BEL-2015 Interview

CONTENTS
1. General guidelines

PAGE (1-2)

2.

PAGE (3-25)

Important terms used in Telecom technology

3. Technical questions asked in interview

(i)
Communication system
(ii)
Microwave
(iii) Electromagnetic theory
(iv)
Electronics device
(v)
Analog and Digital
(vi)
Instrumentation

PAGE (26-44)

4. Important study material for technical part

(i)
EDC &Analog
(ii)
Digital
(iii) EMT& Microwave
(iv)
RADAR, Satellite& OFC

PAGE (45-160)

5. Important terms used in Electronics

PAGE (161-176)

6. Latest technology material

PAGE (161-188)

Chapter-1: General Guidelines

BEL interview contains 15/85 weight age of total marks. These marks are very crucial for final selection and
there is cut-off marks for interview. Dress must be simple and formal. Try to wear neat and clean formal
clothes. Color of dress must be light. Dont use perfumes in interview. One should look decent and formal.
Generally time allotted is 10-15 minutes which can vary between 5-20 minutes. BEL interview is totally
technical interview and most of the questions will be technical in nature.

Marks: BEL interview contains 15 marks. These marks are very crucial for final selection out of 100.
There are separate cut-off marks for interview.
Interview Board: There are 4 members in interview panel BEL Interview. Chairman will be BEL higher
authority person and other three members will be technical persons who are senior persons from BEL or
from academic backgrounds.
Dress code: Dress must be simple and formal. Try to wear neat and clean formal clothes. Color of dress
must be light. Dont use perfumes in interview. One should look decent and formal. Shoes should be
polishes and preferably black.
Time for interview: Generally time allotted is 20 minutes which can vary between 15-25 minutes.
Generally there are 5-6 members in one session.
Nature of interview: BEL interview is technical interview and most of the questions will be technical in
nature. Most of the questions will be related to your subject, job experience, job profile, your hobbies and
latest technology in field of Electronics&Communication field. Most of the questions will be related to your
core subject like Microwave, RADAR satellite, Optical fiber Analog electronics and latest technology in
field of Electronics&communication. If you are comfortable with English then you can use this language. If
you are not comfortable then you can use mixture of Hindi and English.
Language used in interview: If you are comfortable with English then you can use this language. If you are
not comfortable then you can use mixture of Hindi and English. Many students have got good marks by
performing in mixed language.
Golden rules (Dos and Do nots) for BEL Interview:
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2.
3.
4.

Just after entering in interview board room greet everyone .If lady member is there then greet her
first and then rest of members. No need of greeting one by one you can say good-morning/evening
all of you sirs (by making eye contact to everybody).
If lady member is there then say good morning/evening mam first and then say good
morning/evening to all of you sirs. (Never use madam).
When chairman offer chair then say thank you mam/sir to chairman of your board.
Distance between chairman of board and you will be much so your voice must be audible to
chairman. Many times voice is not audible and that create a very negative impact in interview.
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7.
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15
16.
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20.
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25.
26.

Never interrupt in between first listen their question properly and with patience. Listening is also
very important part of interview.
If you dont know answer of any question then say sorry sir I dont know or you can say I studied
earlier but this time I m not able to recall.
Try to avoid giving wrong answers .if you are not sure about answer of any question you simply say
sir I m not sure, but I think answer may be this.
If any members tells you correct answer say him/her thank you very much sir/mam.
If they offer Tea/water to you then avoid it if possible but dont forget to say thank-you sir/mam.
Try to answer technical question in a simple language so that chairman can also understand it.
Chairman of board is decision maker of your marks and he is generally a non technical person.
Dont contradict yourself in questions related to your bio-data.
If you have written anything related to your hobby, sports, extra activities etc. then your answer must
be balanced and must not be contradictory.
In interview never get tensed if you are being then hide it. Always give answer with light smiling
face.
Never give negative answer to anything. Never say that job is bad, low profile etc.
Never blame system for anything. Never blame anybody for anything during your interview process.
You cant say our whole system is corrupt .our system is responsible for that etcs.
Never blame government policies and never make system responsible for everything.
There are 4 members during interview and they ask questions one by one. So maintain eye contact to
person who is asking questions and in mean time you can also see other members also. But main
focus must be on that person only who is asking questions.
Answers must be given in very simple language and up to the points. Try to avoid formulas during
answering always try to give logical explanation.
Be more cautious in questions related to your bio-data and non technical questions. In these
questions you cant say I dont know eg. If they ask why do you want to join IES you cant say sorry
sir I dont know. If you have written something in your bio-data then you are supposed to know it.
Wear proper dress and if possible dont use perfume etc. Your cloths must be neat and clean and
shoes must be polished.
Never use words like social status, social-value, job security& cool job etcs.
Try to use words with which you are familiar. For Example if you are answering about routers and
not good in packet switching then try to avoid packet switching word, while explaining about router.
But at the same time if you are good in packet switching then use word packet switching
intentionally.
Never show your ego during interview.
Never try to show that you are superior. Your behavior must be down to earth. Your attitude must be
in such a manner that you can work in a team effectively.
Before leaving room dont forget wishing every one and saying thank you to all of you sirs.
Dont disclose your medical history. e.g. if you are color blind then dont tell them in interview

Chapter-2: Important terms used in Communication

Access Channels: Dedicated channels giving nondiscriminatory access to a local cable system by the
public, government agencies or educational institutions.
ACCUNET Switched Digital Services: High-speed dial-up digital data services offered by AT&T for full
duplex digital transmission at speeds of 56, 64, 384 and 1536 kbps.
Acoustic Modem: A modulator-demodulator unit that converts data signals to telephone tones and back
again.
Active Satellite: A satellite that transmits a signal, in contrast to a passive satellite that only reflects a signal.
The signal received by the active satellite is usually amplified and translated to a different frequency before
it is retransmitted.
ADPCM - Adaptive differential pulse code modulation: A method of compressing audio data by
recording the differences between successive digital samples rather than full value of the samples. There are
many different types of ADPCM standards; this refers to the standard as defined in the CD-ROM XA and
CD-I standards.
ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop: ADSL uses a regular phone line (twisted pair) without a
dial tone (a dry pair) to allow transfer speeds of up to 7Mb downstream with slower speeds going back up
(faster than a T1). The Telcos are using ADSL to maintain market share rather than allowing the cable
industry to deploy cable modems.
Analog: Information represented by a continuous electromagnetic wave encoded so that its power varies
continuously with the power of a signal received from a sound or light source.
Analog-to-Digital - A/D Conversion: The conversion of an analog signal into a digital equivalent. An A/D
converter samples or measures an input voltage and outputs a digitally encoded number corresponding to
that voltage.
Analog Transmission: Transmission of a continuously variable signal as opposed to a discrete signal.
Physical quantities such as temperature are described as analog while data characters are coded in discrete
pulses and are referred to as digital.
Arpanet: A predecessor of the Internet. Started in 1969 with funds from the Defense Department's
Advanced Research Projects Agency.
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange; pronounced "Askee." An eight-level code for
data transfer adopted by the American Standards Association to achieve compatibility between data services.
Aspect Ratio: The ratio of picture width to height (4 to 3 for North American NTSC broadcast video).
Asynchronous Communication: Takes place in different time frames and accessed at the user's
convenience. Synchronous communication takes place in the same time frame such as a live teleconference.
Asynchronous Time-Division Multiplexing: An asynchronous signal transmission mode that makes use of
time-division multiplexing.
Asynchronous Transmission: A technique in which the time interval between characters may be of
unequal length. Transmission is controlled by start and stop elements at the end of each character. Used for
low-speed terminal links.
ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode: ATM switching protocol can handle all types of traffic - voice,
data, image, and video.
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Attenuation: The difference between transmitted and received power due to loss through equipment, lines,
or other transmission devices; usually expressed in decibels. The loss in power of electromagnetic signals
between transmission and reception points.
ATV - Advanced Television: An agglomeration of techniques, based largely on digital signal processing
and transmission, that permits far more program material to be carried through channels than existing analog
systems can manage. In this sense, HDTV (high definition television) is a subset of ATV. ATV does not
automatically signify improved picture or sound performance. Those are things that can be accomplished
with ATV in systems designed for such purposes, but it can also carry ten somewhat lower- quality signals
where only one could exist previously, or permit ghost cancellation for ordinary NTSC signals. In each case,
the new features derive from the use of digital techniques of one form or another.
Audio Bridge: An audio bridge connects the telephones at remote sites, equalizes the noise distortion and
background noise for a live audio teleconference.
Audio Frequency: A frequency lying within the audible spectrum (the band of frequencies extending from
about 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
Audiographic: Teleconference system which uses narrow band telecommunications channels (telephone
lines or subcarriers); transmits audio and graphics. Graphics can be transmitted by facsimile transceivers
(transmitter-receiver), computers (text or graphic display), or electronic drawing systems (such as electronic
blackboard) which allow a participant to draw or write on an electronic screen which is transmitted to a
remote site where participants can see it.
Aural Cable: Services providing FM-only original programming to cable systems on alease basis.
Azimuth: Angle between an antenna beam and the meridian plane, measured along a horizontal plane. How
far east or west in the southerly sky the satellite is located in relation to the local meridian, or north-south
plane. It is measured in degrees, clockwise from true north.
B-Mac: A method of transmitting and scrambling television signals where MAC (multiplexed analog
component) signals are time-multiplexed with a digital burst containing digitized sound, video
synchronizing, authorization, and information.
Backbone: A high-speed network that connects several powerful computers. In the U.S., the backbone of
the Internet is often the NSFNet, a government funded link between a handful of supercomputer sites across
the country.
Backbone Microwave System: A series of directional microwave paths carrying common information to be
relayed between remote points. The backbone microwave system is engineered to allow the insertion of
signals, the dropping off of signals and the switching of signals along its length at designated relay points. In
order to maintain the signals in the highest possible quality, the equipment used in the backbone microwave
system is normally of a higher technical performance level than other microwave electronics in the network.
Antennas are always directional.
Backhaul: A term used for the transmission of a signal (normally video) from the ends of transmission
systems such as microwave to a central point. For a satellite videoconference, a backhaul refers to a signal
brought in from a secondary site to the origination site, mixed with the primary signal, and sent out over the
program out satellites.

Bandwidth: Determines the rate at which information can be transmitted across that a medium. The rates
are measured in bits (bps), kilobits (kbps), megabits (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). Typical
transmission services are 64 kbps, 1.544 mbps (T1), and 45 Mbps (T3). The space between the top and
bottom limit of airwave frequencies that are transmitted over a communications channel. The maximum
frequency (range), measured in Hertz, between the two limiting frequencies of a transmission channel; the
range of frequencies that can be carried by a transmission medium without undue distortion. Narrowband
uses lower frequency signals such as telephone frequencies of about 3,000 Hertz and radio subcarrier signals
of about 15,000Hertz. Broadband uses a wide range of frequencies (broadcast and cable TV, microwave and
satellite; carries a great deal of information in a short time; more expensive to use. C band is in the 4 to 6
Giga-Hertz (GHz) Ku Band is 12 and 14 GHz .14.0 and 14.5 GHz are used to uplink; 11.7 and 12.2 GHz
are used to downlink. A receiver with dual band capability can receive C and Ku band signals.
Base Band: The unmodulated signal that is delivered from a satellite receiver.
Basic Rate Interface - BRI: The basic subscriber loop for one or two users, which delivers two 64 Kbps B
channels and one 16 kbps D channel over a standard twisted pair loop. Each circuit-switched B channel can
transmit voice or data simultaneously. The D channel transmits call control messages and user packet data.
Baud: A unit of digital transmission signaling speed derived from the duration of the shortest code element.
Speed in bauds is the number of code elements per second. 300 Baud is low, 2400 Baud and 9600 Baud are
much faster and common for transmitting data by computer.
BBS - Bulletin Board System/Service: The BBS is an area within a network where users can "post"
information for public display, in much the same way one posts information on a regular bulletin board.
Most networks dedicate a bulletin board to special interest areas, such as education or computer care.
Beyond the Horizon Region: That physical region beyond the optical horizon with which line-of- sight
radio communications is not normally possible, but can occur if atmospheric conditions are such to cause
beam bending or forward scattering of the radio signal.
Bit Error Rate: Fraction of a sequence of message bits that are in error. A bit error rate of 10-6 means that
there is an average of one error per million bits.
Bit Rate: Speed at which bit positions are transmitted, normally expressed in bits per second
Blanking Pulse: 1. A signal used to cut off the electron beam and thus remove the spot of light on the face
of a television picture tube or image tube. 2. A signal used to suppress the picture signal at a given time for a
required period.
Bridge: Device which interconnects three or more telecommunication channels, such as telephone lines. A
telephone conference audio bridge links three or more telephones (usually operated assisted). Usually a
meet-me audio bridge or provides a teleconference direct dial access number. Both connect remote sites and
equalize noise distortion.
Bridges, Gateway, Routers: Devices that convert LANs to other LANs, computers and WANs by allowing
systems running on different media (copper wire, fiber optics, etc.) and protocols (rules to communicate).
Bridging Amplifier: An amplifier connected directly into the main trunk of the CATV system. It serves as a
sophisticated tap, providing isolation from the main trunk, and has multiple high level outputs that provide
signal to the feeder portion of the distribution network. Synonymous with bridger and distribution amplifier.

Broadband: Communications channels that are capable of carrying a wide range of frequencies. Broadcast
television, cable television, microwave and satellite are examples of broadband technologies. These
technologies are capable of carrying a great deal of information in a short amount of time, but are more
expensive to use than technologies like telephone which require less band width.
Broadband (Wideband)distribution systems: A telecommunications medium that carries high frequency
signals includes television frequencies of 3 to 6 megahertz. Broadband distribution systems work like cable
TV, in that up to twenty channels are available from a single coaxial cable. A main trunk cable will originate
at the control room, and run down the hallways of the viewing area. Smaller cables can tie into the main
cable at any point along its length. Any room that is near the main cable run can have access to all of the
channels Telecommunications on the system. Normal television sets are used, and a variety of channels can
be received by simply changing channels on the television set.
Broadband Network: A local area network (LAN) residing on coaxial cable capable of transporting
multiple data, voice and video channels.
Broadcasting: The dissemination of any form of radio electric communications by means of Hertzian waves
intended to be received by the public. Transmission through space, utilizing pre assigned radio frequencies,
which are capable of being received aurally or visually by an audience. The one-way transmission of
information.
Buffer: Temporary storage facility used as an interface between system elements whose data rates are
different; Memory area in computer or peripheral device used for temporary storage of information that has
just been received. The information is held in the buffer until the computer or device is ready to process it.
Hence, a computer or device with memory designated as a buffer area can process one set of data while
more sets are arriving.
Business Television - BTV: Corporate use of video transmission for meetings/training via satellite.
Burst: 1. In data communication, a sequence of signals counted as one unit in accordance with some
specific criterion or measure. 2. A color burst.
Burst Modem: In satellite communications, an electronic device used at each station that sends high-speed
bursts of data which are interleaved with one another. These bursts must be precisely timed to avoid data
collisions with multiple stations.
Bus: A circuit or group of circuits which provide an electronic pathway between two or more central
processing units (CPUs) or input/output devices.
Byte: A group of bits treated as a unit used to represent a character in some coding systems. The values of
the bits can be varied to form as many as 256 permutations. Hence, one byte of memory can represent an
integer from 0 to 255 or from -127 to+128. The unit of computer memory typically consists of eight bits;
64K, 64,000 bytes or64 kilobytes.
C-Band: A category of satellite transmissions which transmit from earth at 4.0 to 6.0 GHz and receive from
the satellite at between 3.7 and 4.2 GHz which are also shared with terrestrial line-of-sight microwave users.
This band of transmissions has less path loss than the other standard used for satellites (Ku-Band) but must
have a large antenna for the same receiver input power level due to its use of longer wavelength frequencies.
Other problems relating to the use of C-Band include the shared use of these frequencies with terrestrial
microwave transmission which cause interference with the weaker satellite signals in certain areas.
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Cable/Cable Television: A broadband communications technology in which multiple television channels as

well as audio and data signals are transmitted either one way or bi directionally through a distribution
system to single or multiple specified locations. Uses coaxial cable to transmit programs. Direct-by-wire
transmission to homes from a common antenna to which these homes are linked. Cable companies provide
the service in most cases. Distinguished from television reception through a roof-top antenna that picks up
the broadcast signal. The only acronym was CATV, denoting community antenna television.
Cache: In a processing unit, a high-speed buffer storage that is continually updated to contain recently
accessed contents of main storage. Its purpose is to reduce access time. A holding area for data within the
CD-ROM drive itself or on its interface board, that allows the system a method for matching data transfer
rates and presentation speed requirements.
CATV- Community Antenna Television: A broadband communications system capable of delivering
multiple channels of entertainment programming and non entertainment information from a set of
centralized antennas, generally by coaxial cable, to a community. Many cable television designs integrate
microwave and satellite links into their overall design, and some now include fiber optics.
Carrier: Vendor of transmission services operating under terms defined by the FCC as a common carrier.
Owns a transmission medium and rents, leases or sells portions for a set tariff to the public via shared
circuits.
CAV - Constant Angular Velocity: A disk that rotates at a constant rate of speed. Examples are hard
drives, floppy disks, magneto-optical discs and some videodiscs. ACAV videodisc permits access to video
within seconds, allows for up to 54,000 still frames, or may contain up to 30 minutes of full motion video
(or any combination of stills and video).
CCITT: Consultative Committee on International Telephony and Telegraphy
CCL - Connection Control Language: A scripting language that allows the user to control a modem.
CCTV: Closed-Circuit Television. The system for sending cable signals to subscribers or designated
locations.
CD-ROM Compact Disc - Read Only Memory: CD-ROM discs can store a variety of data types including
text, color graphics, sound, animation and digitized video that can be accessed and read through a computer.
A disc can store up to 600 megabytes of data, much more information that can be stored on a 3.5 inch
compute disk, which hold up to 1.4 megabytes. This makes CD-ROM an inexpensive medium for storing
large amounts of data. Because CD-ROM was not designed to store digitized, full-motion video,
compression technology is important in compressing data to fit on a disc as well as decompressing data for
playback.
Center Clipper: Variable attenuator which is used to eliminate any residual echo left by the echo canceller.
A key difference between one canceller and another is the manner in which this center clipper operates. In a
high quality canceller, the center clipper will operate very rapidly and smoothly, resulting in no residual
echo during double-talk and no clipping of syllables. The center clipper is in essence a level- activated
switch. Signals above the threshold level are passed unaltered and signals below the threshold are blocked.
When speech is present in both directions, the center clipper tends to mutilate the speech signal, adding
audible amounts of harmonic and intermodulation distortion. This distortion is often referred to as "glitch"
and sounds remarkably like its name when it occurs. The transmit signal can be totally chopped out if the
8

