INDEX PROPERTIES

Rock
Mass

Easily determined properties useful in the quantitative description of rocks :1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

POROSITY
DENSITY
ACOUSTIC VELOCITY
PERMEABILITY
STRENGTH
DURABILITY

ROCK MASS
INTACT ROCK AND
DISCONTINUITIES

Laboratory
Specimen
Index properties determined in the laboratory relate most closely to
the behaviour of INTACT ROCK. They are of lesser importance and
require caution when used in the prediction of ROCK MASS behaviour

Block of
Intact Rock
Material

Joints

POROSITY
Porosity shows some useful empirical correlations :-

TYPICAL
POROSITY
VALUES

NEGATIVE :

Unconfined Compressive Strength

Deformation modulus
Density
particularly in unweathered fresh rock types.

For similar rock types porosity also shows correlations

with :NEGATIVE :

Geological age
Depth of burial

Porosity decreases
with depth
Porosity increases
due to weathering

Depth below surface (km)

Increasing
overburden

2
0.05

0.1

0.3

Log Porosity

Uniaxial Compressive Strength, MPa

POROSITY v DEPTH AND UCS

250
200

Rock density is often a function of porosity since most rocks

have relatively similar average grain densities.

150
POSITIVE :
100
50
0
10
20
Porosity, %

DENSITIES OF MINERALS
MINERALS
Halite
Gypsum
Serpentine
Orthoclase
Quartz
Plagioclase
Chlorite/Illite
Calcite
Muscovite
Biotite
Dolomite
Anhydrite
Pyroxene
Olivine
Barite
Magnetite
Pyrite
Galena

DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT

UCS reduction

DENSITY gm/cm3
2.1-2.6
2.3-2.5
2.3-2.6
2.5-2.6
2.65
2.6-2.8
2.6-3.0
2.7
2.7-3.0
2.8-3.1
2.8-3.1
2.9-3.0
3.2-3.6
3.2-3.6
4.3-4.6
4.4-5.2
4.9-5.2
7.4-7.6

30

NEGATIVE :

Geological age
Burial depth
Compressive strength
Deformation modulus
Porosity
Weathering

and

TYPICAL DENSITIES AND UNIT WEIGHTS OF ROCK TYPES

ROCKS

Density g/cm3

Granite

2.65

Unit Weight kN/m3

26

Diorite

2.85

27.9

Gabbro

3.0

29.4

Gypsum

2.3

22.5

Rock Salt

2.1

20.6

Coal

0.7-2.0

Dense Limestone

2.7

Marble

2.75

26.9
27

Shale f(depth)

2.25-2.62

22.1-25.7

Rhyolite

2.37

23.2

Basalt

2.77

27.1

Amphibolite

2.99

29.3

LABORATORY ACOUSTIC VELOCITY TESTING

ACOUSTIC VELOCITY
Acoustic velocity in rock cores is easily determined by measuring the
travel time of vibrational waves introduced by piezoelectric crystals.
Compression (P) and shear (S) waves can be measured but the more
standard index tests use only P-wave velocity
The transmitted wave velocity depends on rock elastic properties and
density. Fractures cause marked changes in elastic properties and
transmission velocities are sensitive to fracturing.
Oscilloscope

Receiver
Transducers

Transmitter
Pulse
Generator

Power
Amplifier

Specimen

Preamplifier

Receiver

Transmitter
S-wave
P-wave

Oscilloscope

Geophones

ACOUSTIC VELOCITY

Transducers can be made for use under:

Uniaxial conditions or
Triaxial conditions

MINERALS

Vp(m/s)

ROCKS

Vp (m/s)

ROCK QUALITY CLASSIFICATION IN

RELATION TO EXCAVATION

8400

Gabbro

6800-7200

Pyrite

8000

Basalt

6500-7200

Dolomite

7500

Dolomite

6500-7000

Epidote

7450

Limestone

5500-6500

EH

Magnetite

7400

Sandstone

5000-6000

Pyroxene

7200

Granite

5500-6000

Amphibole

7200

Calcite

6600

Plagioclase

6250

Quartz

6050

Muscovite

5800

Orthoclase

5800

Velocity in metres/sec X 1000

0
1

TYPICAL
ACOUSTIC
VELOCITY
VALUES

Fracture Spacing (m)

Olivine

Blast to fracture

VH
0.6

Blast to loosen

0.2

0.06

0.02

Rip

Dig

VL
0.03

VL

0.1

VH EH

0.3 1
3
10
Point Load Strength
2
MN/m

30

PERMEABILITY
Permeability conveys information about the interconnection of
pore space and fissures within a rock.

GLACIAL TILL
IGNEOUS
Granite
Basalt
Trap rock
SEDIMENTARY
Shale
Sandstone
Siltstone
Claystone
Conglomerate
Breccia
Caliche
Limestone
METAMORPHIC
Schist
Slate
MINERAL & ORES
Coal
Iron ore

D10 RIPPABLE

Changes in permeability with stress can be used to assess the

influence of pores and fissures
Flat microfissures or cracks are much more susceptible to
closure under normal pressure than spherical pores.
Discontinuities have a major influence on permeability which is
thus extremely Scale Dependent.

Microfissures or cracks

MARGINAL

Spherical pores

NON-RIPPABLE

DIG OR BLAST ???

