(t t) 0

1, if e(t) = 1 and c(t) > (t)

Detailed Control Scheme of a ULTC (Discrete Model)

About the Time Delay in the Discrete Model

In some ULTC models, the time delay is constant:

About the Time Delay in the Discrete Model

To avoid numerical issues in the case of v = 0

0 dbv , if |v| > dbv

Alternative Discrete Control Model

= 1, if vk mmin < dbv and m(i1) > mmin

Continuous Control Model of a ULTC

Hybrid Control Model of a ULTC

mc = continuous tap ratio

Hybrid Control Model of a ULTC

The switching logic of the tap ratio is as follows:

(t) = (mc (t), md (t t), dbm )

1, if mc (t) md (t t) > dbm

The actual tap ratio of the transformer is m = md .

Remarks on the Hybrid Control Model

Remarks on the Hybrid Control Model

Comparison of the Discrete and Continuous Models

with ULTC is that

Comparison of the Discrete and Continuous Models

Behaviour of the Hybrid Model

Comparison of the Discrete and Hybrid Models

Qualitative Definition of PV Curves

The power flow equations are:

Qualitative Definition of PV Curves

Lets manipulate the power flow equations to obtain v2 (p2 ):

That can be rewritten as:

Qualitative Definition of PV Curves

Lets assume, for simplicity, that q2 = p2 tan(2 ) (constant power factor):