level of the transmit signal drops below the estimated level of returning echo.
Channel: A signal path of specified bandwidth for conveying information.
1. A half circuit;
2. A radio frequency assignment (which is dependent upon the frequency band and the geographic location).
Channel capacity in a cable television system is the number of channels that can be simultaneously carried
on the system. Generally defined in terms of the number of 6 MHz (television bandwidth) channels.
CFDA - Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance: The CFDA is a government-wide compilation of federal
programs, projects, services and activities that provide assistance or benefits to the American public. The
primary purpose of the CFDA is to assist users in identifying programs that meet specific objectives of a
potential applicant, and to obtain general information on federal assistance programs.
Charge-Coupled Device - CCD: A solid-state device used in many television cameras to convert optical
images into electronic signals. These imagers are organized into rows and columns called pixels. The charge
pattern formed in the CCD pixels when light strikes them forms the electronic representation of the image.
Chroma Key: In color television, an electronic matting process of inserting one image over a background.
Used very commonly with weathercasters who are standing in front of a blank wall painted process blue.
The electronics remove the blue and insert the weather map so that on the television screen the two images
merge and the weathercaster appears to be standing in front of a large map painted on the wall.
Chrominance Signal: The color signal component in color television that represents the hue and saturation
levels of the colors in the picture.
Circuit: Means of two-way communication between two or more points. 1. In communication systems, an
electronic, electrical, or electromagnetic path between two or more points capable of providing a number of
channels. 2. Electric or electronic part. 3. Optical or electrical component that serves a specific function or
functions. Circular Polarization: A mode of transmission in which signals are down linked in a rotating
corkscrew pattern. A satellite's transmission-capacity can be doubled by using both right-hand and left-hand
circular polarization.
Closed Circuit Television - CCTV: A private television system in which signals are sent usually via cable,
to selected viewing points throughout the distribution system but are not broadcast to the public. The signal
does not have to meet FCC commercial specifications.
CLV - Constant Linear Velocity: A disc that rotates at a varying rate of speed. Examples are CD-Audio,
CD-ROM, CD-I, CD-ROM XA, and some videodiscs. CLV videodiscs may contain up to one hour of full
motion video, but still frames and quick access time are forfeited.
C/N - C/NR - Carrier to Noise Ratio: Refers to the ratio of the satellite carrier (or signal) to noise level in a
given channel. Usually measured in dB at the LNA output. Coaxial Cable - Coax: A type of metal cable
used for broadband data and cable systems. It has excellent broadband frequency characteristics, noise
immunity and Telecommunications
Co-Channel Interference: Interference on a channel caused by another signal operating on the same
channel.
Codec: A Coder-Decoder converts analog signals, (voice or video) into digital form (1or 0) for transmission
over a digital medium and, upon reception at a second codec, reconverts the signals to the original analog
form. Two codecs are needed - one at each end of the channel.
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Color Burst: In NTSC terminology, refers to a burst of approximately nine cycles of 3.58 MHz subcarrier
on the back porch of the composite video signal. This serves as a color synchronizing signal to establish a
frequency and phase reference for the chrominance signal.
Color Signal: Any signal at any point in a color television system for wholly or partially controlling the
chromaticity values of a color television picture.
Color Subcarrier: In NTSC color, the 3.58 MHz subcarrier whose modulation sidebands are interleaved
with the video luminance signal to convey color information.
Color Transmission: A method of transmitting color television signals which can reproduce the different
values of hue, saturation, and luminance which together makeup a color picture.
Communications Satellite: Relay system in orbit above earth for telecommunications signals (voice, video,
data); require earth stations to transmit and receive signals at the ground locations. Commonly called a
"bird."
Compression: The application of any of several techniques that reduce the amount of information required
to represent that information in data transmission. This method reduces the required bandwidth and/or
memory.
Compressed Video: Processes video images; transmits changes from one frame to the next which reduces
the bandwidth to send them over a telecommunications channel reduces cost. Also called bandwidth
compression, data compression or bit rate reduction. The most publicized compression techniques are
proposed by two expert groups, that of JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group) and MPEG (Moving
Picture Expert Group), who are defining methods for image compression in still frame and real time video.
The algorithm used by these two groups is called discrete cosine transform (DCT). DCT transforms a block
of pixels into a matrix of coefficients and estimates redundancy in the matrix. The advantage of JPEG and
MPEG is that the algorithms are symmetrical; that is, the same amount of processing is required for the
encode and decode functions. These are ideal for two-way applications such as videoconferencing.
Crosstalk: 1. Undesired transfer of signals from one circuit to another circuit. 2. The phenomenon whereby
a signal transmitted on one circuit or channel of a communications system is detectable or creates an
undesirable effect in another circuit or channel.
D1 and D2: Digital tape component and composite formats (respectively) used for professional video
recording. D1 is costlier than D2. Both can go through many generations of dubbing without visible loss of
picture quality.
Daisy Chain: A way to connect computers - one after another along a single line.
DARPA: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Pentagon. Replaced ARPA.
Data Communications: 1. The movement of encoded information by means of electrical or electronic
transmission systems. 2. The transmission of data from one point to another over communications channels.
Data Compression: A technique that saves storage space by eliminating gaps, empty fields, redundancies,
or unnecessary data to shorten the length of records or blocks.
DBS - Direct Broadcast Satellite: Service uses high powered satellites to broadcast multiple channels of
TV programming to inexpensive, small-dish antennas at homes for direct on-site reception of signals.
DCT - Discrete Cosine Transform: Compression algorithm
Dedicated Lines: Leased telecommunications circuits that are devoted to a specific application; a circuit
designated for exclusive use by two users; i.e., for interactive portion of teleconference.
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Dial up - Dialup: To call another computer via modem. A connection or line reached by modem, as in "a
dialup line."
Dial-Up Teleconferencing: Using public phone line to connect with a tele conference, either with or
without operator assistance.
Digital: Discrete bits of information in numerical steps. A form of information that is represented by signals
encoded as a series of discrete numbers, intervals or steps, as contrasted to continuous or analog circuits.
Digital signals can be sent through wire or over the air. The method allows simultaneous transmission of
voice and data. All digital technology is emerging as the primary transmission mode for voice, video, data
and facsimile; Information represented by signals encoded as a series of discrete numbers, intervals or steps.
Can be sent through wire or over the air. Allows simultaneous transmission of voice, video and data.
Digital Transmission: The transmission of information in the form of "1s" and "0s." Information
customarily sent in this form is related to computer data traffic which is already in digital form. Other
communications include audio and video.
Digitized Audio: Allows the incorporation of audio materials with other media to present information over
a computer network or through the Internet. With this method,Telecommunications the audio is
contained.various software programs "stream" the audio signal so that it can be heard as it is being said.
Digitizer: A device that converts an analog signal (either images or sound) into a digital signal that can be
manipulated on the computer. Video capture boards convert video images from video sources such as the
VCR or video camera, while sound digitizers take any sounds, the spoken word as well as music off of a
cassette or CD player, and turn them into digital data. That data can be edited using sound editing and
multimedia software.
Disk Drive: A computer data storage device in which data is stored on the magnetic coating (similar to that
on magnetic tape) of a rotating disk.
Dish: Parabolic antenna. Primary element of a satellite earth station; sends and/or receives satellite signals.
Usually bowl-shaped; concentrates signals to a single focal point. The antenna cross section exposed to the
signal is the aperture.
Distortion: An undesired change in wave form of a signal in the course of its passage through a
transmission system.
Downlink: Transmission of radio frequency signals from a satellite to an earth station (verb). A satellite
receiving station (noun).
Download: 1. Transfer data from a main computer or memory to a remote computer or terminal. 2. There
are several different methods, or protocols, for downloading files, most of which periodically check the file
as it is being copied to ensure no information is inadvertently destroyed or damaged during the process.
Some, such as XMODEM, only let you download one file at a time. Others, such as batch-YMODEM and
ZMODEM, let you type in the names of several files at once, which are then automatically downloaded.
Drive bay: The opening in a computer chassis designed to hold a floppy drive, hard drive, CD-ROM drive,
tape drive or other device. May be half-height or full-height, exposed or internal. Drop-Outs: Black or white
lines or spots appearing in a television picture originating from the playback of a video tape recording.
DS1: Digital signal level 1; a digital transmission format in which 24 voice channels are multiplexed into
one T1 channel.
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DS3: Digital signal level 3; a telephony term describing the 45 mbps signal carried on a T3 facility. It is
most often associated with broadcast video transmission. Although the broadcast purest will rightfully point
out that as a digital signal it is not a true broadcast quality RS-250B standard signal, it is the nearest
approximation to a broadcast signal in a digital environment.
DSP: Digital signal processing. Telecommunications
DTMF - Dual Tone Multiple Frequencies: Standard telephone signaling technique which can be used
through any transmission medium of voice grade or better. The technique is often used for remote switching
control functions. Dual Band Capability: Many receivers are capable of both C and Ku band operation.
Duplex: In a communications channel the ability to transmit in both directions.
DVI - Digital Video Interactive: DVI is a programmable (variable bit and frame rate) compression and
decompression technology developed by Intel offering two distinct levels and qualities of compression and
decompression for motion video.
E-Layer: A heavily ionized signal-reflecting region location 50-70 miles above the surface of the earth,
within the ionosphere.
E-mail - Electronic mail: The term for private messages sent as files from one computer to another, either
over a local area network (LAN), or via modem over the phone lines. E-mail is like having your own private
mail box on a network. Used as both a noun and verb. Mail can be sent between Internet and commercial
services such as American On Line.
Earth Station: The location antenna used to send or receive signals to satellites normally located in the
geostationary orbit. A parabolic antenna and associated electronics for receiving or transmitting satellite
signals.
Echo: The reflections of signal energy that cause it to return to the transmitter or to the receiver.
Echo Canceller: Eliminates audio transmission echo. A telephone line echo canceller produces a synthetic
replica of the echo it expects to see returning and subtracts it from the transmitted speech. The replica it
creates is based on the transmission characteristics of the telephone cable between the echo canceller and the
telephone set.
Electromagnetic Spectrum: The frequency range of electromagnetic radiation that includes radio waves,
light and X-rays. At the low frequency end are sub-audible frequencies (e.g., 10 Hz) and at the other end,
extremely high frequencies (e.g., X-rays, cosmic rays).
Electronic Blackboard or Whiteboard: A device that looks like an ordinary blackboard or whiteboard, but
has a special conductive surface for producing free-hand information that can be sent over a
telecommunications channel, usually a telephone line.
Electro-Mechanical Pen: A device that has an electronic pen with a mechanical arm for producing freehand information that can be sent over a telecommunication channel, usually a telephone line.
Electronic Mail - E-Mail: A system of electronic communication whereby an individual sends a message to
another individual or group of people; includes computer mail and facsimile (FAX).
Encoder: A device that electronically alters a signal (encrypts) so that it can be clearly seen only by
recipients that have a decoder which reverses the encryption process.
Encryption: An encoder electronically alters a signal so that it can be clearly seen only by recipients who
have a decoder to reverse encryption. Selective address ability/scrambling designates receivers to
descramble a signal. Each decoder has a unique "address."
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End User: The ultimate last user of a telecommunications system whether or not it is a student within a
school, business or a subscriber on a cable television system.
EROM - Erasable Read-Only Memory: In a computer, the read-only memory (ROM) that can be erased
and reprogrammed. Synonymous with erasable-programmable read only
Ethernet: Baseband protocol and technology developed by Xerox and widely supported by manufacturers;
a packet technology that operates at 10 mbps over coaxial cable and allows terminals, concentrators, work
stations and hosts to communicate with each other.
Facsimile - FAX: A device which uses a form of electronic transmission allowing movement of hard-copy
documents from widely separated geographic areas via a telecommunications channel, usually a telephone
line. Usually called a FAX machine now but previously was called a tele copier.
FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface: 1. Transports data up to speeds of 100 Mbps.
2. FDDI is a high-speed (100Mb) token ring LAN.
FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access: Refers to the use of multiple carriers within the same
satellite transponder where each uplink has an assigned frequency slot and bandwidth.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC): An independent government agency established by the
Communications Act of 1934 to regulate the broadcasting industry. The Commission later assumed
authority over cable. The FCC is administered by seven commissioners and reports to Congress. The FCC
assigns broadcasting frequencies, licenses stations, and oversees interstate communications.
FEC - Forward Error Correction: Adds unique codes to the digital signal at the source so errors can be
detected and corrected at the receiver.
Feeder Cables: The coaxial cables that take signals from the trunk line to the subscriber area and to which
subscriber taps are attached. Synonymous with feeder line.
Fiber Optics: Communications medium based on a laser transmission that uses a glass or plastic fiber
which carries light to transmit video, audio, or data signals. Each fiber can carry from 90 to 150 megabits of
digital information per second or 1,000 voice Telecommunications channels. Transmission can be simplex
(one-way) or duplex (two-way) voice, data, andvideo service.
File Server: A component of a local area network, or LAN, which stores information for use by clients, or
workstations.
FM Microwave Radio: Ultra-high frequency often used to provide the return link in fully interactive
systems (simplex). It can also be used in duplex to provide two-way full motion video and audio
interactivity.
FM Broadcast Band: The band of frequencies extending from 88 to 108 MHz.
Four-Wire Circuit: A circuit that has two pairs of conductors (four wires), one pair for the send channel
and one pair for the receive channel; allows two parties to talk and be heard simultaneously.
Frame: Full screen or frame of video is made up of two fields. Thirty frames is one second of video.
Frame Relay: A high speed interface between switches and T1 or T3 multiplexers. Frame relay is a
connection-oriented interface that initially will be incorporated into private T1 and T3 multiplexers. While
some carriers have committed to offer public frame relay service, others consider frame relay to be an
"interim technology" and are focusing on cell relay .T1 and T3 multiplexers equipped with frame relay will
provide a packet-oriented, HDLC-framed interface to routers and X.25 packet switches. The packets will be
routed to the proper destination by the multiplexers. Minimal protocol processing enables frame relay
13

multiplexers to achieve high throughput. Initially, permanent virtual circuits will be supported; later, it is
likely that switched virtual circuits services may also be provided by frame relay. The major advantage of
frame-relay-equipped multiplexers is that only a single connection is required from the customer premises
equipment (routers or X.25 packet switches) to the multiplexer. Also, with frame relay support in
multiplexers, users contend for bandwidth provided via the multiplexer, and thus line cost efficiencies can
be improved.
Freeware: Software that doesn't cost anything. It can be distributed freely. However, the author still holds
the copyright which means that the software can't be modified. Freeze Frame: Repeating or holding one
frame so that it appears that the action has stopped.
Frequency: The number of times a complete electromagnetic wave cycle occurs in a fixed unit of time,
usually one second. The rate at which a current alternates, measured in Hertz on a telecommunications
medium.
Frequency Modulation: The range of frequencies within which an audio device will function.
FTP - File-transfer Protocol: A system for transferring files across the Internet. Anonymous FTP is a
conventional way of allowing you to sign on to a computer on the Internet and copy specified public files
from it. Some sites offer anonymous FTP to distribute software and various kinds of information. You use it
like any FTP, but the username is "anonymous". Many systems will allow any password and request that the
password you choose is your user id. If this fails, the generic password is usually "guest".
Full Duplex Audio Channel: An audio channel which allows conversation to take place interactively and
simultaneously between the various parties, without electronically cutting off one or more participants if
someone else is speaking. With a Half Duplex Audio Channel, only one party can speak at a time without
cutting off the other end.
Full-motion Video: Not compressed. A standard video signal of 30 frames per second, 525 horizontal lines
per frame, capable of complete action.
Gateway: A machine that exists on two networks, such as the Internet and BITNET, and that can transfer
mail between them.
Gateway: A network element (node) that performs conversions between different coding and transmission
formats. The gateway does this by having many types of commonly used transmission equipment to provide
a means for interconnection.
Geostationary Orbit - Geosynchronous - Clarke Belt: An orbital path approximately 22,300 miles above
the earth. This unique satellite orbit has the characteristic that objects located in it rotate at the same relative
speed as the surface of the earth. Objects placed in this orbit such as communications satellites can be
considered fixed with respect to antennas located on the surface of the earth which are oriented towards
them. Satellites in this orbit are always positioned above the same spot on the earth and from the earth, they
appear fixed in space. Microwave transmission from these earth located antennas can be sent to the
relatively fixed satellites in this orbit which serve as microwave repeaters back to the surface of the earth.
British physicist and science fiction writer, Sir Arthur C. Clarke, invented satellite communication in his
1954 paper Wireless World, which explained this east-west orbit, 22,300 miles above the equator; three
satellites based in this orbit could provide world-wide communications.

14

GIF - Graphic Interchange Format: A format developed in the mid-1980s by CompuServe for use in
photo-quality graphics images. Now commonly used everywhere on-line. The filename extension generally
given to GIF files is .gif.
Glitch: 1. A narrow horizontal bar moving vertically through a television picture. 2. A short duration pulse
moving through the video signal at approximately reference black level on a wave-form monitor. 3. A
random error in a computer program. 4. Any random, usually short, unexplained malfunction.
Gopher and Gopher Server: An Internet information retrieval system. Software following a simple
protocol for tunneling through a TCP/IP Internet, and running errands, especially the retrieval of
"documents." This information system is technically known as a Gopher Server and is part of an
international network of Gopher Servers. The Gopher concept was created and initially implemented at the
University of Minnesota. The software they created has migrated around the Internet and is now serving the
public at large. Since its initial conception, many other organizations have contributed software to this effort.
Half-Duplex: A communications channel over which both transmission and reception are possible but only
in one direction at one time; e.g., a two-wire circuit.
Handshake: Two modems trying to connect first do this to agree on how to transfer data.
Handshaking: Exchange of predetermined signals when a connection is established between two data-set
devices.
HDSL - High-Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line: A method of providing high-speed data services over
unconditioned copper wires at a top speed of 1.544 mbit/s. VHDSL (for very high-bit-rate digital subscriber
line) is double that at 3 mbit/s. The key advantage of HDSL and VHDSL is that they allow telcos to provide
services like frame relay, SMDS, and high-quality compressed video over existing telephone lines which is
much less expensive than pulling fiber or installing additional repeaters. VHDSL is based on carrier less
amplitude/phase modulation (CAP) and has applications beyond HDSL and VHDSL such as a video-ondemand service (being tested by Bell Atlantic) using CAP in which subscribers can interactively request
videos, which are then transmitted over high-speed lines.
HDTV: Higher (than normal) definition TV. HDTV is generally defined as a system that offers, as a
minimum, certain specific features and characteristics. These are Wide aspect ratio (now agreed as 19:9 or
1.778:1.; effectively doubled horizontal and vertical resolution (compared to existing systems); absence of
encoding/decoding artifacts (requires component operation); and compact disc quality stereo sound. The
technology applied to make HDTV transmittable in existing 6 MHz channels is essentially the same as the
technology necessary for multichannel operation in those same channels.
HTML - HyperText Markup Language: The language used to mark up text files with links for use with
World Wide Web browsers. This is a file format, based on SGML, for hypertext documents on the Internet.
It is very simple and allows for the embedding of images, sounds, video streams, form fields and simple text
formatting. References to other objects are embedded using uniform resource locators (URLs).
Telecommunications Glossary/41
HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol: The Internet protocol, based on TCP/IP, used to fetch hypertext
objects from remote hosts. See also TCP/IP. Hub: 1. A signal distribution point for part of an overall system.
2. The master station through which all communications to, from and between micro terminals must flow.
Hue: The attribute of color perception that determines whether the color is red, yellow, green, blue, purple,
etc.
15

Hyperband: The band of cable television channels above 300 MHz.

IM: Intermodulation distortion occurs when two or more signals are passed through a nonlinear device such
as an amplifier.
IMAP: A new protocol for the storage and retrieval of e-mail. Much like POP - the Post Office Protocol.
International Telecommunication Union - ITU: Organization composed of the telecommunications
administrations of the participating nations. Focus is the maintenance and extension of international
cooperation for improving telecommunications development and applications.
Internet: A worldwide system for linking smaller computer networks together-governmental institutions,
military branches, educational institutions, and commercial companies. Networks connected through the
Internet use a particular set of communications standards to communicate, known as TCP/IP. Internet is the
name given to the overall connectivity of all its various sub-networks, including USENET, APRAnet,
CSnet, BITNET, etc. There is no surcharge to send or receive messages through Internet. Only ASCII
messages up to 50,000 characters can be sent through this system. With a lowercase "i", an internet is a
group of connected networks.
Intranet: Intranets differ from the Internet because they are private networks, set off from the rest of the
world by firewalls. They can often connect disparate corporate networks. They often access corporate
resources and databases that were built with non-Internet technology in mind.
IP - Internet Protocol: The main protocol used on the Internet.
IRC - Internet Relay Chat: A service where users can "talk" via typing to people around the world
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network: A set of standards provide a common architecture for the
development and deployment of digitally integrated communications services. A set of standardized
customer interfaces and signaling protocols for delivering digital circuit-switched voice/data and packetswitched data services. ISDN is designed to provide standard interfaces to custom premises equipment such
as computers, telephones, and facsimile machines through basic rate interface (BRI) to PBXs, host
computers, and LANs through primary rate interface (PRI); to the pubic Telecommunications switched
network through SS7; and to local packet data terminals and the public packet-switched network through
X.25 and X.75/X.75' packet services. The key to ISDN is out-of-band signaling which permits the users'
equipment and the network to exchange control and signaling information over a separate channel from that
which carries user information. A digital telecommunications channel that allows integrated transmission of
voice, video and data. ISDN lines used to access network services are divided into bearer, or "B" channels,
and a supervisory, or "D" channel, for out-of-band signaling. B Channels carry digitally encoded customer
information such as voice and data traffic, while the D channel provides the information required to set up,
route and disconnect calls on B Channels. D channels can also carry other information such as caller
identification. Twenty-three B channels and one D channel form a Primary Rate Interface or "23B+D". PRI
B channels can be used for any combination of voice, data, and image transmission at 64 kpbs. In addition,
B channels can be grouped together to create wider bandwidths for applications like video transmission.
IVDS - Interactive Video and Data Services: Name for license which will be granted by the FCC to
devices called Interactive TV Appliances (ITAs). ITAs include TV Answer, a two-way television service for
consumers for game shows, sporting events and respond instantly to news polls and interactive advertising
as well as participate in distance learning. The system will also let viewers shop, bank, pay bills, organize
TV programming and order a pizza.
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IVR: The IVR unit answers the call, greets the caller, and guides the caller through possible responses with
a series of voice prompts. The desired information is provided via prerecorded voice fragments (words) or
computer-generated speech.
Ka-Band: A satellite transmission in the 20 and 30 gigahertz frequency spectrum. Kbps, kb/s - Kilobits per
Second: A unit of measure of data of 1,000 bits per second or 1,000 Baud.
Ku Band: A category of satellite transmissions higher in frequency than those used as "c band" which are
being transmitted from satellites placed in the geostationary orbit. The group of microwave frequencies from
12 to 18 GHz and the band of satellite downlink frequencies from 11.7 to 12.2 GHz. The higher frequencies
(12 GHz versus 4 GHz) have created the possibility of smaller receive antennas and the realization of direct
broadcast satellite (DBS) signals to the end user without the necessity of going through a cable television
system or other shared use receive site due to the factors of size and cost.
LAN - Local Area Network: Private transmission network interconnecting offices within a building or
group of buildings and usually designed to convey traffic; e.g., voice, data, facsimile, video. Usually
associated now with a computer network made up of computers, printers, and mass storage units. MAN
Metropolitan area network. WAN - Wide Area Network.
Laser - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation:
1. A device for generating coherent electromagnetic signals (e.g., light). Low powered lasers are frequently
used to transmit light signals into optical fibers.
2. Laser light contains waves that have the same phase, as opposed to conventional light, whose individual
wave phases are unrelated to the phases of the others.
LCD - Liquid Crystal Display: A method of creating alphanumeric displays by reflecting light on a special
crystalline substance. Frequently used in electronic games and watches, and in portable electronic
instruments.
Leased Lines: A term used to describe the leased or rented use of dedicated lines from point to point. Lines
could include fiber optic cables, telephone cables, microwave or other transmission systems.
LEC: Local exchange carrier of a telephone company.
LED - Light Emitting Diode: A semiconductor which emits light when a proper voltage is applied to its
terminal
LNA - Low Noise Amplifier: Located at the antenna. Refers to electronic equipment, used in conjunction
with satellite reception, intended to amplify extremely weak satellite signals without introduction of noise.
They are rated in different noise temperatures, expressed in degrees Kelvin. The lower the noise temperature
figure, the higher the carrier-to-noise ratio, and the better the picture.
Local Exchange Carrier (LEC): Carriers that can carry only intra-LATA traffic. Local telephone
companies such as US West, Contel, Centel etc.
Local Loop: The local loop gets the signal from the receive site to the viewing room. Microwave, fiber
optics, cable and sometimes broadcast are used to distribute the signal. Also referred to as the "Last Mile
Low Earth Orbiting Satellite - LEO: Low earth orbit satellites which require 77 small, smart satellites to
provide linkage around the world. The satellites move overhead in Telecommunications their low orbit.
Motorola's Iridium (from the element Iridium which has 77 electrons) uses the concept to provide, digital,
satellite-based personal communications via small, handheld transportable receivers. With the system, voice,
17

fax, or data calls can be made or received anywhere. The user will have one universal telephone number for
the phone. Local gateways will store customer billing information, keep track of user locations, and
interconnect with terrestrial carriers worldwide. The dual-mode phone will access customers' regular cellular
service first, switching to Iridium only when there is no terrestrial signal, to assure least-cost routing.
Mean Time Between Failure - MTBF: A statistical quantitative value for the time between episodes of
equipment or component failure.
Minicomputer: An intermediate range computer, between full-size mainframes and 16-bit microcomputers.
Historically, minicomputers have served dedicated uses, such as in scientific and laboratory work.
Modem - Modulator/Demdulator: Device that connects computer terminals and hosts through analog links
by converting data signals to analog signals and back again. Transmission rate of 300 Baud is slow; 2400 is
faster.
Modular: Constructed with standardized units or dimensions for flexibility and variety in use; allows for
easy replacement, substitution, expansion or reconfiguration of modules or sub-assemblies.
Modulator: A device which converts the video signal and audio signal onto a viewable TV channel. It takes
the video and audio signals that are separated by the receiver and combines them into a signal that can be
received by an ordinary TV set. This signal is called an "RF" signal, meaning radio frequency, and is usually
set for either channel 3 or 4. The advantage of using a modulator is that it permits the use of standard TV
receivers for displays, but the signal quality is not as good as using a direct video and audio feed to a
monitor TV display.
Mosaic: A free graphical front end to the Internet that supports browsing of multimedia data that includes
plain and formatted text, picture, video and sound. The data is based on the hypertext document format
where text or pictures can act as links to other places in the same or different documents. Mosaic provides a
simple graphical user interface (GUI) that enables easy access to the data stored on the Internet. These data
may be simple files or hypertext documents. The document a user points to on the receiving desktop could
be on the same machine or on another computer elsewhere on the Internet. Mosaic clients are currently
available for Windows, Macintosh, the X Window System and many flavors of UNIX.
Multimedia: The combination of multiple digitized data types; text, sound, computer generated graphics
and animations, photographs and video. The merger of digital technologies based on the use of computers.
The technologies that are converging are computing, television, printing and telecommunications.
Multiple Access: The ability of more than one user to use a transponder. Transponders have three basic
resources frequency, time and space. The frequency domain is used in FDMA. Time domain multiple access
is used in TDMA by time-sharing transponder. Space domain multiple access makes use of either the
polarization discrimination, orthogonal digital codes or through spread-spectrum techniques. Multiple Audio
Subcarrier Tuning: Essential to take advantage of radio and data services riding piggy-back on video signals.
Multiplexing: Transmission of two or more information streams over a single physical medium at the same
time such that each data source has its own channel. Allows a number of simultaneous transmissions over a
single circuit. Common methods are frequency division multiplexing (FDM) where the frequency bands are
split to constitute a distinct channel and time division multiplexing (TDM) where the common channel is
allotted to several different information channels, one at a time.
Multitasking: Pertaining to the concurrent execution of two or more tasks by a computer.
18

N + 1: Created by the FCC, this formula forms the basis by which the FCC regulates expansion of channel
capacity for non-broadcast use. The FCC requires that if the government, education, public access, and
leased channels are in use at least 80 percent of the Monday-through-Friday period for at least 80 percent of
the time during any three-hour period for six consecutive weeks, then within six months the system's
channel capacity must be expanded by the operator.
Network: 1. Two or more information sources or destinations (points or nodes) linked via communications
media to exchange information. 2. It can be as simple as a cable strung between two computers a few feet
apart or as complex as hundreds of thousands of computers around the world linked through fiber optic
cables, phone lines and satellites.
Network Interface Card: Also known as NIC. Add-in circuit board that allows a PC to be connected to a
local area network (LAN).
NIC - Network Information Center: An organization which provides network users with information
about services provided by the network. As close as an Internet- style network gets to a hub; it's usually
where you'll find information about that particular network.
Node: An addressable unit in a network, which can be a computer, work station or some type of
communications control unit. Noise - Audio: Unwanted sounds (static) that interfere with the intended
sounds; or unwanted sound signals. Noise Temperature: The amount of thermal noise present in a system,
expressed in degrees Kelvin. The lower the noise temperature, the better. Noise - Video: Unwanted
electronic interference that shows up as snow.
NTSC: National Television System Committee; defined the 52 5-line color video signal frequency spectrum
which extends from 30 Hz to 4.2 MHz. NTSC video consists of 525 interlaced lines, with a horizontal
scanning rate of 15,734 Hz, and a vertical (field) rate of 59.94 Hz. A color subcarrier at 3.579545 MHz
contains color hue (phase) and saturation (amplitude) information. 30-frame-per-second color TV standard
in use in U.S., Canada, Mexico, Japan and a few other countries.
OEM: Original equipment manufacturer.
Off-Line: Mode of operation in which terminals, or other equipment, can operate while disconnected from a
central processor. Contrast with "on-line" where there is a direct connection to a host computer.
On-line: When a computer is connected to an on-line service, bulletin-board system or public-access site, it
is on-line.
Open Systems Interconnect - OSI: Generally open systems and networks are based on standards and the
OSI model, providing applications and data portability, providing interoperability between systems, having
common user interfaces, providing transparency below the application level, and provided by multiple
sources, with multiple sources having input on development.
Optical Character Recognition - OCR: The machine identification of printed characters through use of
light-sensitive devices; often used as a method of entering data.
Optical Fiber: An extremely thin, flexible thread of pure glass able to carry one thousand times the
information possible with traditional copper wire. See Fiber Optics. Orange Book: Colloquial name of the
standard that describes CD-Recordable equipment, media and formats. An extension of the "Yellow Book"
standard which includes specifications for incremental writes or multiple sessions. It specifies standards for
CD-R and magneto-optical cartridge systems as well as Kodak's Photo CD. Most CD-ROM drives today can
only read "single session" discs or the first session of a multisession disc.
19

OSI: Open Systems Interconnection.