ROCK STRENGTH DESIGNATION AND

CRUDE TEST CRITERIA FOR ESTIMATING
INTACT ROCK STRENGTH IN FIELD (ISRM)

Striking with geological hammer

Requires several
hard blows to break

Crumbles
Breaks easily
Indenting with geological pick
Peeling with knife
Difficult
Easy
Extremely weak Very weak

Medium
strong

Weak

Soft rock

Very strong Extremely strong

Hard rock

20

Can only be
chipped

60
MPa

200

STRENGTH
POINT LOAD TEST
An index test for rock strength is provided by the POINT
LOAD TEST.
The rock is hydraulically loaded between spherically truncated,
hardened, conical steel platens and fails by the development of
tensile cracks parallel to the axis of loading.
Is = P/D2

P = Load at failure
D = Distance between platens.

Is is normally reported for D = 50mm

called Is50
The Uniaxial compressive strength,
Co, is approx 24Is50

Point load tester

POINT LOAD SPECIMENS can be tested as :-

Hardened conical
platens

Diametral test :- loaded across the diameter of the core

L
L>0.5D
D

Axial test :-

loaded along the core axis

0.3W>D>W

D
W

L>0.5D
L

Irregular lump:- should be spheroidal.

D

DIAMETRAL TEST

The ISRM suggested method includes

a size correction procedure to determine Is50 from
diametral, axial and irregular lump tests.

POINT LOAD TEST ANALYSIS

P (kN)

P50 = 18kN
10
6
2

1.6

250

1.0
0.6
0.2

100 200 500 1000 2500

De2 (mm2)

Graphical Procedure

40

80 100

140

VALID TESTS

De (equivalent ) core
diameter (mm)

Size Correction Factor

UCS, MPa

Is50=18x1000
2500

F size correction factor

50

POINT LOAD TEST INTERPRETATION

Is50= F. P
D

Co = 22Is(50)

50
0

INVALID TESTS

10
14
Is(50)

POINT LOAD INDEX VALUES

Material
Tertiary Sandstone and claystone

RANGE OF UCS VALUES FOR INTACT ROCK

P

Point Load Index (MPa)

0.05-1.0

Coal

0.2-2.0

Limestone

0.25-8.0

Mudstone, shale

0.2-8.0

Volcanic Flow rocks

3.0-15.0

Dolomite

6.0-11.0

Co=P/A

REBOUND TESTS
SCHMIDT HAMMER
Originally used for non destructive testing of concrete. Four types
of hammer available with varying impact energy. The rebound of
the hammer mass after impact on the rock surface can be read
directly from the instrument casing (Schmidt hardness number.)
Type L hammer is recommended by ISRM owing to its low impact
energy.
The Schmidt hardness number has been correlated with the
uniaxial compressive strength of rock types
A large amount of scatter is often obtained in the field; problems
include:
influence of discontinuities:
Weathering
Alteration
Jointing
Calibration

THE SCHMIDT HAMMER and

ACCESSORIES

HARDNESS
CONE INDENTORS
Several tests are available for measuring the hardness of rocks, most
adapted from metallurgy and called Indentation tests
The hardness values obtained from the indentation tests have been
correlated with unconfined compressive strength, Co.

ABRASIVENESS
CERCHAR ABRASIVENESS TEST

SLAKE DURABILITY
Changes in rock properties due to processes of chemical and
mechanical breakdown (eg. exfoliation, hydration, solution,
oxidation, abrasion etc.) can be very important in engineering
applications. A good index test of rock degradability is the Slake
Durability Index.
Apparatus :
140mm diameter drum with 100mm long 2mm mesh walls.

trough to contain drum + water

motor drive (20rpm)

A sharp hardened steel stylus is passed across the rock surface for
a distance of 10mm under a load of 7kgf .. the unit of abrasiveness
is related to the dimension of the scratch..measured using optical
techniques.

SLAKE DURABILITY
SLAKE DURABILITY APPARATUS

Drum lid

100mm
Mesh Cylinder

Drum base

Method
1. Sample consisting of 10 spheroidal lumps each approx 50g
is placed in the drum and weighed.
2. Drum is placed in trough filled with water at 20oC to a
level just below drum axis and rotated at 20rpm for 10
minutes.
3. Drum is removed and material retained dried at 105oC
4. Cycle is repeated and the dried material retained after 2
cycles weighed.
SLAKE DURABILITY =
INDEX

Weight retained 2 cycles

Initial weight

Trough

SLAKE DURABILITY
CLASSIFICATION
DURABILITY
Very High
High
Medium-High
Medium
Low
Very Low

Cycle 1 (% retained)
>99
98-99
95-98
85-95
60-85
<60

Cycle 2. (% retained
>98
95-98
85-95
60-85
30-60
<30

SWELLING PRESSURE AND STRAIN

The Swelling pressure index is a measure of the pressure necessary to
constrain at constant volume, an undisturbed rock specimen immersed
in water. The apparatus used is similar to a soil consolidometer.
Swelling Pressure
Index, Isp
specimen.

= F/A

F = Max axial swelling Force

A = Cross sectional area of

The Swelling strain index is a measure of the axial swelling strain

developed when a radially confined undisturbed rock specimen is
immersed in water.
Swelling Strain =
displacement
Index, Iss

d/L *100%

d = Max swelling
L = Initial height of specimen

CONFINED SWELL TEST

Standpipe

Rigid Plate
Porous plate
Ring
Sample
Porous plate