Outbound: Direction of a signal relative to the hub of a local area network (LAN) or other
telecommunications system. Outbound signals would be traveling away from the primary hub in the forward
direction to the extremities of the system.
PABX - Private Automatic Branch Exchange: A private automatic telephone exchange, usually located at
the user's site, that routes and interfaces the local business telephones and data circuits to and from the
public telephone network.
Packet: The unit of data sent across a packet switching network. The term is used loosely. While some
Internet literature uses it to refer specifically to data sent across a physical network, other literature views the
Internet as a packet switching network and describes IP data grams as packets.
Packet Switching: A communications data transmission method that breaks down messages into smaller
units of standard sized pieces called packets, which are individually addressed and routed through a
network; the network link is occupied only during packet transmission. Packet switching increases
efficiency in transport.
PAL: Phase Alternation by Line, the 625-line, 25-frame-per-second TV standard used in Western Europe,
India, China, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and parts of Africa.
Parabolic Dish: A satellite antenna, usually bowl-shaped, that concentrates signals to a single focal point.
See reflector.
Parity Check: A check of the accuracy of data being transmitted. To accomplish this, an extra parity bit is
added to a group of bits so that the number of ones in the group is, according to the specification, even or
odd. Then, at the receiving end, the bits in the word are added, the parity bit needed for that total is
determined, and the total is then compared with the parity bit transmitted.
PBX - Private Branch Exchange: A private telephone exchange that serves a particular organization and
has connections to the public telephone network; refers to a multi-line telephone exchange terminal with
various features for voice and data communications.
PCM - Pulse Code Modulation: A method of converting analog sound into digital representation by use of
successive samples.
PDA - Personal Digital Assistant: Small, hand-held devices that combine computer power with graphics,
sound, video and communication capabilities. They will take several forms including electronic note takers
and portable display telephone. They hold various programs, address files and databases depending on the
user's needs. Many feature a modem, fax, radio mail and computer.
Point-to-Multipoint: A teleconference broadcast from one location to several receiving locations (also
known as downlink sites.)
Point-to-Point: Teleconference between two locations. Point-to-Multipoint one location to many sites.
Polarization: A characteristic of the electric field on an electromagnetic wave in space. The directional
aspects of a signal. Signals can have circular or planar polarization. Four types of polarization are used with
satellites; horizontal, vertical, right-hand circular and left-hand circular. Electromagnetic waves have the
ability to vibrate in different radial directions. Typically, satellite signal polarization is either horizontal or
vertical. The signal coming from the satellite to the dish will either be vibrating along a horizontal or vertical
plane. The receiving equipment must be adjusted to receive the correct polarization.
POP - Post Office Protocol: A protocol for the storage and retrieval of e-mail. Eudora uses POP.
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Port: In software, the act of converting code so that a program runs on more than one type of computer. In
networking, a number that identifies a specific "channel" used by network services. For instance, Gopher
generally uses port 70 but is occasionally set to use other ports on various machines.
PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol: PPP provides a method for transmitting datagrams over serial point-to-point
links.
PRI - Primary rate interface: PRI is a CCITT-defined ISDN trunking technology that delivers 64 kbps
clear channels and standardized out-of-band signaling. PRI can serve customer premise equipment (CPE)
such as a PBX, LAN gateway, or host computer or can serve as a trunk interface between central offices.
PROM - Programmable read-only memory: A type of read-only memory that can be programmed by the
computer user. This programming usually requires special equipment.
Protocol: A set of rules and procedures for establishing and controlling conversations on a line. The set of
messages has specific formats for exchanging communications and assuring end-to-end data integrity of
links, circuits, messages, sessions and application processes. Usually associated with communications over
computer. It is the language that computers use when talking to each other. The method used to transfer a
file between a host system and your computer. A formal description of message formats and the rules two
computers must follow to exchange those messages. There are several types, such as Kermit, YMODEM
and ZMODEM. Protocols can describe lowlevel details of machine-to-machine interfaces (e.g., the order in
which bits and bytes are sent across a wire) or high-level exchanges between allocation programs (e.g., the
way in which two programs transfer a file across the Internet). Public Switched Network: Any switching
system that provides a circuit switched to many customers. Pulse Code Modulation: A time division
modulation technique in which analog signals are sampled and quantized at periodic intervals. The values
observed are typically represented by a coded arrangement of 8 bits of which one may be for parity.
Rain Attenuation - Rain Losses: The attenuation (loss) of a signal due to rainfall. If you are receiving a
teleconference on a Ku band dish, local rainstorms can drastically weaken the signal strength of the
program. The result will be sparkles which interfere with the ability to see the program. During a heavy
downpour or thunderstorm, signal reception may be lost temporarily. The noise temperature perceived by
the receiving antenna may increase due to rain being present in the link.
RAM: Random-access memory. A volatile memory used by a computer's central processing unit as a
chalkboard for writing and reading information. RAM is measured in multiples of 4096 bytes (4K bytes),
and serves as a rough measurement of a computer's capacity.
Raster: The scanned (illuminated) area of a television picture tube.
Reflector: Antenna's main curved "dish," which collects and focus signals onto the secondary reflector or
the feed.
Repeater: A term used to describe the process of reprocessing and send a weak signal on to a more distant
service area. The weak signal condition develops as the initially strong signal passes through the miles of
air, moisture, rain and snow which gradually attenuates or reduces its power level.
Retrace: The return of a scanning beam to a desired position.
RF - Radio Frequency: Radio frequencies are generally considered as any electromagnetic signal from
normal radio to microwave transmission. RGB - Red, Green Blue: Method of transmitting video signals that
feeds red, green, and blue channels over separate wires; provides highest-quality video signal and is the
format for most computer equipment.
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Ring Network: A local area network in which devices are connected in a closed loop or ring as opposed to a
bus network.
ROM: Read only memory. A type of permanent, non-erasable memory that plugs directly into the wiring
of a computer, and contains computer programs. Some computers are supplied with some built-in ROM,
whereas others have external slots for inserting ROM cartridges.
Routing: Selecting the minimum delay path (and/or minimum cost path) in a network for a message or
packet to reach its destination.
RS-232-C: Standard interface between a piece of equipment and a telephone circuit.
S/N - S/NR - Signal to Noise Ratio: Final relationship between the video or audio signal level to the noise
level. Ratio of the signal power to the noise power in a specified band width, expressed in dBW.
Satellite: An electronics retransmission device serving as repeater normally placed in orbit around the earth
in the geostationary orbit for the purpose of receiving and retransmitting electromagnetic signals. It normally
receives signals from a single source and retransmits them over a wide geographic area. Satellite C/Ku band
Domestic communications satellites operate on two frequency ranges designated C and Ku band. Each
require specific electronic equipment. C band is less expensive; operates at 4 kHz. Ku-band operates at 12
kHz. Some teleconferences are broadcast on both bands. Many satellites are now built with both C and Ku
band capacity.
Satellite Relay: An active or passive satellite repeater that relays signals between two earth stations.
SCPC - Single Channel Per Carrier: Signal transmission technique often used in satellite transmission
which concentrates one channel of information on a single transmitted carrier for relay through the satellite.
The channel may be digital, analog or multiplexed analog in nature provided that its information may be sent
on a single narrow band carrier. The Single Channel Per Carrier transmission technique allows multichannel operation in the satellite with access from any location on the earth.
Scrambler: A device that transposes or inverts signals or otherwise encodes a message at the transmitter to
make it unintelligible to a receiver not equipped with an appropriate descrambling device. Synonymous with
encoder.
Server: A computer that can distribute information or files automatically in response to specifically worded
e-mail requests.
Serial Input/Output: Data transmission in which the bits are sent one by one over a single wire.
Shareware: Software that is freely available on the Internet. If you like and use the software, you should
send in the fee requested by the author, whose name and address will be found in a file distributed with the
software.
SIMM - Single In-line Memory Module: Devices used to add memory to computers.
Simplex: A circuit capable of transmission in one direction only. Contrast with half duplex and full duplex.
SLIP - Serial Line Internet Protocol: SLIP is currently a de facto standard, commonly used for point-topoint serial connections running TCP/IP. It is not an Internet standard but is defined in RFC 1055.
SMDS - Switched Multimegabit Data Service: A public network service that will enable customers to
send packets between LANs at either T-1 or T-3 rates. Switched
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol: The Internet standard protocol for transferring electronic mail
messages from one computer to another. SMTP specifies how two mail systems interact and the format of
control messages they exchange to transfer mail. SONET - Synchronous Optical Network: Will offer
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dedicated point-to-point lines via fiber, with bandwidths ranging from 51.84 mbps to over 2gbps. SONET
defines optical interfaces for high speed digital transmission - ranging from 51.84 mbps to more than 2 gbps
in multiples of 51.84 mbps. The purpose of the SONET standard is to guarantee that fiber, and fiber
terminating equipment (e.g. digital loop carrier systems) from different central office vendors, can all
interface with each other. While many trials are currently under way to test the SONET central office
standards, all new fiber deployment is expected to be compliant with this standard.
SS7 - Signaling System 7: Increases both the efficiency of the telcos' interoffice trunking facilities and
their opportunities for revenue generation by enabling networkwide services. With SS7 trunk signaling,
premium services such as ISDN and Custom Local Area Signaling Service can be easily and efficiently
extended across the network.
Star Network: A network configuration in which there is only one path between a central or controlling
node and each end-point node. Supercomputers: The fastest and most powerful computing systems that are
available at any given time.
Switch: Mechanical or solid-state device that opens or closes circuits, changes operating parameters or
selects paths for circuits on a space or time division basis.
Switched Circuit: A circuit that may be temporarily established at the request of one or more stations.
Switched Network: Any network in which switching is present and is used to direct messages from the
sender to the ultimate recipient. Usually switching is accomplished by disconnecting and reconnecting lines
in different configurations in order to set up a continuous pathway between the sender and the recipient.
Switched System: A communications system (such as a telephone system) in which arbitrary pairs or sets of
terminals can be connected together by means of switched communications lines.
Synchronous Communication: Communication which takes place in the same time frame. Examples are
live teleconferences which must be viewed when they are broadcast. If the teleconference is taped and
viewed later, it becomes asynchronous communication-communication which takes place at the convenience
of the end user through the technology of video tape recording.
Synchronous Transmission: Data characters and bits are transmitted at a fixed rate with the transmitter and
receiver synchronized. This eliminates the need for start-stop elements, thus providing greater efficiency.
T1 (DS-1) Channel: High-speed digital data channel/carrier with a bit rate of 1.544 mbps which requires a
bandwidth of approximately 2.1616 MHz to transmit in a television type cable environment. (1.4 x 1.544 =
2.1616); a general term for a digital carrier (DS-1. available for high-volume voice or data traffic; often used
for compressed video teleconferencing networks. Each T1 circuit can accommodate 24 voice channels. A
video codec operating at the T1 rate uses the equivalent of 24 voice channels. A codec operating at 56 or 64
Kbps is operating in the range of one voice channel. A standard video signal digitized at 90 Mbps has
approximately 1400 voice channels. The compressed video signal quality and the cost decreases as the
transmission speed decreases.
TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol: The combination of TCP and IP. The
particular system for transferring information over a computer network that is at the heart of the Internet.: IP
is the network layer protocol for the Internet. It is a packet switching, datagram protocol .
TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access: Form of multiple access where a single carrier is time shared by
many users. Signals from earth stations reaching the satellite consecutively are processed in time segments
without overlapping.
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Telecommunications: Communicating over a distance. Use of wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic
channels to transmit or receive signals for voice, video and data communications.
Telecommuter - telecommuting: Ability to work from home, local office, or from the road because of
equipment. Equipment allows the telecommuting employee to work from anywhere. The equipment includes
a telephone, fax, modem and as the NII is deployed, video.
Teleconference: Electronic communications between two or more groups, or three or more individuals, who
are in separate locations via audio, audiographics, video or computer. Audio teleconference - two-way
communication between two or more groups, or three or more individuals, in separate locations. Video
teleconference - one (or more) uplink and downlink sites. May be fully interactive voice and video, two-way
voice and one-way video; full-motion, compressed, or freeze-frame video.
Telemetry: The science of sensing and measuring information at some remote location and transmitting the
data to a convenient location to be read and recorded.
Telnet: The Internet standard protocol for remote terminal connection service. Allows a user at one site to
interact with a remote time sharing system at another site as if the user's terminal was connected directly to
the remote computer (see "rlogin"). On the Macintosh, NCSA Telnet is the standard.
TI - Terrestrial Interference: TI is normally generated as a result of relatively strong terrestrial microwave
signals overpowering the weak satellite transmissions which are the primary signals of interest at a satellite
earth station.
Time Sharing: Pertaining to the interleaved use of time on a computer system that enables two or more
users to execute computer programs concurrently.
Token Ring: A type of LAN. Examples are IEEE 802.5, ProNET-10/80 and FDDI. The term "token ring" is
often used to denote 802.5Telecommunications Glossary/86
Transponder - Channel - Downlink Frequency: A satellite microwave repeater (receiver and transmitter)
receives the signal from an uplink, amplifies it, down converts the frequency of a received band of signals,
and re-transmits the signal back to earth. Satellites have 12, 24, or more transponders each with the capacity
for one color TV signal and two audio channels. Typically transponder with 24 transponders have twelve
polarized for vertical and twelve for horizontal transmissions in order to optimize the bandwidth of the
satellite and the respective transponders.
Twisted Pair: A pair of wires used in transmission circuits and twisted about one another to minimize
coupling with other circuits. UTP - unshielded twisted pair.
Two-Wire Circuit: A typical telephone circuit on the public switched network; a circuit formed by two
conductors insulated from each other to provide a send and receive channel in the same frequency.
Uplink: An earth station that transmits a radio frequency signal to a communications satellite. The
transmitting facility, or uplink, consists of a large dish-shaped antenna and high-power amplifiers. The
uplink is like the transmitter of a radio or television station, except that it concentrates it signals in one
direction by means of a parabolic dish antenna that delivers a strong pinpoint signal to a specific satellite in
space.
URL - Uniform Resource Locator: A standard for writing a text reference to an arbitrary piece of data in
the WWW. A URL looks like "protocol://host/localinfo" where protocol specifies a protocol to use to fetch
the object (like HTTP or FTP), host specifies the Internet name of the host on which to find it, and local info
is a string (often a file name) passed to the protocol handler on the remote host.
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Virtual Private Network: Use of the public switched telephone system to provide a capability similar to
that of a private network.
Virtual Reality - VR: Loosely defined as putting users into a computer-generated environment, rather than
merely reacting to images on a display screen. Full immersion VR can include a helmet that senses head
movement and changes the view seen through small TV screens mounted in front of each eye along with
gloves that allow users to touch objects in the virtual world
VSAT - Very Small Aperture Terminal: Small earth stations with a satellite dish usually 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to
1.8 meters) in diameter used to receive high speed data transmission; can also transmit slow- speed data. A
VSAT uplink for compressed video a C-Band frequencies is approximately 4.5 meters in diameter for most
satellite applications.
World Wide Web - WWW: The web of systems and the data in them that is the Internet. Presents
information in a user friendly hypertext format. WWW displays pages of information, with links to other
pages. Mosaic is the program that really makes Web materials come alive. Different systems display the
links differently, by highlighting the link items or by putting a code (such as a number in brackets) after the
item. Others put the link in boldface or in color.
WORM - Write Once Read Many: A type of permanent optical storage which allows the user to record
information on a blank optical storage disc. Information may be added until the disc is full, but not erased or
changed.
Workstation: Computers that are generally targeted at technical users, interface over a network easily, often
run UNIX, come standard with more compute power than PCs and are capable of fast graphics. Distinctions
between high-end personal computers and workstations are blurring. For high-end animation work such as
3-D logs, morphing or animated characters, workstations provide the compute power and graphics
performance the animator needs. Workstations are used for computer-generated imagery (often called CGI)
because they take less time than PCs to render images.
X.25: Set of packet-switching standards published by the CCITT. An international standard for control of
data communications between two or more computers or terminals using packet-switching technology.

25

Chapter-3: Technical questions asked in interview:

We can divide our whole syllabus into following parts from interview point of view.
Part-1: Material science, Electronics device circuit, Power electronics
Part-2: Analog electronics, digital electronics and microprocessor
Part-3: Communication system, Electromagnetic theory and Microwave.
Part-4: Signal&system, Network, Control &Instrumentation

Questions asked from Communication System:

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What is meaning of communication?

What is the meaning of Tele communication?
What is the meaning of effective communication?
What is difference between simplex, half duplex and full duplex system?
What codes are used for communication system?
What is meaning of radio frequency used in communication? and what are FCC rule used in
communication?
What are medium wave, short wave and FM wave ? what propagations are used for them?
Why FM propagation cant be used for long distance while AM&SW wave propagation can be used for
long distance?
What is the meaning of modulation and what are its advantages and disadvantages?
What is meaning of order of modulation?
Can you define under modulation and over modulation in Amplitude modulation?
What is the meaning of bandwidth of a signal in terms of time &frequency domain?
How bandwidth is related to speed?
Can you explain envelop detector method for detection of AM?
When Envelop detector is used?
How value of RC is designed in case of envelop detector?
What is diagonal clipping in case of envelop detector?
How diagonal clipping can be removed?
What is the consequence of diagonal clipping on detection?
What is difference between synchronous detection and envelop detection?
How envelop detector is an asynchronous detector?
How DSB-SC has power saving in compare to AM while both has same bandwidth?
How much power is saved in DSB-SC?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of DSB-SC?
Whether DSB-SC is better method for one to many transmission or not?
What is main role of ring modulator?
How carriers are suppressed by ring modulator?
Whether ring modulator is the best method for DSB-SC?
Whether envelop detector can be used for DSB-SC or not ? if yes how and if not why?
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What is the best method for detection of DSB-SC and how that method is the best?
What is Quadrature null effect in DSB-SC?
How will you define attenuation and distortion and what is the difference between both?
Which one is more dangerous attenuation or distortion?
What is Hilbert Transform?
What is physical meaning of Hilbert transform?
How Hilbert and Fourier transform are different?
What are applications of Hilbert transform?
How SSB-SC is different from DSB-SC?
How power is saved in SSB-SC? How B.W is saved in SSB-SC?
Whether SSB-FC is possible? Where it is used?
What are various methods for generation for SSB-SC?
SSB-SC requires minm power and minm bandwidth but still it is not used always why?
Can you explain practical use of SSB-SC?
What are the limitations of SSB-SC?
How SSB-SC is used in FDM? And why SSB-SC is preferred for FDM?
How SSB-SC is used in Basic telephony system?
What are the voice frequency? And why SSB-SC is preferred for Voice communication?
Whether voice frequency or audio frequency are same? If not how they are different?
What is use of VSB-SC and how it is used?
Why SSB-SC is not used in TV?
Compare performances of DSB-FC, DSB-SC, and SSB-FC&SSB-SC in terms of all parameters?
What are the advantages of FM over AM?
What is difference between NBFM and WBFM?
Where NBFM is used and whether envelop detector can be used for detection in NBFM?
Where WBFM is used?
Can u explain VCO method for generation of FM and what are its disadvantages?
How FET reactance modulator is the best direct method for generation of FM?
How Armstrong method is good for FM generation?
Can you explain why frequency multiplier is required in Armstrong method?
What is frequency multiplier circuit? And what are the devices inside it?
What is non linear device inside freqn multiplier and what is band pass filter?
What is the maximum freqn deviation in FM?
What is the maximum freqn in case of FM?
How PLL can be used for detection of FM?
PLL is which type of filter?
Why PLL is the best method for detection of FM?
What is difference between PM&FM and how will you distinguish between FM and PM?
Can you compare FM and PM noise performance?
Which is better PM or FM and why?
What is pulse modulation and what are its disadvantages?
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Whether pulse modulation or digital modulation is same?

What is need of sampling? And what is instantaneous sampling?
What are the limitations of instantaneous sampling?
What is sampling theorem?
What is the condn for sampling?
What is aliasing? What is Nyquist rate?
What is oversampling, under sampling and sampling?
What is natural sampling & flat top sampling?
What is difference between natural&flat sampling?
Which modulation technique is used in FDM? What is the basic concept of FDM? What is the
application of FDM?
What is the use of guard band in case of FDM?
What is the value of bandwidth in case of FDM?
What is the basic concept of PCM?
What is the use of PCM?
Where PCM technology is used?
How PCM technology play a role in digital communication?
Whether PCM technology is used for transmission?
How PCM is digital modulation technique?
How quantizer&encoder works in case of PCM?
What is the use of quantizer and what type of mapping it is?
Quantizer is many to one or many to many mapping and if yes how?
Which type of encoder is used in PCM technology?
What is the value of bandwidth and SNR in case of PCM?
Can you give practical application of PCM?
Can PCM may be used for compression techniques?
How DPCM is different from PCM and what is the advantage of DPCM?
What is the bandwidth in case of DPCM and what about SNR in case of DPCM?
How DM is one bit DPCM?
What type of Noise are present in case of DM?
What is slope over load problem in case of DM?
How this problem can be overcome in case of DM?
What is positive slope overload and negative slope over load problem?
Can you justify how slope overload occurs only at low frequency?
How slope over load is more dangerous?
What is granular noise effect? And what is this problem? Granular noise effect is less dangerous?
What is the shape of output in case of granular noise effect?
Compare slope overload problem and granular noise problem?
Which one is oversampled PCM or DM?
Compare Noise performance of PCM or DM?
Compare bandwidth requirement in DM&PCM?
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What is Matched filter? And where it is used?

Why Matched filter is called matched filter?
How will you calculate matched filter for a rectangular pulse?
What are the advantages of digital communication over analog communication?
What is disadvantage of digital communication?
How MODEM is used in case of digital communication?
What is MODEM and what is the advantage of MODEM?
Why transmission in case of digital communication is analog only?
Why digital transmission is not possible in case of digital communication?
What are the problems with digital transmission in case of long distance?
Can you differentiate role of PCM and Modem in case of Digital communication?
Whether MODEM is used at transmitter and receiver end both? If yes why?
Can you explain PSK Modulation? What is BPSK?
How Bandwidth utilization can be increased in case of QPSK?
If QPSK is faster than BPSK then why we always not prefer QPSK?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of QPSK?
Can you compare constellation diagram of BPSK and QPSK?
What is the relation between bandwidth of BPSK and QPSK?
What is the synchronization problem in detection of BPSK&QPSK?
What is the practical applications of BPSK&QPSK?
Can you compare QPSK, 8ary PSK and 16 ary PSK in terms of bandwidth and speed?
What is FSK? and can you explain its basic concept?
What is MSK and what is basic meaning of MSK?
What is ASK and how it works like OOK?
Can you compare constellation diagram of ASK, PSK, QPSK and FSK?
Can you compare bandwidth of ASK, PSK, QPSK and FSK?
Whether FSK is 3 dB inferior or superior to PSK?
Whether ASK is inferior to PSK and FSK and if by how much amount?
Which is the best method for MODEM and Why?
What is QAM modem and what are its advantages?
Can you explain constellation diagram of QAM and its applications?
Morse code is used in ASK technique? How?
What are different codes used in digital communication technique?
What is the difference between synchronous communication & asynchronous communication?
What are the start and stop bits in case of synchronous communication?
What is the difference between channel capacity and bandwidth?
Whether both channel capacity and bandwidth are same?
What is the meaning of Baud rate in communication system?
What is the difference between bit rate and baud rate in communication system?
What is the baud rate for BPSK and QPSK?
What is ISI and how ISI can be reduced?
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What is Roll-off factor in case of ISI and what is its effect on its bit rate?
What is eye diagram and eye pattern?
What is the use of satellite communication and how it is used?
What is the frequency range of satellite communication? what is the general range of satellite freqn
What are the advantages of satellite communication?
What are the disadvantages of satellite communication?
What is the value of delay in satellite communication? and why there is this delay in satellite?
What is the value of round trip delay in satellite communication?
What bands are used in satellite communication?
Why C-band and Ku-band are preferred in satellite communication?
What is the value of uplink and down link freqn in C-band and Ku-band?
Why uplink freqn is higher than down link in case of satellite ?
Why uplink freqn is lower than down link in case of mobile communication?
Which type of antenna is used in case of satellite communication?
Why 6/4 GHZ system is preferred over 14/12 GHz
In rain attenuation C-Band is preferred why?
In DTH Ku-band transponder is used in satellite communication why?
Why DTH system does not work properly in rain?
What is the bandwidth of satellite communication and how many numbers of channels can be used?
Why bandwidth of C-band and Ku-band satellite remains same?
How frequency reuse concept can be used in satellite communication?
How Solar cell is used in satellite communication?
How solar cell works? and how power may be achieved with solar cell without any biasing?
What is the power source in case of emergency in case of solar cell?
How 3 satellites can cover whole earth except polar region? Why polar region is not covered by 3
satellites?
What is difference between passive and active satellite?
What do you understand by geostationary satellite?
Why this is called geostationary?
What is the height of geostationary satellite?
What is time period and angular velocity of geostationary satellite?
What is the meaning of Geo synchronous satellite?
How it is Geo synchronous with orbit?
What is the height of geosynchronous orbit?
What is time period and angular velocity of geosynchronous satellite?
What is the difference between geostationary and geosynchronous satellite?
Whether both are called communication satellite?
Can you give me name of some communication satellites launched recently?
From where communication satellites are launched?
What are Keplers law in satellite communication?
What is apogee and perigee in satellite communication?
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What is the path of satellite ? elliptical/circular or linear?

What is optical fiber ? and what are its advantages in communication system?
What type of light flow in OFC? Infrared/visible/Ultraviolet?
Generally OFC is secure communication why?
Generally losses are less in case of OFC why?
What is the main advantage of OFC in communication?
Why there is less interference in case of OFC?
What is the basic principle of Optical fiber communication?
How Total-Internal-Reflection play a role in transmission of OFC?
What is skew ray in case of optical fiber?
What are the factors which affect propagation of light in optical fiber?
How composition of fiber and size of fiber affects propagation in fiber?
Can you explain how voice/data or any information is transmitted in optical fiber?
What is light source in OFC and what is light detector used in OFC?
LED/Laser diode which is preferred as light source in OFC?
Photo diode or Avalanche photo diode which one is preferred for photo detection?
What are the advantages of APD over normal diode?
Can you use PIN diode in optical fiber?
What is responsivity in case of photo detector?
What materials are used for Optical fiber?
What is the glass material used in OFC?
Why Plastic core and Glass clad is not used in OFC?
For high speed what is preferred plastic or glass?
What is Numerical aperture in case of OFC?
What is the physical significance of Numerical aperture?
Numerical aperture depends upon what factors?
Whether Numerical aperture depends upon dimension of fiber?

Questions asked from Microwave Engineering:

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What is use of transmission line?

How propagation occurs in case of transmission line?
Propagation in transmission line is TE/TM or TEM?
How information is transmitted in transmission line?
How will you define microwave?
What is the range of frequency in case of microwave?
How will you link microwave with Feet?
Why microwave is called microwave?
Whether VHF&UHF lies in range of microwave?
What is the range of voice frequencies?
What is the range of frequency for Medium wave and short wave?
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Q. What is the range of frequency for FM whether VHF&UHF both lies in FM wave?
Q. Can you arrange Infrared, Ultraviolet, Visible, X-rays and Gama Rays in order of frequency and wave
length?
Q. What are the frequencies of different microwave bands?
Q. What are the frequencies of C-band&Ku-band?
Q. Advantages of Microwave frequency?
Q. How bandwidth is increased in case of microwave frequency?
Q. What about fading effect in case of microwave?
Q. How fading is decreased in case of microwave?
Q. Can you explain lumped elements and distributed elements?
Q. Why lumped elements are used at low frequency?
Q. How power is calculated in case of lumped elements?
Q. Why distributed elements are used at high frequency?
Q. How power is calculated in case of distributed elements?
Q. Can you explain Bolometer method for low microwave power calculation?
Q. How Bolometer works on concept of variable resistance?
Q. How Calorimetric is used for high power measurements?
Q. What is double minima method used for high value of VSWR?
Q. Why double minima method is called double minima?
Q. What is reflectometer and what is the use of it?
Q. How S-Matrix can measure value of power directly?
Q. What is H-Plane Tee Junction and how it works?
Q. What is E-Plane Tee junction and how it works?
Q. How E-plane Tee junction and H-plane Tee junction works like 3 dB splitter?
Q. Whether both E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee are doubling the value of power?
Q. What is the basic difference between E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee?
Q. Why H-plane Tee is called as Current Junction?
Q. Why E-plane Tee is also called as Voltage junction?
Q. Where E-plane Tee or H-Plane Tee are used in Microwave?
Q. What is Magic Tee and why it is called magic Tee?
Q. What are the applications of Magic Tee?
Q. What is the directional coupler? And what is the basic structure of directional coupler?
Q. What is the parameter which decides a directional coupler?
Q. What is gyrator?
Q. What is isolator?
Q. What is circulator? and how it is unsymmetrical device?
Q. What is the effect of transit time at microwave frequency?
Q. What are the problems arise due to transit time effect?
Q. What are the solutions of transit time problem?
Q. How Microwave utilize concept of transit time?
Q. What are the O type tube and how these tubes are linear beam tubes?
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Whether TWT& Klystron are examples of linear beam tube? If yes how?
What are M type tubes and how these are cross field devices?
How Magnetron is an example of M type tube?
Can you compare O type and M type tubes?
Can you explain working of Two Cavity Klystron?
What are the name of 2 cavities in 2cavity klystron?
What are the function of both cavity?
How velocity modulation occurs in buncher cavity?
What is the result of velocity modulation?
How Current modulation occurs in catcher cavity?
What is density modulation in drift space?
What is the meaning of bunching?
How gain is increased due to bunching?
How gain is measured in terms of 2 cavity klystron?
Can you compare Velocity modulation, density modulation and current modulation?
How Oscillations can occur in case of 2 cavity klystron?
Whether 2 cavity klystron is an amplifier or oscillator?
What is the maximum efficiency of 2 cavity klystron amplifier?
What is the general efficiency in case of 2 cavity?
How Length of drift space varies with applied RF voltage?
What is the maximum value of bunching parameter in case of 2 cavity?
What is the need of multi-cavity klystron and what are the distances between 2 cavities in case of multi
cavity?
What is reflex klystron?
How reflex klystron is used? How it is used as low power microwave source?
Reflex klystron is oscillator or amplifier explain?
How many cavities are there in reflex klystron? One or two?
How one cavity can help in oscillations?
Velocity modulation/Current modulation/Drift occurs in which portion of reflex klystron?
Why transit in repeller space of reflex klystron must be n+3/4 ?
Why reflex klystron is preferred over 2 cavity oscillator?
Reflex klystron is known a slow power oscillator how?
What is maximum efficiency in case of 2 reflex klystron?
What is TWT? amplifier or oscillator?
How gain of TWT is higher than 2 cavity klystron?
How interaction between e beam and RF field is continuous in case of TWT?
What is the need of slow wave structure in case of TWT?
How Interaction between e beam and RF field prolongs in case of TWT?
TWT is broad band amplifier how?
How focusing is done in case of TWT?
What is the role of attenuator in case of TWT?
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How oscillations are prevented by use of Attenuator?

TWT is preferred over Klystron due to higher value of gain or due to high value of bandwidth?
Magnetron is a high power oscillator? how?
Where Magnetron is used?
What is the dominant mode in Magnetron?
What is Tunnel diode? How it is highly doped diode?
How tunnel diode is negative resistance device?
What is the order of doping in case of Tunnel diode?
What is the biasing in case of Tunnel diode?
What are the materials used in Tunnel diode?
What is the range of frequency in case of Tunnel diode?
What is the order of output in case of Tunnel diode?
What is the equivalent circuit in case of Tunnel diode?
What are the applications of Tunnel diode?
What is backward diode and how it is linked with Tunnel diode?
Can you call backward diode as highly doped Zener diode?
What is the basic concept of varactor diode?
How Capacitance varies with Rev.bias in case of Varactor diode?
What is the symbol of varactor diode and where it is used?
Whether varactor diode is negative resistance device or not?
How Varactor diode is used for tuning?
How varactor diode is used in parametric amplifier?
Whether varactor can be used as amplifier or oscillator?
What is the equivalent circuit of varactor diode?
What is step recovery diode? Why it is called as Snap-off varactor?
Step recovery works in F.bias or R.bias?
What is difference between varactor and step recovery in terms of applications?
Can you explain Metal Semiconductor diode? is it same as Schottkey diode?
What are the materials used in case of Schottky barrier diode?
What type of biasing is used in Schottky barrier diode?
Is there any depletion layer in Schottky diode?
Why Schottky diode is called Hot carrier diode
What is the difference between Schottky and Normal diode?
Why cut-in voltage is less in Schottky and why reverse current is high in compare to normal diode?
Why Schottky diodes are used for fast switching?
Whether schottky diode is active or passive device?
Can you explain PIN diode?
Why PIN diode is PIN diode?
Can you explain doping of P,I &N regions?
How PIN diode is used as Microwave switch?
Why SI material is used for fabrication of PIN diode?
34

Q.
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What is Gunn diode?

Gunn diode is negative resistance device? If yes how?
Why Gunn diode is used for amplification&oscillation?
For Gunn diode only direct band gap is used?
Why Gunn diode are called as TED?
What is TED?
Can you explain 2 valley model in Gunn diode?
Why 2 valleys are used in Gunn diode?
How domains are formed in Gunn diode?

Questions asked from EDC and Power Electronics :

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Why silicon is preferred material for semiconductor? why not others?

Why Carbon cant be used as Semiconductor it is also from 4th group?
What is concept of hole and did they exist?
Does hole physically exist?
How will u define mobility?
Why electron mobility is always higher than holes?
What is concept of effective mass?
At what factor effective mass depends?
What are the disadvantages of Ge as a semiconductor material?
How silicon helps in fabrication?
What is use of SiO2 in case of fabrication?
What is use of Al in case of fabrication?
What are basic steps of fabrication?
If we want a high speed diode will be prefer Si only?
What is value of intrinsic concentration (ni) in case of silicon and Ge at room temperature? And how
they changes with temperature?
How conductivity varies with temp for semiconductor and metal and why?
Why in a SC conductivity increases with temp and not in metal?
How extrinsic semiconductor are more conductive than intrinsic S.C explain?
What is effect of temperature on extrinsic SC
What are super conductors?
What is ideal behavior of a super conductor?
Why their conductivity is very high?
What are applications of super conductor?
Give some example of super conductors?
What is BCS theory for super conductor?
How N-type SC and P type SC forms?
What is effect on doping if temp is increased in case of N type and P-type?
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What are direct and indirect band gap SC and their application?
Explain direct band gap and indirect band gap SC
What are applications of direct and indirect band gap SC?
What are degenerate semiconductor? And where they are used?
What is advantage of degenerate SC in tunnel diode
What is the position of Fermi level in degenerate SC
What happens on position of Fermi level if doping is increased)
How will you define Fermi level?
Fermi level is probability of what?
Where is Fermi level in case of N-type &P type?
What is Fermi level at absolute temperature?
Where is Fermi level for metals?
What are laws other than Fermi-Dirac distribution?
What is Hall effect? and its application?
Discuss Hall effect for metal, SC&Insulator?
For Intrinsic SC Hall coeff is ve why?
For extrinsic hall coeff will be?
Can u tell difference between drift and diffusion current?
Which current plays a major role in current of diode and how?
What is ohms law for semiconductor?
What is concept of drift current? And how it can be increased?
Can u explain reverse current in diode and how it varies with reverse voltage?
Explain concept of photo diode and how it is different form solar cell?
Explain working of solar cell?
What are photo detector and give some example of it?
What is LED and how it works? How it different form LASER?
Where LED is used? How it is used in Optical fiber?
Can u explain concept Of Optical fiber?
What is opto-isolator in case of OFC?
Which light is used in case of OFC?
What is Total Internal reflection in OFC?
What is difference between Pin diode and APD? Which one is used where?
What is working of APD?
What is working of PIN diode?
What is break down in zener diode?
What is avalanche multiplication in zener diode? And what is tunneling?
What is basic difference between 2 mechanisms?
Which one is used for high doping and which one is used for low doping?
What is effect of temp in case of avalanche breakdown in zener diode?
Why voltage increases if temp is increased in avalanche breakdown in zener diode?
Can u explain Zener as a constant voltage regulator?
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How zener diode can be used in DC power supply?

What are the basic blocks of Power supply?
What is the ripple used in a filter?
Can u compare HWR and FWR on basis of ripple frequency? And which one is better?
Which type of transformer is used in power supply and why?
What is use of bleeder resistor in case of power supply?
What is Form Factor and what is its significance?
What is voltage regulation for a power supply?
Can u differentiate between clipper and clamper?
Is clipper same as Rectifier followed by clamper?
What is voltage doubler /Tripler etc?
How forward voltage in a diode changes with temp?
Is it same for both Ge and Si?
Why this value is negative?
What is ideality factor in case of diode why this 1 for Ge and 2 for Si?
Why reverse current change with voltage in case of Si but not in case of Ge.
How will u define rectifier and what is its use?
What is reverse recovery diode in case of diode used as a switch?
How transistor work as an amplifier?
Why there is 180 degree phase shift in case of CE mode and not in case of CB and CC?
What is physical meaning of Beta in case of transistor?
Why base width is narrow and doping light in case of transistor?
For high speed transistor what will u do with base doping?
What is transit time in case of transistor?
What are use of CE CC and CB mode?
Why CE as an amplifier?
Why CC for impedance matching? And how it is used there?
How CB is used as constant current source?
What is early effect in case of transistor?
What is punch through?
How breakdown occurs before punch through in a transistor?
What are advantage of FET over BJT?
What are disadvantage of FET over BJT?
Why FET is more temp stable than BJT?
Why FET is less noisy than BJT?
Why FET has high impedance than BJT?
Is fabrication easy in case of FET?
Compare gain bandwidth product b/w FET&BJT?
Why BJT as a switch has higher speed than FET?
How and when FET is used as Voltage variable Resistor?
How FET is used as an amplifier in saturation region?
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Can u explain saturation and active region in FET?

What is difference between FET&MOSFET?
Why MOSFET has high impedance than FET? And what is its order?
Can u draw ac model of a transistor?
How can u draw h-parameter model with the help of ac model?
Why h-parameter is called hybrid parameter?
Explain variation of different h parameters with respect to temperature?
Compare Input impedance, output impedance, voltage gain and current gain for CE CC and CB mode.
Why CC is used as impedance matching?
What is cascade and Cascode combination?
Why Gain Band width product of Cascode is higher?
How Band width is increased in Cascode?
What are advantages of Cascode configuration?
Can you give some examples of constant current sources?
How Zener diode can be used in constant current source?
How SCR works?
Compare power diode and power BJT?
Explain latching and holding current in SCR?
What is the application of SCR?
What is dv/dt and di/dt effect in case of SCR?
How dv/dt and di/dt can be avoided?

Questions asked from Analog &Digital electronics:

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Why analog is called analog?

What is difference between analog and digital?
How will u calculate voltage amplification of BJT?
Can u draw frequency response of BJT?
Can u explain every part of frequency response?
What are low frequency region mid band frequency region and high frequency region?
Why gain decreases in low frequency and high frequency?
Why gain remains constant in mid band frequency region?
What are the role of coupling capacitor by pass capacitor and blocking capacitor in BJT amplifier?
Which one of the following capacitor determines lower cut-off?
Why gain decreases in high frequency region?
What is parasitic capacitance in BJT amplifier?
What are the capacitances available in parasitic capacitance?
What happens to lower cut-off and higher-cut off in case of multistage amplifier?
Please draw RC high pass filter?
What happens when a step is given as input to it?
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When it works like a differentiator?

Do values of R&C decide is it differentiator or not?
What is the condition for RC high pass as a differentiator circuit?
What is the output of RC differentiator if square wave is given as input?
Same questions can be asked for RC low pass which is an integrator?
What is tilt in case of High pass filter?
How will u define rise time in case of RC LPF?
Can u draw model of a transistor?
What new changes occurs when a transistor is operated at high frequency?
What is base spreading resistance?
Why base spreading resistance occurs?
Why junction capacitance occurs at high frequency in case of BJT?
What are various junction/parasitic capacitance in case of BJT?
Which capacitance is dominated for calculation of higher cut-off?
Why h-parameter cant be used for power amplifier?
Can u explain concept of oscillator?
Is it same for sinusoidal &triangular wave generator?
What concept is used for sinusoidal generator?
What concept is used for triangular wave generator?
How RC phase shift oscillators used for sinusoidal wave generator?
What are the ranges of RC phase shift oscillator?
What is concept of offset nonlinearity in case of RC phase shift?
Can it be made by FET only or BJT also is used?
What is difference between RC phase shift by use of BJT&FET.
Why RC BJT oscillator uses voltage shunt feed back while RC phase shift FET uses voltage series
explain?
What factors change frequency of oscillation in both cases?
What is concept of wein bridge oscillator and where it is used?
What are audio frequency and radio frequency oscillator?
Do both have same concept?
What is basic concept of radio frequency oscillator?
What elements are used for radio frequency oscillator?
Is Radio frequency oscillator and Crystal oscillator same?
How relaxation oscillators are used for triangular wave generator?
What is basic concept of relaxation oscillator?
What are Bistable, Monostable &Astable multi-vibrator?
How will u decide which one is bistable, monostable&astable.
What is stable stable&which is quasi stable state?
What is difference between stable state& quasi stable state?
How will u use Bistable as a Flip-flop?
How will u use mono stable as Pulse width modulator?
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How astable is used as voltage to frequency convertor?

How astable works as it has 2 quasi stable states?
What is Schmitt trigger?
How it is different from astable muti-vibrator?
Can u draw input and output for Schmitt Trigger?
Show UTP&LTP in terms of input and output?
Which mutivibrator is used for clock generation?
What are the advantages of negative feedback?
Compare negative feedback and positive feedback in terms of stability?
Why negative feed-back are stabilized while positive feedback are unstable?
How negative feedback improves stability?
When one uses negative feedback and when positive feedback?
What are DC amplifiers? And what are their applications?
What is the problem with DC amplifiers?
What is the drift problem in case of DC amplifier?
How Differential amplifier can remove this problem?
Explain working of differential amplifiers?
What are different modes in differential amplifier?
What are differential mode and common mode in case of differential amplifier?
What is CMRR and what is physical significance of it?
Is CMRR link with noise rejection? What is meaning of infinite value of CMRR?
Where differential amplifiers are used and what is its use in case of OPAMP?
How will u define digital?
Is digital& binary are same?
What is difference between digital&discrete or both are same?
Are analog &continuous same?
How will u define continuous&analog?
What is difference between both continuous and analog?
What is meaning of universal gate?
Can MUX be used as a universal gate?
For (n) variable function implementation what should be size of MUX
What is difference between MUX and encoder?
What are encoder?
Can u tell one application of encoder?
What is decoder and how it is different from encoder?
What is priority encoder?
Where this priority encoder can be used?
How will u implement higher order decoder/MUX by lower order?
How will u implement 8x1Mux by use of 4X1 MUX?
How will u define select lines in case of MUX?
Can u design a Full adder with half adder only?
40

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What is difference between combination circuit and sequential circuit?

What are the advantages of sequential circuits in digital?
Is feedback digital circuits same as sequential?
What are the basic applications of sequential circuits?
How sequential circuits used as a memory elements?
Are sequential same as Latch?
What is difference between latch and flip-flop?
What is basic use of latch?
What are transparent latch?
Can we differentiate latch and flip flop based upon triggering of clock?
In microprocessor how a latch is used?
What is difference between level triggering and edge triggering?
What is basic problem with level triggering?
How above problem can be removed by use of edge triggering?
What are set up time and hold up time? And what are their values and their significance?
What is their significance in case of level triggering and edge triggering?
What is Meta stability problem in case of flip-flop?
Is it linked with setup time and hold up time?
How Meta stability can be removed?
What is race around condition?
Why does it occur?
Does it occur in case of both level and edge triggering?
How one can remove race around condition?
What is master slave flip-flop?
How does it remove race around condition?
Can u explain working of Master Slave FF?
Can u design MOD-10 counter by use of 4 FFs and NOR gate?
In place of NOR gate can we use AND gate?
Why we will use only NAND and OR gate in above case?
For ripple counter can we use D FF or S FFS?
Why only T&JK FFs are used?
What are special feature of JK and T FF.
Does triggering affects MOD of ripple counter?
What is basic problem with ripple counter?
Can u explain glitch problem in ripple counter?
How this glitch problem can be removed in ripple counter?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of synchronous over ripple?
How will u design a synchronous binary counter?
What components are required for design of MOD-16 synchronous counter?

Questions asked from Electronics measurement

41

1. What is measurement ? and what is instrument ?

2. Essential characteristics of electrical measurement ?
3. What is absolute instrument ?
4. Is there any relative instrument ?
5. Give example of absolute instrument ?
6. What is secondary instrument ?
7. Use of secondary instrument ?
8. Difference between analog and digital instrument ?
9. Difference between deflecting instrument and null deflecting instrument?
10. How defecting instrument are less accurate?
11. Why Null deflecting instrument are more accurate?
12. Example of null deflecting instrument ?
13. Ammeter and Voltmeter are which type of instrument ?
14. AC&DC bridge are under category of which type of instrument ?
15. What is the basis for classification of errors?
16. What is gross error?
17. If pointer of an indicating instrument moves away from the origin then what are absolute limiting error
and relative limiting error?
18. What are essentials of indicating instrument ?
19. What are various torque required for indicating instrument ?
20. What is main function of deflecting torque
21. What is the main function of controlling torque ?
22. Discuss gravity control and spring control mechanism?
23. Which control mechanism has uniform scale?
24. Spring control mechanism is used for which type of instrument ?
25. Gravity control mechanism is used for which type of instrument ?
26. What is the use of damping torque ?
27. What should be approximate value of damping factor for indicating instrument ?
28. What are various types of damping mechanism used for an instrument ?
29. Difference between eddy current damping and air current damping ?
30. PMMC uses which type of damping and what type of damping it uses?
31. Why PMMC uses eddy current damping?
32. PMMC works on which effect?
33. PMMC has uniform or non uniform scale ?
34. What is use of spring control mechanism in PMMC?
35. Why Al former is used in PMMC?
36. Why no need of magnetic shielding in PMMC?
37. Why PMMC cant be used for AC and only for DC?
38. What is swamping resistor in PMMC?
42

39. Electrostatic type instruments used for ?

40. Hot wire instrument works on which effect? and used for ?
41. Energy meter is which type of instrument ?
42. What is sensitivity of voltmeter?
43. What is difference between attraction and repulsion type moving iron instrument ?
44. What damping and control mechanism is used for both? Whether these same or different ?
45. Whether both have uniform or non uniform scale?
46. What is basic principle of electrodynamometer ?
47. How electrodynamometer is used as transfer instrument ?
48. What are various applications of electro dynamometer
49. Power factor meter works on which principle ?
50. Why there is no need of controlling torque in case of power factor meter?
51. How Ac power is calculated by electrodynamometer ?
52. What are various methods for measuring low, medium and high resistance?
53. Advantages of digital instrument over analog instrument ?
54. What is transducer ?
55. Difference between primary and secondary transducer?
56. Difference between active and passive transducer?
57. Example of active transducer ?
58. Example of Variable R transducer ?
59. Example of variable L transducer ?
60. Example of variable C transducer ?
61. What is basic concept of LVDT?
62. Use of LVDT?
63. In LVDT is core made up of ?
64. Temperature effect can be reduced in LVDT how ?
65. What is use of capacitive transducer?
66. Basic concept of piezo electric transducer ?
67. Compare thermocouple and thermistor?
68. Thermistor is made up of ?
69. Use of semiconductor strain gauge?
70. What is use of Lissajous pattern?
71. What is Time base circuit?
72. Time base circuit used in CRO?
73. Use of sampling oscilloscope ?
74. Use of storage oscilloscope?
75. Which focusing method is used in CRO?
76. What is use of aquadag in CRO
77. What is graticules in CRO
78. What is use of tacho meter ?
79. Difference between LED and LCD?
43

80. Why no power is consumed in potentiometer ?

81. Wein bridge is used at which frequency?
82. What is use of Wagner earthing device?
83. Q meter works on which principle ?
84. Spectrum analyzer is used for ?
85. What is use of vector voltmeter ?
86. What is phantom loading ?
87. What is creeping in energy meter?
88. How creeping is solved in energy meter?
89. Why high power consumption in hot wire instrument ?
90. What is frequency range of electrodynamometer?
91. Attraction type Moving iron is more accurate than repulsion type why?
92. Moving iron instrument is not used in DC ?
93. What is basic principle of Megger?
94. Why power consumption is low in PMMC?
95. What is CRDX
96. How damping can be achieved in Darsonval instrument ?
97. Bifilar winding ?
98. What are various type of errors in wheat stone bridge ?
99. What is significance of torque/weight ratio
100. What is IEEE4888?

44

Chapter-4: Important study material for technical part:

Study material for Electronics device and Analog

Semiconductor diodes:
PN Junction:
If donor impurities are introduced into one side and acceptors into other side of a single crystal of a
semiconductor then P-N Junction is formed. Here donor ion is represented by a plus sign because after this
process impurity atom donates an electron& it becomes a positive ion. Here acceptor ion is indicated by a
minus sign because after this process atom accepts an electron& it becomes a negative ion.
Donorions

Acceptor
ions

Electrons

Hole

P-Type

N-Type

The uncircled charges on each side of junction represents the free carriers ie. plus sign on the p-side
represents free holes and minus sign on the n-side represents free electrons. The charges shown in circles
represent ionized impurities which cannot move
Formation of depletion layer:
Due to density gradient across the junction holes will diffuse to right across the junction and electrons to
left. Positive holes which diffuse across the junction will disappear as a result of recombination with
electrons. Similarly electrons will also recombine with holes after crossing the boundary.
The un-neutralized ions in the neighborhood of the junctions are referred as uncovered charges.
Since the region of junction is depleted of mobile charges it is called depletion region, the space charge
region or transition region.
Thickness of this region is of the order of visible light (0.5 m). within this very narrow space charge layers
there are no mobile carriers. when a sufficient number of donar & acceptor are uncovered then further
diffusion is stopped. It is because a barrier is setup against further movement of charge carriers. This is
called potential barrier or junction barrier. The potential barrier is of the order of 0.1 0.3 volt.
Depletion region:
P Type

N Type

Concentration of
acceptors

Concentration of holes

VB

x1

x2

45

The region across P-N junction in which potential changes from positive to negative is called depletion
region. The width of region is of the order of 108 meter. Since this region has immobile ions which are
electrically charged and it is called as space charge region.
This potential barrier discourages the diffusion of majority carrier across junction, but this potential barrier
helps minority carriers to drift across the junction.
Open circuited P-N junction:
No electric current can flow because no electric field is applied, and circuit is open circuited
P-Type
qv0
N-Type

Both P type and N type samples are at different positions with respect to band edges. But for thermal
equilibrium Fermi-level must be at same level.
When a P-N junction is formed Fermi level in N-Type is at higher level than in P-Type. Due to this
difference electrons will flow from material which has a higher Fermi-level to a material which has lower
Fermi-level until they attain a common level.
Conduction band of P-Type is shifted upward by qV0 over conduction band of N-Type. Where V0 is the
potential barrier developed across the junction.
Q. Although a potential barrier V0 exists at the P-N junction a voltmeter connected across P-N
junction will not read this why?
The reason is as follows:
If this is possible then let us assume that a current flows due to barrier voltage in a short circuit P-N Junction
diode. This current will heat the connecting metal wire. Since there is no external source of energy the
heating of wire must take place with a simultaneous cooling of P-N Junction diode. But under thermal
equilibrium this situation cant exist. Hence we conclude that current through the circuit is zero. This means
that barrier voltage must be balanced by metal to Semiconductor contact potentials at the ends of diode. A
voltmeter connected to terminals of diode shows zero voltage readings.
Application of voltage across a P-N junction:

V0

There are no free or mobile charge carriers in depletion layer. But it contains only immobile positive and
negative ions. A barrier potential is developed across depletion layer represented by symbol V0. The value of
V0 for Ge is 0.3 volt and value for Si is 0.7 volt. It has been observed that there is no diffusion of electrons
or holes across the junction due to barrier potential, unless an external field is established across the P-N
junction.
46

Forward biased P-N junction diode:

When an external voltage is applied to P-N junction in such a direction that it cancels the potential barrier
and permits the current flow is called as forward bias.
To apply a forward bias positive terminal of a battery is connected to P-type Semiconductor while negative
terminal is connected to N-Type Semiconductor. The applied forward potential establishes an electric field
opposite to potential barrier. Potential barrier is very small (0.3V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si) therefore a small
forward voltage is sufficient to eliminate the barrier. At same forward voltage the potential barrier at P-N
junction can be eliminated altogether then the junction resistance will become almost zero and a low
resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Thus a large current is generated in circuit even for small
potential applied. Such a circuit is called Forward bias circuit and current is called Forward bias current.
Current flow in forward biasing:
P

Free electon
flow
V0-V

In case of Forward bias the holes from p type S.C. are repelled by positive battery terminal towards the
junction and simultaneously the es in N-Type are repelled by negative battery terminal towards the junction.
when the electron hole combination takes place near the junction a covalent bond near the positive terminal
of battery breaks down. This causes liberation of an electron which enters the positive terminal. This action
creates a new hole which move towards the junction. For each electron in N-region that combines with a
hole from P-region an electron enters the crystal from negative terminal. The constant movement of
electrons towards the positive terminal and holes toward the negative terminal produces a high forward
current. As the applied voltage is further increased the electrons and holes having lower energy will be able
to cross the potential barrier and current will increase further.
I

Reverse biased P-N junction diode:

When an external voltage is applied to P-N junction in such a direction that it increases the potential barrier
then it is called Reverse bias. For Reverse bias positive terminals of battery is connected to N-Type and
negative terminal is connected to P-type.
This applied Reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in same direction of potential barrier.
Therefore the resultant field is strengthened and barrier height is increased. Thus a high resistance path is
established for the entire circuit and current does not flow through the junction i.e. effect of reverse bias is to
() potential barrier and allows a very little current to flow.

47

When junction is reverse biased then es in N-Type S.C. and holes in P-type S.C. are attracted away from
junction under the action of applied voltage. Since there is no recombination of electron-hole pairs thus
current is negligibly small ie. junction has a high resistance.
P

V0-V

Conclusion: we conclude that when a P-N, junction is Forward biased it has a low resistance path and hence
current flows in circuit. On the other hand when it is Reverse biased it has high resistance path and no
current flows in circuit.
Thus P-N junction diode is a one way device which offers a low resistance when forward biased and
behaves like an insulator when reverse biased. So it can be used as a rectifier.
VI characteristic of P-N junction:
P

V
R

mA
Rh

VBR

Forward
current

Voltmeter and milli-ammeters are connected to record the values of voltage and current respectively.
VI Characteristic in PN junction:
when applied voltage is zero no current flows through the circuit but as applied voltage is increased by
adjusting the potential divider Rh a small current flows in circuit. Once voltage is increased then resistance
of PN junction reduces and voltage increases sharply.

Forward voltage

V 0.3V for Ge
0.7V for Si
48

In case of Rev. bias current is due to flow of minority carriers. If voltage is further increased in reverse
direction then reverse current does not increase. At the breakdown of junction, value of current increases
abruptly.
Diode equation for VI characteristic:
So

I I0

I0 is independent of Reverse bias voltage. In case of forward bias total current is sum of current caused by
holes entering N region and current caused by electrons entering free region.
Variation of Reverse current with Temp :
D p pn 0 Dn n p 0
I 0 Aq

Ln
Lp

For N-Type pn 0

ni 2
n2
& np 0 i
ND
NA

E
G
Dp
Dn 2
2
3
KT
So I 0 Aq
But ni AoT e

ni
LP N D Ln N A
For Ge and Si Dp & Dn vary inversely to temp.

So
I0 T2 e G
In above discussion effect of carrier generation and recombination has been ignored. This is valid for Ge but
not for Si.
From above discussion it is clear that I0 becomes double for every 10C rise in temperature.
T T
I 0 (T2 ) I 0 (T1 ) 2 2 1
10
Effect of Temp on P-N junction diode:
E / KT

I0 K T

VG 0

VT

For Ge: = 1 m = 2,

VG0 = 0.785 V

For Si: = 2 m 1.5, VG0 1.21V

dV
2.1 mv / C for Ge
dT
2.3 mv C for Si

But in general it can be assumed that

dV
2.5 mV / C for both Ge and Si.
dT
Diode Resistance:
1. Static resistance / DC resistance:
Static resistance of a diode is defined as ratio V/I of the voltage to current. Static resistance R is equal to
reciprocal of slope of a line joining Q pt. to origin.
Typical values are VF = 0.8 volt at IF = 10 mA corresponds to RF = 80. IR = 10 A at VR 50 V & Rv = 500
M.
49

The application of DC voltage to a circuit containing a S.C. diode will result in an operating point on
characteristic curve which will not change with time. DC resistance of diode is independent of shape of
characteristics in region surrounding point of interest.
ID(mA)
ID

VD

V
RD D
ID

VD

2. Dynamic resistance or AC resistance:

For small signal operation dynamic or incremental resistance is an important parameter and is defined as
reciprocal of slope of voltage-ampere characteristics. Dynamic resistance is not constant but depends upon
operating voltage.
Different junction in diode:
1. Step graded junction:
Consider a junction in which there is an abrupt charge from acceptor ions on one side to donor side on other
side. Such a junction is formed experimentally for example by placing a Indium which is trivalent against
N-Type Ge and heating combination to a high temperature for a short time.
ND

xn
0

xp

NA

For step graded junction

NA >> ND
q N D w2
w V j1/2
2
2. Linearly graded junction:
It is obtained by drawing a single crystal from a melt of Ge whose type is changed during drawing process
by adding first P-Type and then N-type impurities.

Vj =

Charge density

x=0

Here total width of space charge layer w is w V j

Different type of capacitances in P-N Jn diode:

1. Space charge or Transition capacitance:
50

When a P-N junction is reverse biased then depletion region acts like an insulator or dielectric material
while P and N regions on either side have low resistance and acts as the plate. So this P-N junction in Rev.
bias may be regarded as a parallel plate capacitor if A is area of parallel plate capacitor and w is width of
depletion layer then
Varactor Diode:
Voltage Variable capacitances are called Varactors. Varicaps or Voltcaps. A circuit model for a Varactor
diode under reverse bias is shown
R

CT

RS

Rs Body / ohmic resistance of diode Typical values of CT and RS are 20 pF and 8.5 respectively at a
reverse bias of 4v. The value of R is large (> 1M).
2. Diffusion or storage capacitance (CD):
When forward biased P-N junction is applied then potential barrier is reduced and then majority carriers
diffuse away from the junction and progressively recombine. The density of carriers is high near the junction
and decays exponentially with distance so that a charge is stored on both side of junction when a forward
bias voltage is applied. It is clear that amount of charge stored varies with applied potential as for a true
capacitor so origin of diffusion capacitance lies in injected charge stored near the junction outside the
transition region. So rate of change of injected charge with voltage called diffusion capacitance or storage
capacitance.
Junction diode switching time:

In a given P-N junction diode when external voltage is suddenly reversed in a diode circuit which has been
carrying current in forward direction the diode current will not immediately fall to its steady state reverse
voltage value until injected or excess minority carrier density pn pn0 has dropped normally to zero the
diode will continue to conduct easily and current will be determined by the external resistance in diode
circuit. Value of trr is generally of the order of 400 n sec.
51

Opto electronics:
1. Bulk type photo conductors:
If energy of photon is greater than energy gap of semiconductor then covalent bonds of SC will be broken
and new EHPs are created which will increase conductivity of semiconductor. This effect is known as
Photoconductive effect.
Due to increase in conductivity resistivity will decrease i.e. resistance will decrease hence device is called
photo resistor or photo conductor. Photo conductive cell is a device in form of either a slab of a
Semiconductor in bulk form or a thin film of semiconductor deposited on an insulating substrate with ohmic
contacts at opposite ends.
R

Examples of photo conductive cells are Cds, Cdse ,PbS&Tls.The most popularly used photo conductive cell
in visible spectrum is Cds cell. In case of Cds in absolute darkness resistance is as high as 2 M but in
strong incident light it has resistance as small as 10 .
Cds photo conductive cells has merits:
1. High dissipation capability
2. Excellent sensitivity in visible spectrum
3. Low resistance when irradiated by light.
Application of photo conductive cells:
1. To measure the intensity of light
2. As a voltage regulator
3. To record modulated light intensity
4. Used in counting applications
2. Junction type photo conductors:
(a) P-N Photo diodes
(b) Solar cells
(c) PIN Photo diodes
(d) Avalanche Photo diodes
(e) NPN transistors
(a) P-N Photodiodes:
A P-N photo diode is essentially a reverse biased P-N Junction diode in which light is permitted on one
surface of junction. This device consists of a P-N junction embedded in clear plastic as indicated in figure.
Radiation is allowed to fall upon one surface across the junction. The remaining sides of plastics are either
Clear Plastic
painted black or enclosed in a metallic case.

Radiation
(Photo - diode)

52

V-I characteristics of Photo diode:

If reverse voltage in excess of a few tenth of a volt are applied then a reverse current independent of
magnitude of reverse voltage is obtained. This dark current corresponds to reverse current due to thermally
generated minority carriers. If light falls upon surface additional EHPs are created proportional to number of
Incident photons .So here Total current Itotal is given by Itotal=Io+Is where Is is the short circuit current
proportional to light intensity.
Typical V-I characteristics of photo diode are shown in figure:

40

30

20

10

100
300
400

The curves dont pass through origin (with the exception of dark current curve).
Note: Radiation must be focused near the junction. If radiation is focused into a small spot away from the
junction the injected minority carrier can recombine before diffusing the junction and hence a much
smaller current will result.
Application of photo diode:
1. High speed reading of computer punch cards and tapes
2. Light detection system
3. Reading of film sound track
4. Light operated switches
5. Switching
6. Optical communication
Photo voltaic potential:
In case of Photo diode if forward bias is applied then potential barrier is lowered and majority current
increase. When majority current equals to minority current then this total current is reduced to zero.
The voltage at which zero current is obtained is called the photo voltaic potential.
When light falls on the P-N junction diode then reverse current increases and forward current also increases
to make total current equal to zero. This photo voltaic potential is of the order of magnitude of 0.5 volt for
silicon and 0.1 volt for Ge.
In open circuited condition for I=0 then photo voltaic voltage is generated and voltage is Vmax

I
Vmax VT ln 1 s
Io
intensity of light.

Since

Is
>>1 so Vmax increases logarithmically with Is. Here Is changes with
Io

53

Solar energy converters:

It is clear that a definite non zero current is obtained for zero applied voltage. Hence a junction photo cell
may be used under short circuited conditions. As here Is is proportional to light intensity. The current drain
from a photo voltaic cell may be used to power electronic equipment or more commonly to charge auxiliary
storage batteries. Such energy converters using sun light as primary energy are called solar batteries and are
used in solar cells.
(b)Solar cell:
The solar cell is basically a P-N junction diode that converts sunlight directly to electrically with large
conversion efficiency. The action of solar cell is explained as follows:
When a P-N junction diode is exposed to light photons are absorbed and EHPs are generated in both P&N
side of junction. The electrons move to N side and holes move to P side.
When the P-N junction diode is open circuited the accumulation of electrons and holes on two side of
junction give rise to an open circuited voltage Vo .If a load resistance is connected across the diode a current
will flow in circuit. The maximum current called short circuited current is obtained when an electric short is
connected across the diode terminals. Note that current flows as long as the diode is exposed to sun light and
magnitude of current is proportional to light intensity.
Solar cells are used extensively in satellite and space vehicle as most important long duration power supply.
Solar cells are constructed with Silicon, Gallium arsenide, Cadmium sulphide and with many other
semiconductors.

(c) PIN Photo diode:

An intrinsic silicon layer is inserted between heavily doped P and N type silicon materials. The intrinsic
silicon reduces the transit time of photo induced electron hole pairs. The reason is that carriers generated by
light photons incident on middle of this layer have less distance to travel than if generated at one side or the
other of the layer. The response time of PIN photo diode is ultra fast with a switching speed of nano-second.
So PIN phto diodes are used in ultra fast switching and logic circuits.

(d) Avalanche Photo diode:

When photo diode is operated in break down region then this diode is Avalanche Photo Diode (APD).
Current sensitivity is increased by 30-100 times in case of APD. These diodes are operated at high reverse
bias voltage so that break down of diode takes place. Main advantage of APD is its high sensitivity.
54

(e) Photo transistors:

The photo transistor is a junction transistor with collector base junction exposed to light. It is similar to
photo diode but has a sensitivity gain of 50 to 100 times more. Generally NPN transistors are used to its
increased gain and greater sensitivity.
Light Emitting Diode (LED):
Metal
Contact

Anode

Metal Contact
Cathode

It is a forward biased P-N junction diode .In this case holes move from P side to N side and electrons from
N side to P side due to diffusion process. When electrons from N side cross the junction then they recombine
with holes on the P side. When holes from P side cross the junction then they recombine with electrons on
the N side. In case of Si and Ge this recombination takes place through traps and liberated energy goes into
crystal as a heat. But in semiconductors like GaAs there is considerable amount of direct recombination
without the aid of traps.
Under such circumstances the energy released when electron falls from CB into VB appears in form of
radiation. Such a PN diode is called Light Emitting Diode. The efficiency of the process of light generation
increases with the injected current and with a decrease in temperature. GaAs emits light in Infra-red region.
GaP& GaAsP emits light in visible region.
Advantages of LED:
1. Low working voltage &current
2. Less power consumption
3. Very fast action
4. Small size and weight
5. Long life
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):
LCD has the distinct advantage of having a low power requirement than LED. It is typically of the order of
Microwatt for display as compared to same order of mill watts for LEDs. It however require an external or
internal light source and is limited to a temperature range of about 00C to 600C.Life time is an area of
concern because LCD can chemically degrade. LCD are much slower than LED.LCD typically have
response times in range of 100-300 m-sec. while LED are available with response time slower below 100
nsec. There is greater range of color choice in case of LCD.
Rectifier converts AC in pulsating DC. A diode rectifier forms an essential building block of DC power
supplies required to power electronic equipment. As indicated the power supply is fed from 120V (rms)
60HZ ac line and it delivers a DC voltage V0(usually in range of 5-20 Volt) to an electronic circuit
represented by the load block.

55

Rectifier &Filter:
Block diagram of a power supply:

Transformer

Rectifier

IC
Regulator

Filter

Load

1. Power transformer: It consists of two separate coils wound around an iron core that magnetically
couples the two windings. The primary winding having N1 turns is connected to 120 V ac supply and
the secondary winding having N2 turns is connected to circuit of DC power supply.
In addition to providing the appropriate sinusoidal amplitude for the DC power supply the power
transformer provides the electrical isolation between electronic equipment and the power line circuit.
This isolation minimizes the risk of electric shock to the equipment user.
2. Rectifier: The diode rectifier converts the input sinusoid to a unipolar output which can have
pulsating waveform. But this waveform has a non zero average or DC Component. Its pulsating
nature makes it unsuitable as a DC source for electronic circuit hence there is no need of filter.
3. Filter: The output of the rectifier filter is much more constant than without the filter but it still
contains a time dependent component known as ripple.
4. Voltage regulator: To reduce the ripple and to stabilize the magnitude of DC a voltage regulator is
employed against variations caused by changes in load current.
Summary of HWR and FWR
HWR
FWR
1.

Aveg. Value of O/p

Vm/

2Vm/

2.
3.
4.
5.

RMS value of O/P

Maxm efficiency
Ripple factor
Ripple frequency

Vm/2
40.6%
1.21
same as i/p

Vm/ 2
81.2%
0.48
Twice of i/p

6.

PIV

Vm

Vm Bridge
2Vm Centre tapped

7.

% Regulation

Rf
RL

100%

Rf
RL

100%

8.
Form factor
1.57
1.11
9.
TUF
0.287
0.693
THYRISTOR
Thyristor (also called silicon controlled rectifier or SCR) consists of alternate p and n layers (i.e., p-n-p-n)
forming three p-n junctions. The anode terminal is outside the p layer. A contact welded to inner p layer
(i.e., p2) forms the gate. Its symbol is as shown in Figure.

56

V-I Characteristics of Thyristor:

The v-i characteristic of a thyristor is shown in Figure. The behavior of a Thyristor can be explained by two
transistor model as shown in figure.
Thyristor can be turned on by applying a positive gate signal. Other triggering methods are dv/dt triggering,
high temperature triggering and light triggering. When a thyristor is triggered the gate loses control. It can
be turned off by decreasing the current to less than holding current. The turn on time of Thyristors is less
than about 3 -s and turn off time is between 10-300 -s.
Thyristors are available upto about 10 KV and 1200 A rating. For high voltage and high current circuits
series and parallel connection of thyristors are used. When connected in series, the voltages across the
thyristors are not equal. When connected in parallel, the currents through them are non-equal. Therefore
thyristors in series need static and dynamic equalizing circuits.
It is necessary to turn on and turn off a thyristor at proper instant. The turned on is done by applying a
positive gate signal. The turn off methods are called commutation methods. Commutation can be natural or
57

forced. When an SCR is connected to an ac source, the current goes through its natural current zero at the
end of every half cycle and a reverse voltage automatically appears across it. This is called natural
commutation. In dc circuits there is no natural current zero and forced commutation (class B commutation)
Auxiliary commutation (class C commutation), Complementary commutation (Class D commutation) and
external pulse commutation (Class E commutation). Natural commutation is also called line commutation or
class F commutation.
Comparison between Power MOSFET and BJT:
1. Power MOSFET has slower switching losses but its on resistance and conduction losses are more. A
BJT has higher switching losses but lower conduction loss. So at high frequency power MOSFET is the
obvious choice but at lower frequency BJT is superior.
2. BJT is a current controlled device and Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device.
3. MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient for resistance this makes parallel operation of MOSFET
easy. A BJT has negative temperature coefficient.
4. MOSFET is a unipolar device while BJT is bipolar device
5. Base current in BJT is much larger than the control signal (or gate current)required in MOSFET.
6. Gate circuit impedance in MOSFET is extremely high.
7. BJT suffers from secondary break down voltage where as MOSFET is free from this problem because
BJT has negative temperature coefficient while MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient.
Two-transistor model of a Thyristor:
Two-transistor model of a Thyristor can be used for explaining turn-on and turn-off mechanisms of
Thyristor. For turning on mechanisms are
1. Gate triggering
2. Forward voltage triggering
3. dv/dt triggering
4. Temperature triggering
5. Light triggering
Comparison of Thyristor and Transistor operation:
1. Once a Thyristor is on by a gate signal it remains latched in on state due to internal regeneration action.
However in case of transistor a continuous base signal must be given to remain in on state.
2. In order to turn-off a thyristor a reverse voltage must be applied across its anode cathode terminals.
However a transistor turns off when its base signal is removed.
Thyristor protection:
In general a Thyristor may be subjected to over voltages or over currents. During SCR turn on di/dt may be
prohibitively large and there may be false triggering of SCR by high value of dv/dt.So thyristors must be
protected against all such abnormal conditions for satisfactory and reliable operations.
di/dt problem:
When a thyristor is forward biased and is turned on by a gate pulse conduction of anode current begins in
immediate neighborhood of gate cathode junction therefore current spreads across the whole area of
junction. The thyristor design permits the spread of conduction to whole junction area as rapidly as possible.
But if rate of rise of anode current i.e. di/dt is large as compared to spread velocity of carriers local hot spot
58

will be formed near the gate connection on account of high current density. This localized heating may
destroy the transistor.
So the rate of rise of anode current at the time of turn on must be kept below the specified limiting value.
Solution of di/dt problem:
The value of di/dt can be maintained below acceptable limits by using a small inductor called di/dt inductor
in series with the anode circuit. Typical limit values of di/dt are 20-500 A/micro-sec.
dv/dt problem:
If the rate of rise of forward voltage dv/dt is high the charging current I will be more .This charging current
plays the role of gate current and turns on SCR even when gate signal is zero. Such phenomena of turning
on a thyristor called a dv/dt turn must be avoided as it leads to false operation of thyristor circuit. For
controllable operation of thyristor, the rate of rise of forward anode to cathode voltage dv/dt must be kept
below the specified rated limit. Typical values of dv/dt are 20-500 V/micro sec.
Solution of dv/dt problem:
False turn-on of a thyristor by large dv/dt can be prevented by using a snubber circuit in parallel with the
device. A snubber circuit consists of a series combination of resistance R S and a capacitance CS in parallel
with the thyristor.
Transistor:
Transistor is a 3 layer semiconductor device consisting of either two N and one P type layer of material or
Two P and one N type layers of material. The former is called NPN transistor while later is called PNP
transistor. The emitter is heavily doped base is lightly doped and collector only lightly doped. The outer
layers have width much greater than sandwiched P or N type material. Ratio of total width to central width is
around 150:1.
Transistors are made from Ge or Si are shown in figure:
C

EBJ

N
B

CBJ Metal
Contact

E
P

P
B

Direction at emitter denotes convention direction of current. In case of PNP current flows from Emitter to
base while in case of NPN it is from Base to emitter.
3 important parts of BJT are:
1.
Emitter region
2.
Base
region
3.
Collector region
59

Main function of emitter is supply majority charge carriers to the base region and hence it must be heavily
doped in compare to other parts. Base region is lightly doped and thin so that it may pass most of the
injected charge to the collector region. Collector collects majority charge carriers after passing through the
base region. Generally size of collector is larger than that of emitter because collector has to dissipate much
more power and i.e. why emitter and collectors are not interchangeable.
Transistor biased in active region:
E
P

B
N

C
P

VEE

VCC

For active region Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased.
Forward biasing of emitter base junction lowers the emitter base potential by VEB whereas reverse
Biasing of collector junction increases the collector base potential by VCB .
Minority Carrier
Concentration
pn

V0

|VEB|

np

|VCB|

np
np0

np0

np0

EBJ forward biased:

Due to emitter base junction as forward biased width of depletion region between emitter and base will be
reduced and there will be heavy flow of majority carriers from P type (Emitter) to N type (Base). When
these holes pass through base region then they are recombined with electrons and contribute to base current.
CBJ reverse biased:
Due to Collector base junction reverse biased width of depletion layer will be increased so there will be no
direct diffusion process of carriers. But these holes which are majority carriers will move easily to collector.
The reason for relative ease with which these majority carriers can cross the reverse biased junction is easily
understood if we consider that for the reverse biased junction diode the injected majority carrier will appear
as minority carriers in N type material.
Current components in case of a transistor in active mode: (PNP)
IpE

Ipc1

IC

Ic
Ipco

Ico
InE
Inco
IB

VEB

VCB

60

Emitter region:
The forward biased on emitter junction will cause current to flow across this junction. This current will
consists of two components
1. Holes injected from emitter to base region (IpE)
2. Electrons injected from base to emitter region ( InE)
It is highly desirable to have the first component at a much higher level than second component .Due to this
region only emitter is highly doped and base is lightly doped it means device will have a high density of
holes in emitter region and low density of electrons in base region.
Different modes of operations in BJT:
Transistor consists of two P-N junctions Emitter Base Junction (EBJ) and Collector Base Junction (CBJ)
Depending on the bias condition (forward or reverse) of each of these junctions different mode of operations
of BJT are obtained.
The active mode which is also known as forward active mode is the one used if transistor is to operate as an
amplifier.
Switching applications (eg. logic circuits) use both cut-off and saturation mode.
The reverse active mode or inverse active mode has very limited applications but is conceptually important.
BJT Mode of operations:
MODE
Emitter-Base Jn
Cut-off Mode
Reverse
Active
Forward
Saturation
Forward
Reverse Active
Reverse

Collector-Base Jn
Reverse
Reverse
Forward
Forward

NPN
VBE<0 &VBC<0
VBE>0 &VBC<0
VBE>0 &VBC>0
VBE<0 &VBC>0

PNP
VEB<0 &VCB<0
VEB>0 &VCB<0
VEB>0 &VCB>0
VEB<0 &VCB>0

Transistor as an amplifier:

RL

VEB

VCC

A load resistor RL is in series with the collector supply voltage VCC. A small voltage change Vi between
emitter and base causes a relatively large emitter current change I E we define a symbol ' that fraction of
this current change which is collected and passed through RL so here I C ' I E
The change in output voltage across load resistor will be VL RL I C ' RL I E
Vi re I E
But

So Voltage gain

VL ' RL I E ' RL
AV

Vi
re I E
re
re

26
IE

Where I E is quiescent emitter current in mA.

61

I E I pE I nE
Emitter injection Effeciency : ( )

I pE
I pE I nE

for ideal case 100%

Base - region:
Holes injected from emitter will enter into base region .These holes will be minority carriers in base region
and will recombine with electrons. Base in usually very thin and proportions of holes lost through this
recombination will be very small
Base current IB will be composed of two components:
1. First component is due to electrons injected form base into emitter
2. second component is due to electrons that have to be supplied by external circuit in order to replace the
electrons lost from the base through recombination process.
Value of common emitter current gain ():
is constant for a particular transistor and for modern NPN transistor it lies in range of
50-200 but it can be as high as 1000 for special devices.
depends upon following factors:
1. width of the base region
2. relative doping of emitter to base region
From above result it is clear that for high value of
1. Base width should be thin
2. Base should be lightly doped
3. Emitter must be highly doped
Relation between and :
I C I E (1)
I C I B (2)
I E I B I C (3)
By above equations

is a constant for a given transistor and has value less than one but very close to unity. If =100 then
value of will be 0.99. Typical values lie in range of 0.90 to 0.995.
For very small change in there is large change in value of . So transistors of same type may have
widely different values of .
Early effect or base width modulation:
Width w of depletion region of a diode increases with magnitude of reverse bias voltage. Since emitter
Junction is forward biased and collector Junction is reverse biased in active region then barrier width at J E is
negligible as compared with space charge width at JC.
As applied voltage across Junction increases then transition region penetrates deeper into collector and base.
Doping in base is smaller than collector so more depletion layer portion will be in base region. If width of
base region is wB then by application of reverse bias voltage effective width of base is decreased.
62

So Modulation of effective base width by collector voltage is known as early effect. ic I s e

qVBE
KT

vCE
1

vA

Effect of base width modulation:

Value of both and are increases because there is less chance of recombination within the base region.
Punch through or Reach through. If collector voltage is increased then there is chance that base width will
become zero and this phenomenon is known as punch through
Break down voltages:
In case of a transistor before punch through breakdown of transistor occurs.
BVCEO is break down voltage for CE configuration & B VCBO is break down voltage for CB configuration.

BVCEO BVCBO n

1
hFE

If n = 6 and hFE = 50
Transistor Biasing:
Transistor is a magical device that that can raise the level of applied ac input without assistance of an
external energy source. In actual the improved output ac power level is the result of transfer of energy from
applied DC power supply. The analysis or design of any electronic amplifier has two components the dc
portion and ac portion. So amplification in a transistor depends upon DC characteristics of BJT.So Gain in
BJT will be affected by DC level parameters.
For Faithful amplification following conditions must be full filled
1. Emitter-Base Junction must be forward biased
2. Collector-Base Junction must be revere biased
3. Value of IC and VCE must be proper.( Both values are taken as DC values)
Co-ordinates of (VCE, IC) are known as operating points. For proper amplification position of Q point
Must be in middle of DC load line. Maintenance of Q point for proper amplification is known as biasing.
Biasing: when Q point of a transistor is not in active region i.e. it is not properly biased then BJT will work
inefficiently and produces distortion in output signal.So a transistor is properly biased with the help of
batteries and external resistor to maintain Q point in proper position. This method is known as biasing and
associated circuits are known as biasing circuits.
Q. Why operating point shifts?
There are following reasons for shift in Q point of BJT?
1.
Transistor parameters are temperature sensitive
2.
Replacement of transistor with another transistor
3.
Thermal run away
Variation of transistor parameters with temperature:
DC collector current(IC) in BJT varies with temperature which also effects values of VCE and finally
Operating point shifts due to change in temperature.
1. ICO becomes double for every 100C rise in temperature
I C I B (1 ) I CO so value of IC will change with change in temperature.

2. Value of increase with increase in temperature which will effect value of collector current(IC)
3. VBE decrease by -2.5 mV/0C which will also effect value of collector current.
63

dVBE
-2.5 mV/0C
dT
Replacement of transistor:
When a transistor is replaced by another transistor of same type then it is possible that value of and VBE

dont remain same and hence Q point is changed. So Q point must be stabilized in such a manner that it
remains fixed irrespective of replacement of transistor.
Thermal run away:
Typically junction temperature range for Ge and Si transistor are
Ge: 600C-1100C and for Si: 1500C-2250C
If due to increase in temperature collector current increase then large collector current may heat up the
transistor and it may burn out. So variation in collector current with respect to temperature must be
maintained. Self destruction of a transistor without any biasing method is known as thermal run away.
Various methods for stabilization:
1. Stabilization methods:
In stabilization method resistor and power supplies are designed in such manner that value of collector
current IC becomes constant with respect to change in temperature. It means there is very less change in
value of IC with respect to change in ICO,VBE and .
Different methods used are:
1. Fixed bias circuit
2. Emitter stabilized bias circuit
3. Voltage divider bias
4. Voltage Feedback biasing
2. Compensation method:
Different compensation methods used are
1. Diode compensation for VBE
2. Diode compensation for ICO
3. Thermistor compensation
Temperature range of a transistor:
Si:
Temp. Range is from 150 225C
Ge: Temp. Range is from 60 100C
Thermal runaway:
Due to power dissipation at junction, junction temperature increases and this will () collector current with a
subsequent increase in power dissipation. This phenomenon is referred as Thermal runaway and it may
damage transistor permanently.
Thermal resistance:
Steady state temperature rise at collector junction is proportional to power dissipation at junction.
Tj TA = PD
Tj junction Temp.
TA Ambient Temp.
Thermal resistance
64

PD Power dissipated in watt at collector

Condition for thermal stability:
The rate at which heat is released at collector Junction must not exceed the rate at which heat can dissipate
So To avoid thermal run away:
PC
1
V

or
VCE < CC
T j
2
Heat sink:
Power transistors are mounted in a large metal case to provide a large area from which heat generated by
device may be radiated. The metal sheet that helps to dissipate the additional heat from transistor is known
as heat sink.
V = 24V
CC

R1

RC = 5K

R2

Field Effect Transistor:

The Field Effect Transistor is a semiconductor device which depends upon its operation on the control of
current by an electric field. There are two types of FETs
1. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET or simply FET)
2. Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET) More commonly known as MOS or MOSFET
Difference between BJT &FET:
1. Its operation depends upon flow of majority carriers only so it is unipolar
2. It is simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in IC form
3. It exhibits a high input impedance typically Mega ohm
4. It is less noisy than BJT because partition noise is absent in case of FET.
5. BJT is Current controlled current device while FET is Voltage Controlled current device.
6. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent signal chopper
7. Gain Bandwidth product (GBWP) of FET is small in compare to BJT.
8. FET has better thermal stability in compare to BJT.
9. FET is less affected by radiation
10. Due to low value of trans-conductance FET has low voltage gain in compare to BJT.
Basic structure of JFET:
JFET is a 3 terminal device with one terminal capable of controlling the current between other two. Basic
structure of N channel JFET is shown in figure in which N type material forms channel between embedded
layers of P type material. The top of N type channel is connected through an ohmic contact to terminal drain
(D) while the lower end of same material is connected through an ohmic contact to a terminal known as
Source(S). Both source(S) and Drain (D) can be interchanged.
65

Parts of FET:
1. Source: It is the terminal through which majority carrier enter the semiconductor bar.
2. Drain: It is the terminal through which majority carrier enter the semiconductor bar
3. Gate: These are two heavily connected heavily doped impurity regions which forms two P-N Junctions.
4. Channel: It is the space between two gates through which majority carriers pass.
D

P
G

S
S

N-channel JFET
D
D

For N-channel FET ID and VDS are positive while value of VGS is negative
For P-Channel FET ID and VDS are negative while value of VGS is positive.
The direction of arrow at the gate indicates the direction in which the gate current flows when gate junction
is forward biased.
Zero biased condition:

Drain (D)

N-channel

Depletion region

Source (S)

In absence of any applied potential JFET has two P-N junctions under no bias conditions. The result is a
depletion region at each junction as shown in figure. This is same as region of a diode under no bias
conditions.
66

Q.

Why depletion region is wider at drain side than source side?

D
A
P

Due to current flow there will be a uniform voltage drop while going from drain to source. Let V A and VB be
potential drop at these points and value of VA>VB due to progressive voltage drop along length of channel.
So reverse biasing effect on P-N junction is stronger near the drain than near source.
Operation of N-channel JFET:
Case-1 when VGS=0 and VDS>0
When no potential is applied between gate and source and a potential is applied between drain and source.
Drain current will flow and it will have maximum value because channel is widest.
Case-2 when VGS<0 and VDS>0
If gate is reverse biased by applying a negative voltage between gate and source then width of depletion
layer will increased and thereby decreases cross section of N channel. Due to decrease in cross sectional area
of N channel the Drain current ID will decrease. When gate biased in increased further and is equal to Pinchoff voltage (VGS= -VP) then value of drain current becomes equal to zero. So drain current is a function of
voltage and i.e. why FET is a voltage controlled current device.
D
Depletion
layer

VDD

Enhancement type of MOSFET (MOS):

Enhancement type MOSFET differs from the depletion type that no continuous channel exists between
source and drain. In N-channel enhancement MOSFET P type substrate extends all the way to metal Oxide
layer. Since it does not conduct when VGS=0 hence it is called OFF MOSFET also.
Working of N-MOS:
P type substrate insulating dielectric SiO2 layer and metal layer of gate forms a parallel plate capacitor.
When a positive voltage is applied to gate with respect to substrate then minority carriers in P substrate
electrons are drawn towards the dielectric. Due to electrons negative charge is induced on P type substrate
and forms an inversion layer. If positive voltage on gate is increased then magnitude of induced negative
charges in semiconductor increases and thus conductivity of induced N-channel increases leading to higher
drain current because negative charge carriers are increased. Value of threshold voltage is in range of 2-4
67

Volts. Here drain current has been increased by application of positive voltage so this MOSFET is termed as
Enhancement type MOSFET.
Enhancement NMOS characteristics:
Sio
2

Nochannel

Metallic
Contact

P Type
Substrate

SS

Case-1: VGS=0 volt and VDS>0

Since channel is absent and will result in a current of effectively zero ampere. In this case it is not sufficient
to have a large accumulation of charge carriers (electrons) at the drain and source. With VDS some positive
voltage VGS at 0 volt and terminal SS directly connected to the source there are in fact two reverse biased
P-N junctions between N doped region and P substrate to oppose any significant flow between drain and
source.
Case-2: VGS>0 and VDS>0
In this case drain and gate are at positive potential with respect to source. The positive potential at gate will
pressure the holes in P substarate along the edge of SiO2 layer to leave the area and enter deeper regions of
P substrate and result is a depletion region near the SiO2 insulating layer void of holes. But the electrons in P
substarate will be attracted to the positive gate and accumulate in region near the surface of SiO 2 layer. The
SiO2 layer and its insulating qualities will prevent the negative carriers from being absorbed at the gate
terminal.
Case-3: VGS=VT and VDS>0
If value of VGS increases in magnitude then concentration of electrons near the SiO2 surface increase until
eventually the induced N type region can support a measurable flow between drain and source. The level of
VGS that that results in significant increase in drain current is called Threshold voltage and is given symbol
VT .since the channel is nonexistent with VGS=0 and enhanced by application of a positive gate to source
Voltage this type of MOSFET is called enhancement type MOSFET.
Case-4: VGS>VT and VDS>0
As value of VGS is increased beyond VT the density of free carriers in the induced channel will increase
resulting in an increased level of drain current. If we hold VGS constant and increase the level of VDS the
drain current will eventually reach a saturation level as occurred for JFET and Depletion type MOSFET. If
VGS is held fixed and value of VDS is increased then gate will become less and less positive with respect to
drain. The reduction in gate to drain voltage will in turn reduce the attractive forces for free carriers
(electrons) and causes a reduction in effective channel width. In this case the channel will be reduced to
point of pinch-off and a saturation conditions will be established. If value of VDS is further increased at a
fixed value of VGS then saturation current ID will not be affected.
68

Transistor as an amplifier:
Transistor is a magical device which converts an low level ac input into high level ac output. It amplifies an
ac signal by use of DC power supply. There are various models for expressing amplification in transistor.
If vbe is the ac input and ic is the ac output then
ic g m vbe

Where g m

IC
VT

There are various models for explaining transistor models.

re transistor model:
The re model employs a diode and controlled current source to duplicate the behavior of a transistor in the
region of interest. Recall that a current-controlled current source is one where the parameters of the current
source are controlled by a current else-where in the network. In fact in general BJT transistor amplifiers are
referred to as current-controlled devices.
Common Base transistor:
Ie

Ie

Ie

Ie

re

Ic = Ie

26 mV
IE

The subscript e of re was chosen to emphasize that it is the dc level of emitter current that determines the ac
level of the resistance of the diode .
Input impedance and output impedance for CB:

Ie

Ic

c
re

b
Zi re CB

For the common-base configuration typical values of Zi range from a few ohms to a maximum
of about 50 .
Z 0 CB
In general for the common-base configuration the input impedance is relatively small and the output
impedance quite high.
Voltage gain and Current gain for CB:

Ie

Ic

c
re

b
b
If resistance RL is connected between CB terminals and Vi is connected between EB terminals.
69

If I0 is the load current between RL.

Vcb = I0RL = (Ic)RL = IeRL
Veb Vi I e Z i I e re

So that
and

Av

Vo I e RL

Vi
I e re

For the current gain:

I
I
I
Ai o c e Ai CB 1
Ii
Ie
Ie

h-parameter model for transistor:

The quantities hie, hre, hfe, and hoe are called the hybrid parameters and are the components of a small-signal
equivalent circuit to be described shortly. For years the hybrid model with all its parameters was the chosen
model for the educational and industrial communities. Presently however the r e model is applied more
frequently but often with the hoe parameter of the hybrid equivalent model to provide our description of the
hybrid equivalent model will begin with the general two-port system.
The following set of equations is only one of a number of ways in which the four variables can be related. It
is the most frequently employed in transistor circuit analysis, however, and therefore is discussed in detail in
this chapter.
Ii
I0
1

1'

Vi

V0

2'

Vi h11I i h12V0 (1)

I 0 h21I i h22V0 (2)
If we arbitrarily set V0 = 0 (short circuit the output terminals) and solve for h11 in Eq.(1)&(2) the following
will result:

h11

Vi
Ii

Ohms
V0 0

If Ii is set equal to zero by opening the input leads the following will result for h12:

h12

h21

Vi
V0
I0
Ii

unit less
Ii 0

unit less
V0 0

70

h22

I0
V0

Siemens
Ii 0

FET AC Equivalent Circuit:

A model for the FET transistor in the ac domain can be constructed. The control of Id by Vgs is included as a
current source gmVgs connected form drain to source as shown in Figure.
The current source has its arrow pointing from drain to source to establish a 180 phase shift between output
and input voltages as will occur in actual operation.
The input impedance is represented by the open circuit at the input terminals and the output impedance by
the resistor rd from drain to source. Note that the gate to source voltage is now represented by Vgs (lowercase subscripts) to distinguish it from dc levels. In addition take note of the fact that the source is common to
both input and output circuits while the gate and drain terminals are only in touch through the controlled
current source gmVgs.

+
Vgs

gmVgs

rd

Cascode connection:
A cascade connection has one transistor on top of (in series with) another. Figure shows a cascade
configuration with a common-emitter (CE) stage feeding a common-base (CB) stage. This arrangement is
designed to provide high input impedance with low voltage gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance
is at a minimum with the CB stage providing good high-frequency operation. A practical BJT version of a
cascade amplifier is provided in Figure.
VCC

RC
RB1
V1

Q
V0

Q1
RB

RL
RE

CE

RB

CB

Darlington connection:
A very popular connection of two bipolar junction transistors for operation as one super beta transistor is
the Darlington connection shown in Figure. The main feature of the Darlington connection is that the
composite transistor acts as a single unit with a current gain that is the product of the current gains of the
71

individual transistors. If the connection is made using two separate transistors having current gains of 1 and

2 , the Darlington connection provides a current gain of

D 1 2
C

Q1
B

QD

Q2
E
E

If the two transistors are matched so that 1 = 2 = the Darlington connection provides a current gain of

D 2
A Darlington transistor connection provides a transistor having a very large current gain, typically a few
thousand.
Feedback pair:
The feedback pair connection is a two-transistor circuit that operates like the Darlington circuit. Notice that
the feedback pair uses a pnp transistor driving an npn transistor, the two device acting effectively much like
one pnp transistor. As with a Darlington connection, the feedback pair provide very high current gain (the
product of the transistor current gains). A typical application uses a Darlington connection and a feedback
pair connection to provide complementary transistor operation. A practical circuit using a feedback pair is
provided in Figure .Some consideration of the dc bias and ac operation will provide better understanding of
C
how the connection works.
B

Constant current source:

1. JFET Current Source
A simple JFET current source is that of Figure with VGS set to 0 V the drain current I fixed at
I D I DSS 10 mA

The device therefore like a current source of value 10 mA. While the actual JFET does have an output
resistance, the ideal current source would be a 10-mA supply as shown in figure.
ID
IDSS = 10 mA
VP = 4V

I=
10 mA

72

2. Transistor/Zener Constant-Current Source

Replacing resistor R2 with a Zener diode, as shown in Figure provides an improved constant-current source
The Zener diode results in a constant current calculated using the base-emitter KVL (Kirchhoff Voltage
Loop) equation. The value of I can be calculated using
V VBE
I IE Z
RE
A major point to consider is that the constant current depends on the Zener diode voltage, which remains
quite constant and the emitter resistor RE. The voltage supply VEE has no effect on the value of I.
VB

R1

+
VBE(on) VE

+
IE=I
VZ RE

VEE

Current mirror circuits

A current mirror circuit provides a constant and is used primarily in integrated circuits. The constant current
is obtained from an output current, which is the reflection or mirror of a constant current developed on one
side of the
+V
CC

IX

RX
I

Q1

Q2

The current IX and I can be obtained using the circuit currents listed in Figure.We assume that the emitter
current (IE) for both transistors is the same (Q1 and Q2 being fabricated near each other on the same chip).
The two transistor base currents are then approximately
I
I
IB E E
1
The collector current of each transistor is then
IC IE
Finally, the current through resistor RX, IX, is
2I
I
2I
2
I X IE E E E
I IE

E
In summary, the constant current provided at the collector of Q2 mirrors that of Q1. Since
V VBE
I X CC
RX
73

Class C Amplifier
A class C amplifier as that shown in Figure is biased to operate for less than 180 of the input signal cycle.
The tuned circuit in the output however will provide a full cycle of output signal for the fundamental or
resonant frequency of the tuned circuit (L and c tank circuit) of the output. This type of operation is
therefore limited to use at one fixed frequency, as occurs in a communications circuit for example.
Operation of a class C circuit is not intended primarily for large-signal or power amplifiers.
+VCC

C
V0

Vi
RFC
VBB

Class D Amplifier:
A class D amplifier is designed to operate with digital or pulse-type signals. An efficiency of over 90% is
achieved using this type of circuit making it quite desirable in power amplifiers. It is necessary however to
convert any input signal into a pulse-type waveform before using it to drive a large power load and to
convert the signal back to a sinusoidal-type signal to recover the original signal. Figure shows how a
sinusoidal signal may be converted into a pulse-type signal using some form of saw tooth or chopping
waveform to be applied with the input into a comparator-type op-amp circuit so that a representative pulsetype signal is produced. While the letter D is used to describe the next type of bias operation after class C the
D could also be considered to stand for Digital, since that is the nature of the signals provided to the class
D amplifier.
Sawtooth
generator

Converts digital
back to sinusoidal
_

Amplifier
Vi

Low-pass
filter

V0

Feedback

Basic concept of oscillation:

+
Vi

+
V0=AVi

74

Steady-state envelope
limited by circuit saturation

Initial noise
voltage
Nonsinusoidal waveform
due to saturation

Phase-shift oscillator:
An example of an oscillator circuit that follows the basic development of a feedback circuit is the phase-shift
oscillator. An idealized version of this circuit is shown in Figure. Recall that the requirements for oscillation
are that the loop gain A is greater than unity and that the phase shift around the feedback network is 180
(providing positive feedback). In the present idealization we are considering the feedback network to be
driven by a perfect source (zero source impedance) and the output of the feedback network to be connected
into a perfect load (infinite load impedance). The idealized case will allow development of the theory behind
the operation of the phase-shift oscillator. Practical circuit versions will then be considered.

C
R

C
R

C
R

FET Phase-Shift Oscillator:

A practical version of a phase-shift oscillator circuit is shown in Figure. The circuit is drawn to show clearly
the amplifier and feedback network. The amplifier stage is self-biased with a capacitor bypassed source
resistor Rs and a drain bias resistor RD. The FET device parameters of interest are gm and rd. From FET
amplifier theory, the amplifier gain magnitude is calculated from
|A| = gmRL

75

VDD
RD

gm, rd

RS

CS
f=

C
R

Transistor Phase-Shift Oscillator:

If a transistor is used as the active element of the amplifier stage, the output of the feedback network is
loaded appreciably by the relatively low input resistance (hie) of the transistor. Of course, an emitterfollower input stage followed by a common-emitter amplifier stage could be used. If a single transistor stage
is desired, however the use of voltage-shunt feedback (as shown in Fig.) is more suitable. In this connection
the feedback signal is coupled through the feedback resistor R in series with the amplifier stage input
resistance (Ri).
VCC

RC

R1

R2

RE

f=
R

1
6+4(Rc/R)

C
R

1
2 RC

h fe 23 29

CE

C
R

1
6 4( RC /R)
R
R
4 C
RC
R

76

Wein bridge oscillator:

A practical oscillator circuit uses an op-amp and RC bridge circuit with the oscillator frequency set by the R
and C components. Figure shows a basic version of a Wien bridge oscillator circuit. Note the basic bridge
connection. Resistors R1 and R2 and capacitors C1 and C2 form the frequency-adjustment elements while
resistors R3 and R4 form part of the feedback path. The op-amp output is connected as the bridge input at
points a and c. The bridge circuit output at points b and d is the input to the op-amp.
a
C1
R3

R1

+VCC
_

R2

R4

VEE

C2

f0

Output
sinusoidal
signal

1
2 R1C1R2C2

Q. Calculate frequency of oscillation:

+VCC

R1
+

Output

VEE
R3

R2

R4

Solution
Using Equation:
f0

1
1

3120.7 H
3
2 RC 2 (5110 )(0.001106 )

Radio frequency oscillator:

X1

X2
X3

77

Oscillator Type
Colpitts oscillator
Hartley oscillator
Tuned input, tuned output

X1
C
L
LC

Reactance Element
X2
X3
C
L
L
C
LC

Colpitts Oscillator
FET colpitts oscillator:
A practical version of an FET Colpitts oscillator is shown in Figure. The circuit is basically the same form as
shown above with the addition of the components needed for dc bias of the FET amplifier. The oscillator
frequency can be found to be

f0
Where Ceq

C1C2
C1 C2

1
2 LCeq

VDD

RFC
V0
CC

RG

C1

C2
L

BJT Colpitts oscillator:

VCC

RFC

C1
L
R1

V0

C2

CC
R2

RE

CE

78

Crystal oscillator:
Quartz crystal exhibits the property that when mechanical stress is applied across the faces of a crystal a
difference of potential is developed across the opposite faces of crystal. This property is called piezo electric
effect. Similarly a voltage applied across one set of faces of crystal causes mechanical distortion in crystal
shape.
Equivalent circuit of crystal:

R
CM
L
C

Crystal impedance versus frequency:

|Z|

f1

f2

(series-resonance) (antiresonances)
Unijunction oscillator
A particular device the Unijunction transistor can be used in a single-stage oscillator circuit to provide a
pulse signal suitable for digital-circuit applications. The unijunction transistor can be used in what is called a
relaxation oscillator as shown by the basic circuit of Figure shown.
Resistor RT and capacitor CT are the timing components that set the circuit oscillating rate. The oscillating

frequency may be calculated which includes the unijunction transistor intrinsic stand-off ratio as a factor
(in addition to RT and CT) in the oscillator operating frequency. V
BB

R2

RT

B2

VE

VB2

E
B1
CT

VB1

R1

79

Wave forms at B1 B2 and E in UJT:

VBB

VE
VE=VP

VEmin
0V

Time

VB1

0V
Time

VB2

0V

Time
VBB

RT

VBB

RT

R2

VBB

RT

R2

RC
Vout

CT

CT
R1

RB

CT
R1

Frequency of oscillation in UJT:

1
f0
RT CT ln 1/(1 )
Typically a unijunction transistor has a stand-off ratio from 0.4 to 0.6. Using a value of = 0.5 we get
1
1.44
1.44
f0

RT CT In 1/(1 0.5) RT CT In 2 RT CT

1.5
RT CT

80

Study material for Digital

Digital Counter:
Counter is a sequential circuit consisting of a set of FFS connected in suitable manner to count the sequence
of input pulses presented to it in digital form. Counters are classified in 2 categories
1. Asynchronous counter
2. Synchronous counter
Asynchronous counter can be designed by use of Minm hardware and each Flip-flop is triggered by output
from previous Flip-flop. Settling time in an asynchronous counter is cumulative sum of individual settling
times of Flip-flops. It is also called as serial counter.
In Synchronous counter clock pulse is applied simultaneously to all Flip-flops which leads to propagation
delay of a single Flip-flop. These are also known as parallel counter.
Counters are important sub system in digital equipments. They are used for pulse counting, frequency
division, time measurement and control & timer operation.
Modulus N counter:
Counter goes through N states before resetting to 0 or original state.
So a MOD-8 counter goes through 8 states from 000 to 111 and it recycles to 0 at the 9th state.
MOD-2 counter:
A single JK or T FF works as MOD-2 counter.
VCC
J

Qn

Qn

CLK

0
Qn= 0

From Above waveform it is clear that for one clock pulse we obtain a half pulse at the output. So this is
divide by 2 counter. If we have a series combination of N FFS then it will be divide by 2N counter or simply
by N counter.
Binary and Non binary counter:
If maximum binary number is equal to 2N then it is a binary counter if not it is a non binary counter.
MOD-16 is binary counter whereas MOD-10 is not a binary counter.
Asynchronous or ripple counter:
All Flip-flops are not under control of a single clock but clock is applied to 1st Flip-flop i.e. LSB of counter
and successive Flip-flop is triggered by output of previous Flip-flop. Here trigger move through the Flip-flop
like a ripple it is called a ripple counter.
MOD-8 ripple up-counter:
1

1
Q0

T0
CLK

FF0

1
Q1

T1
Ff1

Q0

Q2

T2
Ff2

Q1

Q2

81

Figure shows a 3-bit binary ripple counter, this binary counter is constructed by T FFS or J K FFS. The
system clock a square wave drives FFO, output of FFO drives FF 1 and output of FF 1 drives FF2. Overall
propagation delay is sum of individual delay of all FFS.

1
Q0= 0

Q0= 0

Q0= 0

State diagram:
000
111

001
110

010
101

011
100

Here No. of states read are 8, so it will be MOD-8 counter. If freq. of input clock is f then freq. at output will
be (f/8). Such a circuit is known as divide by 8, counter.
Ripple counter with decoded outputs:
A decoding gate is one which can be connected to output of a counter and its output will be high only when
counter content is equal to the given state.
5 will be decoded for Q2 Q1 Q0 = 101
So logic expression for decoding gate is Q5 = Q2 Q1 Q0
Decoder circuit for a 3-bit binary counter:
Q2
Q1
Q0

Q2
Q1
Q0

Q2
Q1
Q0

Q2
Q1
Q0

Q2
Q1
Q0

Q2
Q1
Q0

Q2
Q1
Q0

Q2
Q1
Q0

82

Problem of Glitch:

Ts

2ts

Each decoding output will be high only when the counter content is equal to a given state and this state
occurs only once during a cycle of 2n states of counter, where n is number of Flip-flops in a counter.
In an asynchronous counter decoding gate produces a high output more than once during a cycle of 2 n states.
Such undesired high or low pulses that appear at decoding gate output at undesired time instants are called
glitches or false spikes which are normally of short duration. The reason for these glitches is cumulative
propagation delay in asynchronous counter.
Solution of Glitch:
Problem of glitch can be solved by use of any one of the following method:
(i) Clock input to strobe decoding gates
(ii) By use of synchronous counter
QA
QB
QC

Q4

CLK

Thus by strobing decoding gates with clock inputs glitches can be avoided completely.
Clock frequency for ripple counter:
If tpd is propagation delay of each Flip-flop then total propagation delay of N-bit ripple counter must be N
tpd.
If TS is additional time interval for strobing then clock period T N tpd + TS
1
1
Maxm clock frequency ( f )
T ( N t pd TS )
Q.

Design MOD-8 ripple down counter.

LSB

VCC

Q0

T0
FF0
K0

VCC

MSB

VCC
Q1

J1
FF1

Q0

K1

Q2

J2
FF2

Q1

K2

Q2

Input pulse is applied as clock input. Here Q 0 output serves as clock input for FF1 and Q1 as clock input for
FF2.
FF0 toggle at negative transition of clock, FF1 toggle when Q0 goes from low to high and FF2 toggle when
Q1 goes from low to high.
83

Negative transition at Q 0 & Q1 will be same as positive transition at Q0 and Q1.

Q0

Q1

Q2

If initial counter content is 000 at its first negative transition of clock the counter content becomes 111 at the
second negative transition content becomes 110 and so on.
State diagram of MOD-8 down counter :
000

111
001

110
010

011

101
1
0
0

Design of Ripple counter with Modulus < 2n :

To construct MOD-N counter method is:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Q.
Sol.

Find the number of Flip-flops required for desired MOD-N. 2n1 N 2n

Connect all n Flip-flops as a ripple counter.
Find the binary number for N.
Construct all FF outputs for which Q = 1 when count is N, as inputs to NAND gates.
Connect the NAND gate output to clear input of each Flip-flop.
Design MOD-6 UP counter by use of NAND gate.
State diagram of MOD-6 UP counter is
000

001

010

011

100
101

Q0

1
T

Q1

Q2

000

CLK

For MOD-6 UP counter just make 110 to 000 by use of NAND gate.
Above MOD-6 UP counter can also be designed by use of OR gate also.

84

1
Q0

1
T

Q0

Q1

Q1

Q2

Q2

CLK

Synchronous 3 bit UP/Down counter:

Countup
VCC

J0

Q0

J1

Q1

J2

Q2

K0

Q0

K1

Q1

K2

Q2

CLK

Count down

Synchronous counter:
Ripple counter has low speed of operation but it requires less hardware. Another problem with ripple
counter is glitch at decoding gate outputs. Glitch problem can be solved by applying clock pulses to all FFS
simultaneously which is done in synchronous counter.
In a parallel counter all FFS change their state simultaneously i.e. they are all synchronized with negative
transition of input clock signal. Because of common clocking of all FFS glitches can be avoided completely
in synchronous counter.
Q.
Design a 3-bit synchronous up counter.
The No. of FFS required is 3 and let FFS are FFO, FF1 and FF2.
For FF0 inputs are J0 and K0 & output is Q0.
For FF1 inputs are J1 and K1 & output is Q1.
For FF2 inputs are J2 and K2 & output is Q2.
Counter state
FF0
FF1
FF2
Q2
Q1
Q0
J0
K0
J1
K1
J2
K2
0
0
0
1

0
0
1

1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0

0
1
1

1
1

1
0
0
1

0
1
0
1

1
1

0
1
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

1
0
0
0
85

Calculate value of J0 in terms of Q2 Q1 Q0 by use of K-Map :

By solving K-Map values will be:
J0 = 1&K0 = 1
J1 = Q0
K1 = Q0
J2 = Q0 Q1
K2 = Q0 Q1
Synchronous counter with parallel carry:
VCC
Q0

J0

K0

J1

Q1

J2

Q2

J3

Q3

K1

Q1

K2

Q2

K3

Q3

CLK

Total delay = Propogation delay of 1 FF+ Propogation delay of NAD gate

= tp + tg
1
Maxm frequency of operation fmax =
tp + tg
Synchronous counter with ripple carry:
VCC

CLK

f max

J0

Q0

J1

Q1

J2

Q2

K0

Q0

K1

Q1

K2

Q2

Synchronous counter with ripple carry

1
t p ( n 2) t g

n No. of Flip-flops stages.

Design of synchronous Down counter:
J0 = K0 = 1
J1 = K1 = Q 0
J2 = K2 = Q 0 Q1
J3 = K3 = Q0 Q1 Q 2
Shift Registers and memory:
Register are binary storage elements which are used as temporary memory device they belong to family of
sequential logic circuit.
In a register if stored bit is shifted in left or right then register is known as shift register. For shift registers
FF S used are D FFS or SR & J K FFS.
86

Shift register permits the stored data to move from a particular location to some other location within
register.
Types of shifting:
1.
Serial shifting
2.
Parallel shifting
Serial shifting method shifts one bit at a time for each clock pulse in serial beginning with either MSB or
LSB.
A 4-bit shift register requires 4 clock pulses to shift a bit from input to output. While in parallel shifting all
the data or inputs get shifted simultaneously during a single clock pulse.
Basic 4-bit shift register:
D

CLK

Classification of shift Register:

1.
Serial In Serial out:
Data can be moved in & out of a register one bit at a time.
n-bit

Serial data
input

2.

Serial data
output

Serial In Parallel out:

Data is loaded Serially one bit at a time but data stored can be read simultaneously.

Serial data
input

n-bit

MSB

LSB

Parallel data outputs.

3.

Parallel In Serial out :

Data can be loaded simultaneously but data can be removed from register one bit at a time by clock
pulse.
Parallel data inputs

n-bit

4.

Serial data
input

Parallel In Parallel out :

Data can be loaded into stages simultaneously and can also be taken out to read simultaneously.
87

Parallel data
inputs
n-bit

Parallel data outputs

1.

SISO
Right Shift Register:
Serial data input
D
Q0

FF0

Q1
FF1

Q2

Serial data output

D
Q3

FF2

FF3

CLK

Datainput
J

Q0

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q0

Q1

Q2

Q3

o/p

Let 11001 is entered in Serial In / Serial out shift register. 1101

FF0
FF1
FF2
FF3
0
0
0
0

2.

Serial In Parallel out shift Register:

0100

QA

QB

QC

QD

CLK

88

3.

Parallel In Serial out Shift Register:

3 bit
Shift/Load

P I SO

SHR:
B

Q0

Q2

Q1

CLK

4.

Parallel Input parallel output Shift Register

D

Q0

Q1

Q2

Q3

CLK

Ring counter:
The output Q of last FF is connected back to Serial input of 1st FF and only one FF is set at any particular
time while other FFS are cleared. The Flip-flops are connected in such a way that information shifts either
from left to right and back around from Q3 to Q0 or from right to left and back around from Q0 to Q3.
PR
D

Q0

Q1

CLR

CLK

Q2

CLR

Q3

CLR

Pulse

When low pulse is given then Q0 = 1, Q1 = 0, Q2 = 0 and Q3 = 0.

SoQ0 Q1 Q2 Q3 = 1000 is initial state of given ring counter.
1000

0100

0010

0001

So 4 valid states there will be 4 valid states.

This circuit can be used for counting no. of pulses. The number of pulses counted is read by nothing which
Flip-flop is in 1 state. No decoding circuitry is required. Since there is one pulse at the output for each of N
clock pulses this circuit is referred to as divide by N counter or N : 1 scalar.
89

Twisted Ring Counter:

In Ring counter if output Q is connected to input of 1st FF then it is twisted ring counter.

J0

Q0

J1

Q1

J2

Q2

J3

Q3

K0

Q0

K1

Q1

K2

Q2

K3

Q3

CLK

Connection have been switched from normal to complementary and taken generally from last or tail of stage
so it is called switch tail ring counter.
In case of N-bit ring counter no. of states are N, while for N-bit switch tail ring counter no. of states are 2N.
So In case of switch tail ring counter there is 100% saving in number of FFS.
Switch tail ring counter is also known as Johnson or Mobeious counter.
Moebius counter is a divide by 2N counter.
For decoding the count two input AND gates are required. The decoder circuit for a 5-stage counter is
shown in figure.
Q0
Q1
Q2
Q3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
So it is a MO D8 counter.
Decoding logic for a 5 stage twisted ring counter.
Q0

Q4
Q4
1
Q3

No. of Unused in a Johnson counter are given by 2N 2N. For a MOD8 counter N = 4
So No. of unused states are 24 24 = 8
Integrated circuits-Logic families:
In the implementation of logic functions discrete transistors and circuit elements are not used. Fabrication of
enormous quantum of circuits on a single chip has made possible the integrated logic families. These
integrated circuits are classified according to the number of gates.

90

Numbers of equivalent
Total number of
basic gates on a single chip components on single chip
SSI
Less than 12
Less than 100
MSI
12 99
100 999
LSI
100 999
1000 9999
VLSI
1000 9999
10,000 to 99,999
ULSI
10,000 and more
100,000 and more
Integrated circuits are classified into 2 general categories Linear and Digital.
Linear ICs are operating with continuous signals and used to construct electronic circuit such as amplifiers
and voltage comparators etc. while Digital integrated circuits are operating with binary signals and so
constructed with integrated circuits.
Digital IC:
Various logic families can be placed into 2 broad categories according to IC fabrication process. These are
designed as bipolar and MOS.
Bipolar IC:
Bipolar IC are classified as saturated logic and non saturated logic family. Bipolar technology is employed
for fabricating transistors, diodes and resistors on a chip. SSI and MSI utilize bipolar technology because it
is faster.
1. Saturated logic family:
1. RTL (Resistor Transistor Logic)
2. DCTL (Direct Coupled Transistor Logic)
3. DTL (Diode-Transistor Logic)
4. HTL (High Threshold Logic)
5. TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic)
6. I2L(Integrated Injection Logic)
2. Non saturated logic family:
1. Schottky TTL
2. Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
MOS IC: MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology is preferred in LSI and VLSI as more MOSFETs
can be fabricated on a small chip area. Currently an improved version called CMOS (Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor) technology is widely used. CMOS ICs contain parts comparable to insulated gate
field effect transistors (IGFETs).
1. PMOS-P channel MOSFET
2. NMOS-Channel MOSFET
3. CMOS-Complementary MOSFET
The circuits using TTL and CMOS families are logic gates, flip-flops, encoders and decoders, multiplexers,
latches and registers. While NMOS is used in microprocessors and memories, CMOS finds use in
calculators, wrist watches and battery operated computers because of low power consumption. PMOS is
almost obsolete.
Characteristics of Digital IC:
Category

91

1. Speed of operation: It is defined as time taken for output of a gate to change after inputs have changed.
It is defined in terms of propagation delay .Here propagation delay is a function of switching time of
individual transistor or MOSFET.Typically, in a switching transistor circuit, while the input change from
Low (0) to High (1), the output has to change from High (1) to Low (0). But the two changes are not
simultaneous and there is a time delay which is known as propagation delay t pd. This delay is due to the
fact that the output voltage has to change from cut off region to saturation region via the forward active
region. Also the junction and stray capacitances along with the base and collector resistances R B and RC
constitute a time constant. This time constant depends on the number of gates connected at the input and
output, fan-in and fan-out. So, tpd increases for a high fan-out. Propagation delay time tpd is a measure of
the speed of operation of the logic gate.
2. Power dissipation: It is a measure of power consumed by logic gate when fully driven by all its inputs
and is expressed in milli-watts or nano-watts.Avergae value of power dissipation is the product of DC
supply voltage and mean current taken from that power supply.
3. Fan-in: It is the number of inputs connected to a gate without any degradation in voltage levels. It
determines functional capabilities of a logic circuit.
4. Fan-out: It is the maximum number of similar logic gates that can drive without any degradation in
voltage levels.Fanout is a function of output impedance of driving gate and input impedance of driven
gate.
5. Speed power product: It is the product of propagation delay power dissipation of the gate. This is
intended decide on the choice of gate for a particular application, high speed or low power.
6. Noise-immunity: It is the maximum noise voltage that may appear at the input of a logic gates without
changing logical state of its output. A quantative measure of noise immunity is called noise margin.
7. Noise margin: Difference between operating input logic voltage level and threshold voltage level is
called as noise margin of circuit. Noise margin refers to amplitude of noise voltage that may cause logic
level to change.
The input-output characteristics of a switching transistor circuit will be as follows:
Vout
VOH 3
2
1
0.2
VOL 0.5 0.65 0.8 1 VOH
VIL VIH

Vin

Hence If Vi VIL max, then V0 VOH min

If Vi VIH min, then V0 VOL max
Undesirable signals called noise such as picked up from power supply lines should not affect the functioning
of the gate. VOH min is greater than VIH min. This is the region of noise immunity for high level logic (1).
Similarly VIL max is greater than VOH max and the difference is the noise immunity for low level logic (0).
Low level noise margin
NML =VIL max VOL max
High level noise margin
NMH = VOH min VOL min

92

For reliability the noise margins should be high. If the noise amplitude is higher than the noise margin
voltage it will get added to VOL max and exceed VIL max of next stage and cause false triggering. For high
level, VOH min will get reduced and be below VIH min of next stage
Other specifications are:
1.
Supply voltage VCC
2.
Operating free air temperature
3.
Input voltages for logic 0 and 1 at output
4.
Output voltages for logic 0 and 1 at output
5.
Input currents for logic 0 and 1 at output
Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL)
It uses resistors and transistors. It was one of the earliest technologies and is not used now-a-days
+VCC
RC
Y

T1
RB

T2
RB

(a) circuit

Both transistors T1&T2 are in cut off then output Y is high (+VCC). Any one transistor with high input makes
the output low because that transistor will enter in saturation region. When both transistors are in saturation
the output is low. The collector resistor RC is called the pull up resistor. This is so because the output voltage
rises from 0 to VCC by the time constant = RC C where C is the capacitance due to base emitter junction
and stray effects.
Truth table for RTL gate:
A
B
Vout A
B
Vout
L
L
H
0
0
1
L
H
L
0
1
0
H
L
L
1
0
1
H
H
L
1
1
0
The truth table is that of a NOR gate. So RTL gate behaves like a NOR gate. Symbol for RTL gate is as
follows:
A
Y
B

93

Specifications of RTL gate:

Power Supply Voltage
VCC
Noise Margin
VNML
Fan-out
FO
Propagation delay
tpd
Power Dissipation
Pd
RTL circuit for a NAND gate is

3.8 V
0.2 V
4
12 ns
30 100 mW

VCC(+)

A. B
A

Wired-OR connection in RTL gate:

Y A B C D A B C D
A
B

Y1

A
B

Y2
Wired OR connection in RTL

Direct Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL):

It is same as in RTL except that base resistances RB are not used in this case. Noise margin of this circuit is
V (+)
very poor leading to false operation.
CC

RC

This type of circuit also performs NOR logic.

Current hogging problem in DCTL:
The chief deficiency of a DCTL gate is what is known as current hogging. When one gate is driving a
number of gates in parallel, it is likely that the gate which requires the least voltage for saturation may hog
or consume large current leaving inoperative the other gates. We know that the voltage required for
saturation of a BE junction, V is 0.75 V. Due to differences in manufacture or operational temperature
differences, VBE(sat) may be marginally different, say, 0.74 or 0.76. 0.74 junction may hog the current leaving
less current for other transistors to attain saturation.
94

VCC

I B2

RC

VCC 0.74
I B1 and I B3
RC

T1

T2

T3

0.76

0.74

0.75

For 0.76 and 0.75.

Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)

Figure shows 2 input NAND gates using DTL. This logic uses transistor and diodes.
VCC
R

RC

DA
A

T1

B
T2

DB

Working of diode as AND gate:

VCC
D1

RL

V1(A)
D2

V0(Y)

V2(B)

Voltages
Logic
V1
V2
V0
A
B
Y
0V
0V
+0.7 V
0
0
0
0V
+5V +0.7 V
0
1
0
+5 V 0V
+0.7 V
1
0
0
+5 V +5V +5 V
1
1
1
This is the truth table of an AND gate. AND gate output is followed by NOT gate so DTL behaves like a
NAND gate.
Wired-AND connection in DTL gate:
A
B

G1
Y

C
D

G2

Y = (AB)(CD) ( A B )(C D)

High Threshold Logic (HTL):

In high noise surrounding a HTL, DTL gate is used. But noise margins depend on supply voltage which
determines the High logic. By increasing the supply voltage better noise margin will be achieved.
95

Diode in DTL is replaced by a Zener diode whose breakdown voltage is 7 V.

VCC = 15 V
3K

RC 15K

A
12K
Q1

B
C

VP

Y = ABCD
Z

Q2

VZ

5K

It has 3 times propagation delay that of DTL delay. It has the highest noise immunity among all available
logic families. Fan out is restricted to about 10.
Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
This logic gate developed as an improvement over the large propagation delay of DTL gate. With TTL we
can obtain inverter, AND, OR, NAND, NOR gates.
TTL inverter: The circuit is as follows:
+VCC = +5 V
R1

R2

R4
Q4
D2

Input

Q1
D1

Q2

Output

Q3

R3

Transistor Q1 plays a key role in the functioning of the circuit. D1 is called clamping diode, Q1 input
coupling transistor, Q2 a phase splitter, Q3, Q4 the output circuit referred to as totem pole arrangement as Q4
sits over Q3, and D2 is intended for Q4 to turn off when Q2 is HIGH.
Working of TTL as Inverter:
Input High: When the input is High at +5 V, the emitter-base diode of transistor Q1 is reverse biased and
cut-off. The base-collector junction of Q1 is forward biased and a current flows through R1 to the base of Q2.
This current is of the order of 0.7 mA and it saturates the base of Q 2. This heavy current flow in the base
emitter of Q2 causes a voltage drop which forward biases Q3 and turns it on. The flow of IC in Q3 causes a
drop in VCC and the output is Low(0). Thus, we get a Low output for a HIGH input, an inverter action.
During this action as Q2 is on, the collector voltage of Q2 becomes low and keeps Q4 off.
Input Low: When the input is low the emitter-base diode of transistor Q1 is forward biased and is saturated.
Output of Q1 will be low and which will make Q2 in cut-off and finally Q3 also in cut-off so output will be
high.

96

TTL as NAND gate

A logical extension of the TTL inverter circuit is the TTL (T2L) NAND gate. In the TTL NAND gate, the
first transistor Q1 is manufactured as a multiple emitter transistor i.e. it has a single collector and base but a
number of emitters.
+V
CC

R2

R1

RC
Q4

VBO

D2

A
B

V0=A.B.C

Q2
Q1

Q3

CL

R3

The truth table for NAND gate is

A
B
C
Y
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
Wired-logic: The TTL gate outputs cannot be connected or paralleled as the two collector resistances come
in parallel and the output impedance is very low drawing heavy current. But an open collector output can be
ANDed. In open collector the collectors of transistors are tied and connected to the power supply through a
suitable resistor. This is called passive pull-up as against active pull-up. The purpose of wire ANDing is to
create an additional logic function as for instance.
Tri-state TTL
We saw that wired-OR circuits are not possible with TTL NAND circuit. In order to make it possible 3 state
(tri-state) TTL circuits have been developed.
VCC + 5 V

A
B
C

Q4

D2
IN

Q1

Q2

OUT

Q3

INHIBIT

INHIBIT

D3

Its truth table is

97

INHIBIT
0V

IN
0V

OUT
+2.5 V to +5 V

0V
+5 V
+5 V

+5 V
0V
+5 V

0V
open circuit
open circuit

The INHIBIT input is called also as ENABLE . when the signal is LOW at IN and INHIBIT at the emitter of
Q1, both inputs are LOW and we get a HIGH output as an inverter. The same function gats inverted when
input is HIGH, INHIBIT is LOW. INHIBIT LOW is HIGH at emitter of Q 1 so that both inputs being HIGH,
we get LOW output. If the INHIBIT input is HIGH at +5V, at the INHIBIT point it is low and diode D3 gets
forward biased shorting Q2 and cutting off Q3, Q4. So whatever the input at IN, the output is an open circuit
and high impedance.
TTL sub families
Many improvements have been carried out to the standard TTL studied previously. The improvements are in
speed and/or power consumption. This has given rise to TTL sub families. They are, apart from standard
TTL with 10 ns delay and 10 mW power consumption.
1. Low Power TTL
2. Low Power Schottky TTL
3. Schottky TTL
4. Advanced Low Power Schottky TTL
5. Advanced Schottky TTL
Low power TTL
The power consumption of a standard TTL is reduced to 1 mW per gate by increasing the value of all
resistances ten fold. . As we increasing the resistance reduces the speed (increased propagation delay) of
35 ns.
Low power Schottky TTL (TTLLS)
Schottky Transistor
A transistor can be fabricated with a Schottky diode connected between collector and base.
VCC
0.4
+
+
VCE=0.3
IB

VBE=0.7V
ID
+

Circuit and symbol are shown in Figure. We know that the cut-in voltage of the Schottky diode is 0.4 V. If
the base to collector voltage exceeds 0.4, the diode conducts. This property can be used to prevent the
transistor from going into saturation as delay is mainly caused by minority carriers returning to equilibrium
conduction when emerging from saturated condition which will increase the speed of transistor.
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
The logic circuits discussed so far was based on transistors driven into saturation for on. When switched off,
there was delay due to charge carriers having to be swept back into equilibrium level. Emitter coupled logic
overcomes this basic defect by operating the transistor in the forward active and cut-off modes. Hence ECL
98

has the fastest switching speed of all logic families, 1 ns. However, its power dissipation is high 20 mW per
gate and sensitive to temperature variations.
The basic circuit of ECL is the differential amplifier circuit with one input used as a reference. Hence it is a
voltage comparator circuit. Let us briefly review the differential amplifier. The circuit is
+VCC

RC
Input
Vi

IC1
Q1

IC2
V01

V02

IE
VEE

RC

Q2
Reference
VR

If instead of the reference voltage VR, the input voltage is V02 then the output responds to the difference of
input voltages Vd = V02 V02. The sum of the currents IC1 + IC2 = F IE IE. If the difference voltage Vd
4VT = 100 mV = 0.1 V, then IC1 IE and V02 is maximum as IC2 0. The situation reverses if VD is negative.
If |Vd| 4VT, then IC2 is maximum and V01 is maximum as IC1 0.
If instead of V2 we have a reference voltage VR and if the input voltage Vi is above VR i.e., VR + 0.1
corresponding to HIGH input then Q1 is on, V01 is LOW. At the same time Q2 is off and V02 is HIGH. The
HIGH voltage input to Q1 switches from VR + 0.1 to VR 0.1, HIGH to LOW.
When the input voltage swings from VR 0.1 to VR + 0.1, current IE flows through Q2 switching it on. V02
becomes LOW and as Q1 is off V01 is HIGH.Thus we obtain the logic 1 and 0 simultaneously at the two
outputs V01 and V02 without the transistors going into saturation.
A
B
C
D

ECL gate as OR and NOR gate:

99

Wired-OR connection
By connecting the outputs of ECL gates wired-OR configurations are possible.
A
B

C
D

Characteristics of ECL gate:

1. Operation in the cut-off and active region without going into saturation makes ECL the fastest logic gate.
2. Due to differential amplifier circuit, the input impedance is high > 100 K and emitter follower output
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

gives it low output impedance = 15 . On account of this it has largest fan-out among bipolar devices.
Complementary outputs are available simultaneously.
Grounded operation of collector practically eliminates current spikes.
A number of logic functions can be derived by wired-OR connection.
Gate parameters do not degrade over long periods due to temperature.
By connecting a 2 V supply to the output emitter and keeping them floating transmission of logic

symbols through short distance transmission lines of 50 is possible without deterioration.

Disadvantages of ECL gate:
1. Voltage swing between logic levels is small (0.8 V)
2. Noise margin is low (2 to 3 mV)
3. Power dissipation per gate is high, 60 mW
4. Level shifters are necessary to interface with other logic families.
5. Propagation delay gets increased by capacitive loading.
Integrated Injection Logic (I2L)
It is a bipolar technology capable of very high component densities. It has low power requirement and good
switching speed. I2L was developed to improve the performance of DCTL which suffered from current
hogging. It uses very little real estate with the result the density of components on the chip is the highest
among bipolar technologies (at least ten times that of TTL). It also consumes very little power and hence is
very much suited for medium and large scale integration.
VS
Current source
transistor
T1
T2

C1
C2
Multiple
collector
transistor

VS

VS

T1

T1
T2

T2

100

FET/MOSFET and CMOS:

Comparison of p and n channel FETs
PMOS enhancement type has an advantage from the point of mobile positively charged ions within the
substrate tending to migrate towards the gate. NMOS has the advantage of higher mobility of electrons
compared to holes and consequently higher conductivity and low rd. This also makes for higher packing
density. A higher packing density means less junction capacitances making for faster switching speeds.
NMOS requires extensive process control in manufacturing which makes it costlier. Otherwise, NMOS is
used more widely than PMOS.
MOSFET as a switch: The basic circuit of a FET switch is as follows:
VGG

VDD

D
T2

B
S

Output V0
D
B
T1

Input
Vi

This is an enhancement NMOS switch circuit. The lower transistor T1 is called the driver and top transistor
T2 in totem pole arrangement is called the load. By earthing the substrate B of both FETs the substrate may
be common. In transistor T2, G and D are tied so that VGG = VDD.
To function as a switch the driver transistor T1 should be capable of high drain current so that the output
voltage becomes nearly 0 for LOW logic. On the other hand, the load transistor need to deliver only a low
current to function as a large resistor. This opposing requirement is met by proper ratio of channel length to
width.
MOS Logic Gates
From the fundamental function as an inverter by a PMOS or NMOS gate many other logic functions can be
derived.
V =15V
V =15V
PMOS Gates
DD

DD

T3

T3
VO=Y=AB

Y=A+B

T2
B

Vin

T2

T1
A

T1
A
Vin
NAND gate

NOR gate

101

The logic as we have noted in the case of inverter is negative, Transistor T3 is always conducting with its
gate tied to drain and forms a low resistance of 2 K.
Both A and B LOW (0): If the input voltage is less than 4 V, say, VIL = 2.0 V, both transistors are off. The
output voltage will be HIGH (1) 15 (4) = 11 V.
Either A or B LOW and the other HIGH : The LOW input transistor will be off and prevent the other
HIGH input transistor becoming on as the circuit will not be through, the transistors being in series.
Both A and B HIGH: With the inputs being HIGH at 11 V, the transistors go into saturation. The output
voltage becomes LOW at about 2V vide Figure 83. The truth table is
A
B
Y
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
This is the truth table of a NAND gate.
NOR gate
The operation is opposite of the NAND gate; the two transistors T1 and T2 are parallel connected. When
both T1 and T2 are off, the output is HIGH. Either one or both on with a HIGH input, the output is LOW.
The truth table is
A
B
Y
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
This is the truth table of NOR gate.
CMOS Gates: In the discussion on PMOS and NMOS circuits we made out that PMOS goes to the on state
if VGS is greater than 4 the threshold voltage and NMOS switches on if VGS is greater than +4 V. So while
PMOS requires a negative going input, NMOS requires a positive going input. So by a complementary set of
PMOS and NMOS we can alternately switch on and off the two transistors with a single pulse. Such a
device is CMOS- Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor.
CMOS circuit is used with the gates and drains tied respectively to each other of p and n channel so that
even during manufacture they are interconnected and common lead brought out. To S of p channel is
connected the supply voltage and S of n earthed so that supply voltage is designated as VSS.
+V
CMOS inverter
SS

S2
p channel

G2
T2
Vi

D2
G1
T1

V0
D1
n channel

102

When Vi VT(p), T1 is off. If Vi VT(n) is 2V (logic 0) and VSS = 15 V, VGS(2) will be 13 V and so T2 will
be on. The output voltage will be VSS, logic 1. if input voltage is Vi VSS VT(p), T2 will be off and T1 will
be on. That is, HIGH voltage for logic 1 input should be 15 4 = 11 so that VGS(2) < 15 11 4.
For HIGH input T1 will be on and driven to saturation so that V0 is LOW. Thus we obtain inversion
Input/ logic
Output/ logic
< 4V 0
VSS
1
> 11 1
+ 0.5
0
Comparison of Logic families:
TTL
ECL
COMS

Typical values of
output voltage
High, V
Low, V
Noise margin
Low, V
High, V
Fan out
Supply voltage, V
Power dissipation
per gate
Propagation delay
time, ns

Series
54AS/74
AS

Series
54ALS/74ALS

Series
10000H

Series
III

Series
74HC

3.5
0.5

3.4
0.4

0.9
1.75

0.9
1.75

VCC = 0.1
0.1

1.15
1.95
33
5

1.15
1.95
20
5

0.27
0.23
90
5.2

0.2
0.2
70
5.2

2.3
2.7
More than 50
6

8 mW

1.2 mW

25 mW

60 mW

2.5 W

1.7

1.1

0.7

103

Study material for Microwave

Transmission line:
Transmission line may be thought of as a device for transmitting or guiding electrical energy from one point
to another. It guides electrical energy from one place to another place. It is a transmission medium between
transmitting station and antenna.
Application of transmission line:
1. One of most common and widely used applications of transmission lines is to carry RF power from one
point to another.
2. Other application of RF transmission lines is a pure reactive element.
3. The third application of transmission line is in impedance transformation.
Types of transmission line:
Open wire line.
Co-axial cable
Two-Wire Transmission Line
For a two wire transmission line with conductors of radius a and conductivity c with distance between the
two conductors as d in a medium of parameters , and , the capacitance per unit length at high or low
frequencies is expressed as:

C
&C
(a d )
ln (d /a)
1 d
cosh
2a
L
R

d
cosh 1

2a
2

c a2

d
ln
(a d )
a

(At high frequencies)

(At low frequencies)

Characteristics impedance of open wire line:

1. The characteristic impedance (ZO) of two conductor parallel wire line with air dielectric is given by:
Z0

276
2S
log10
Ohm
K
d

S Center to Center spacing of conductors

d Diameter of each conductor
K Dielectric constant
2. It has characteristic impedance of the order of 150 600 ohm.
3. It is balanced transmission line.
4. It is used in frequency range of less than 1 GHZ.
5. Problem in this transmission line is of radiation loss, and which occurs at high frequency.
Characteristics impedance of Co-axial cable:
1. The characteristic impedance (Z0) of a Co-axial cable is given by

104

Z0

138
D
log10
K
d

D Inner diameter of outer conductor

d Outer diameter of inner conductor
2. It has characteristic impedance of the order of 40 to 150 ohm.
3. It is an unbalanced transmission line.
4. It is used in frequency range less than 18GHZ, but more than 1 GHZ.
5. In co-axial cable radiation losses are smaller but dielectric losses are higher.
6. Possible modes in co-axial cable are TE, TM and TEM.
All two conductor lines including co-axial lines belong to TEM mode. Power flows along and between
conductors.
Coaxial transmission line
For a coaxial line as shown in Figure the capacitance C per unit length
2
b
ln
a
The inductance of the coaxial transmission line is

b
L 0 ln
2 a
C

a
c
b

Balun: There is a balancing transformer called, BALUN, Connected between the feeder and receiver input.
Typical example of such a case is 300 ohm line feeder feeding a 75 ohm Television receiver input.
Transmission line losses:
There are 3 major sources of losses in transmission lines.
1. Copper losses (known as I2R loss)
2. Dielectric loss.
3. Radiation loss.
Copper loss is due to resistance associated with the conductors constituting the transmission line. This loss
appears in form of heat, and is frequency dependent and increases with increase in frequency.
Dielectric loss also appears in the form of heat and increases with increases in frequency. This loss is due to
leakage through dielectric.
Radiation loss is due to radiation of RF power to free space or heat by circuits. It is negligible in shielded
transmission line such as co-axial cables.
Equivalent circuit of a transmission line:
A transmission line can be assumed to be made of R, L, G & C.

105

Value of R, L, G, & C are taken as per unit length.

But at high frequency, effect of R & G is neglected and, transmission can be assumed to made of L & C
only.
L
L
L
C

Generally high frequency transmission line can be assumed as an ideal transmission line.
Propagation-constant: Propagation constant (P) of a propagating wave along a transmission line can be
mathematically expressed as
P Z .Y

Where Z is the distributed series impedance per unit length and Y is the distributed shunt admittance per unit
length

P ( R jwL)(G jwC) j
= Attenuation constant Neper / km
= Phase shift constant Rad / km
Here, and P are known as secondary constant, while R, L, G & C are known as primary constant.
Characteristic Impedance (Zo) of transmission line:
Zo of a transmission line is its input impedance if it was infinity long. Thus the Zo of line is its characteristic
parameter and is independent of line length. Also a finite length of a line terminated in its Z o will have its
input impedance equal to characteristic impedance.
Conceptually the Zo of a line depends upon geometry, spacing and size of conductors and also on dielectric
separating the conductors.
Zo of a transmission line is secondary parameter.
Value of & in a transmission line:
GZ 0
R

1.
2Z 0
2
2
1 R
G

2. LC 1

8 L C
Lossless transmission line:

106

1. R G 0
2. 0 Zero attenuation
3. LC is a linear function of frequency
4. v p

1
LC

L
It is a purely resistive
C
Distortion in transmission line:
5. Z 0

Distortion is due to and . If is a function of frequency and is non linear function of frequency, then
distortion will be present.
For distortion less transmission must be a linear function of frequency.
2
1 R
G
LC 1

8 L C

R G
is essential condition for distortion less transmission line.
L C
Loading in transmission line:
To maintain distortion less condition value of Inductors are increased, and which is called as loading in
transmission line.
Various parameters in distortion less transmission line:

So here

1. RG is function of frequency
2. LC or phase shift is a linear function of frequency
3. v p

1
LC

L
R

It is a purely resistive
C
G
So if only transmission line is purely resistive then it may be either distortion less or lossless transmission
line.
Input impedance of a transmission line:
Input impedance of a loss less transmission line of length l which is terminated with load ZR and
characteristic impedance is Z0
4. Z 0

Z jZ 0 tan l
Zi Z 0 R

Z 0 jZ R tan l
Short circuited transmission line: If Transmission line is of characteristic impedance Z0

Zi

l
107

Input impedance of a short circuit transmission line is Z SC jZ 0 tan l

If l < /4 then Short circuited transmission line behaves like an Inductor.
If l = /4 then Short circuited transmission line behaves like a tank circuit or parallel tuned circuit.
If l > /4 then Short circuited transmission line behaves like a capacitor.
Open-circuited transmission line:
Input Impedance of
__________________________
An open circuited
Transmission line is
Z SC jZ 0 cot l

Zi
l
If l < /4, then open circuited transmission line behaves like a capacitor.
If l = /4, then open circuited transmission line behaves like a series tuned circuit.
If l > /4, then open circuited transmission line behaves like an inductor.
/4 length transmission line:
ZO

Zi

ZR

Z0
ZR

l = /4

Zi

Quarter wave length transmission line behaves like an impedance inventor if ZR is purely reactive element
Quarter wave length transmission line is used for impedance transformer if load is purely resistive only.
So /4 length transmission line works like a step up and step down transformer if load is purely resistive
network.
/2 Length transmission line:
Zi Z R

i.e. Load is reflected at the input side.

ZR

Zi

l = /2

/8 Length transmission line: This transmission line is used for Maximum impedance transformation here
input impedance is equal to characteristic impedance of transmission line. Bu load must be purely resistive
only.
Reflection in case of transmission line:
When a transmission line is terminated in load impedance which is not equal to its characteristic impedance
part of signal energy sent down the live is reflected back. The ratio of reflected signal amplitude to incident
one is defined as Reflection coefficient (K) at load -end.
Z Z0
K L
Z L Z0
108

1. If Z L 0 then K 1
2.If Z L Z 0 then K 0

ZO

ZL

3. If Z L then K 1
So Value of reflection coefficient varies between 1 and + 1.
Standing wave formation:
whenever a signal traveling along a transmission line comes across a discontinuity or whenever line is
terminated in a load other than Zo of line a part of whole of incident energy is reflected back. Under such
circumstances we have two counter propagating waves in transmission line.
At all those points where they add produce a signal maximum and at all those points where they are out of
phase they produce a signal minimum.
Thus we have points of signal maxima and signal minima along the live except for the case where there is no
discontinuity and where the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance. Since these points of signal
maxima & minima are motionless, standing waves are said to exist.
Standing wave Ratio:
VSWR on abbreviation for voltage standing wave Ratio is the ratio of Emax to Emin .
It is a measure of the mismatch at the discontinuity. Higher is the value of VSWR indicator greater
mismatching between load and line.

VSWR

1 K
1 K

Value of VSWR lies between 1 and . VSWR has minimum value when line is terminated with
characteristic impedance. While VSWR has maximum value when line is terminated with either open circuit
or short circuit.
VSWR for purely resistive load:
R
VSWR L
If RL R0
R0

VSWR

R0
RL

If R0 RL

R0 Characteristic impedance of line

RL Load
Transmission coefficient for transmission line:
K + 1 =T
K Reflection Coefficient
T Transmission coefficient
Note:
1. Reflection Coefficient varies from -1 to + 1.
2. Voltage standing wave ratio various from 1 to
3. Transmission coefficient various from 0 to 2.
4. Input impedance various from 0 to
109

Stub Matching:
A stub is a shorted or open transmission lines section used in conjunction with transmission line to provide
impedance matching and cancel out reflections.
Introduction of stub does not absorb any power because both short circuit and then circuit stub are purely
reactance.
Impedance transformation from stub:

If ZR is complex load and one want to get impedance match between transmission line and load then Point P
on line is designed in such a manner that normalized admittance seen at point P is 1+Jx. This is decided by
value of LS. Now length of stub (lt), which is connecting in shunt is designed in such a manner that it cancel
out the effect of Jx, and presence an admittance of Jx. Thus there is a perfect match.
A stub a can also be added in series by cutting the main transmission line.
Generally short circuit stubs are preferred because open circuit stubs have radiation problems.
Limitations of single stub matching:
Length of stub and location of stub are frequency dependent, so it can be used at fixed frequency only.
So single stub matching is a narrow band system.
Some time it is impractical to put the stub at the located point. It is quite often so in co-axial lines and
waveguides.
Double stub tuner: For Transmission load matching over r a range of frequency it is best to use it. In double
stub matching two stubs are put across the line at fixed point spaced 3 / 8 apart or even closer.
These stubs have adjustable shorting plungers and these plungers can be adjusted to cancel out most
reflections.
Smith Chart:
It is a plot of normalized impedance or admittance with angle and Magnitude of a generalized reflection
coefficient in a unity circle. It is valid for lossy as well as loss less transmission line. It is also valid for wave
guide. It contains 2 set of lines. The first set of line referred to as constant resistance lines and other set of
line is referred as constant reactance lines.
Constant Resistance circle: (R-circle)

R 2
1
(Kx
) K y2

1 R
1 R

Where K x and K y are on x & y axis respectively. Above equation represent family of circles.
Here each circle represents a fixed resistance i.e. All the points on a particular resistance circle represent the
same resistance. The resistance which there circles represent are marked on horizontal diameter at the points
of intersection of these circles and horizontal line. The outermost resistance circle cutting the horizontal line
on left extreme represents zero resistance .The centre of horizontal diameter is labeled as 1. There 1 means
ZO, because all impedances on this chart have been normalized with respect to Z0.
110

,0
Centre of R circle is:
1 R

Constant Reactance circles: (X-circle):

These lines are not complete circle like the lines of constant resistance but are arcs of complete circles.
The lines in upper half represents positive reactance, while those in lower half represents negative reactance.
So if we superimpose R- circle & X-circle then we will get a smith chart.
Important points about smith chart:
1. A complete revolution about smith chart represents a distance of /2 odd lines.
2. Clock wise movement of chart is regarded as moving towards generator or away from load.
3. Since /2 distance or line corresponds to a movement of 3600 on chart, while a distance corresponds to
7200 movement on chart.
4. Smith chart can be used as both impedance and admittance chart.
5. The circle on smith chart represents normalized constant or conductance while the arcs of circles on
smith chart represent normalized reactances or susceptances.
Application of Smith chart:
(1) SWR for any given transmission line load Mis-match.
(2) Magnitude and angle of reflection coefficient.
(3) The length of short circuited transmission line section of known Z0 to provide the desired input
impedance.
Wave guide:
A waveguide does the same job at microwaves which transmission lines usually do at relatively lower
frequencies. It is a conducting tube through which energy is transmitted in form of electromagnetic waves.
Waveguide is an alternative of transmission line at high frequency especially at microwave frequency.
Waveguide is nothing but conducting medium in which energy is transmitted in form of electromagnetic
waves. The waveguide can assure any shape theoretically but analysis of irregular shape becomes difficult.
Two popular types of waveguide are rectangular and circular.
Generally a rectangular waveguide is characterized by its wide dimension and narrower dimension. A
circular waveguide is characterized by its internal diameter (d).
Generally waveguides are used above 1 GHZ.
Comparison of wave guide and transmission line:
Waveguides is a high pass filter while transmission line is an all pass filter.
In waveguide propagation is in terms of E&H, while in transmission line it is in terms of V&I.
Waveguide does not support TEM mode while transmission line support TEM mode.
D.C. does not pass through waveguide, while in transmission D.C. can pass.
Propagation in rectangular waveguide:

111

In case of rectangular waveguide wave transmits by successive reflections from inner walls of tube. Here
conduction of energy does not take place through conductive walls but through dielectric medium which is
generally air and thats why waveguides are less lossy. Here wave is sent in such a manner that field is
minimum at walls but maximum at centre.
Phase and Group velocity:
Group velocity is the velocity of propagation of modulated signal envelop in a waveguide. While phase
velocity is the velocity of propagation of phase of carrier. Group velocity is less than velocity of light while
phase velocity is greater than velocity of light.
c
vp
f c Cut off frequency
2
f
1 c
f
f Frequency of operation

f
vg c 1 c
f

Waveguide modes:
There will be infinite no of possible electric and magnetic field configuration inside the waveguide, if there
was no upper limit for the frequency of signal to be transmitted. Each of these filed configurations is called a
mode.
TE and TM modes:
In TE-Mode the electric field of lines are entirely transverse to direction of propagation of E.M. wave.
Whereas magnetic field has a component along direction of propagation.
In TM mode the magnetic field of lines are entirely transverse to direction of propagation of E.M. wave
where as electric field has a component along direction of propagation.
Significance of TE mn Mode:
m indicates no of half wave various of electric field in wide dimension of waveguide where as the second
script n, indicates the no. of half wave various of electric field along narrow dimension of waveguide.
Possible modes in TE mn and TM mn:
TE mn :
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 .
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ..
Values of m and n can not be zero together. So TEoo mode is not possible.
TM mn :
m = 1, 2, 3, 4, .
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ..
So here TM mo and TMon modes are not possible.
Rectangular parallel plane waveguide / Guided wave:
The cut- off wavelength (c) of a rectangular parallel plane waveguide with broader dimension (a) is given
2a
where m is no of half wavelength of electric intensity to be established between the walls.
m
The largest value of cut-off wavelength = 2a
Propagation constant in rectangular waveguide:

by c

112

Propagation constant (P) is given by

m n
c 2

a b
2

P c 2 2

where

P j

Attenuation constant Neper / km or dB / km

Phase shift Radian / km
Observation in wave guide:
1. If < c then P will be real and wave will have only attenuation. This type of mode is called as
Evanescent mode. In this mode waveguide behaves like an attenuator.
2. If > c

then P will be imaginary and wave will have only phase shift. Here waveguide behaves like

a high pass filter.

The modes that can exist and sustain in a waveguide are decided by frequency of propagating signal in
addition to waveguide dimension.
Each waveguide mode is characterized by a cut off frequency and if frequency of propagating signal is
greater than cut off frequency then wave will propogate and modes will sustain in waveguide.
TEM- mode does not exist in hollow waveguide but it is the dominant mode of co-axial cable.
Dominant mode in rectangular waveguide:
In case of rectangular waveguide dominant mode is TE10. Dominant mode has the highest cut off
wavelength and the lowest cut off frequency. This mode has the lowest possible distortion.

c (TE10 ) 2a r r

where a is broader dimension of wave guide

c (TE10 ) 2a For free space

f c (TE10 )

c
2a r r

c
For free space
2a
Relation between 0 , c & g :
f c (TE10 )

The wavelength of propagating signal inside the waveguide is different from what it is in free space.
For a given waveguide the two wavelengths are inter-related by:
1
1
1
2 2
2

0 Free space wave length

c Cut off wave length
g Guided wave length
Circular waveguide:
Except formulas of cut- off wave length and cut - off frequency all formulas remain same.
2 a
c
For TEnm
P 'nm
a Radius of Circular waveguide.
113

For TM nm

2 a
Pnm

P 'nm & Pnm are solutions of Bessel function equation.

Possible modes in circular waveguide:

TEnm
n = 0, 1, 2, 3.
m = 1, 2, 3 .
So in case of circular waveguide TE10, TE20, TE30. Tno are not possible. Lowest possible mode is
TE11. In case of circular waveguide dominant mode is TE11.
De generates modes: For different value of m&n if modes have same cut-off frequency then these modes
are called degenerate modes. In case of rectangular waveguide TEmn & TMmn are degenerate modes.
Important points about circular waveguide:
1. If a rectangular waveguide operating in dominant mode is gradually deformed into circular cross section
in direction of propogation then mode at output is TE11.
2. Ratio of cross section of circular waveguide to rectangular waveguide for same cut off frequency in
dominant mode is around 2.19.
3. Advantage of circular waveguide is its symmetrical nature.
Cavity resonator:
At high frequency RLC, circuits are insufficient for resonance due to large size of circuit are replaced by
cavity resonator. Cavity is Band pass Filter.
Formation of Cavity:
Cavity is a rectangular waveguide shorted at both ends. Here energy oscillates from entirely electric to
entirely magnetic twice per cycle. So after every quarter time period energy is transferred from electric to
magnetic and magnetic to electric.
Possible modes in rectangular cavity:
TE mnp :
m = 1, 2, 3
n = 1, 2, 3,
p = 0, 1, 2, 3,.
TM mnp :
m = 0, 1, 2, 3,.
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.
p = 1, 2, 3,.
Dominant modes in rectangular cavity:
In general case, dominant mode is TE101.
So lowest possible mode or dominant mode in case of a cubic resonator of side (a) is
fc (101) = (c/a2)
Cylindrical cavity:

d
If d 2a then dominant mode is TE111 mode.
114

Cylindrical cavity is used in wave meter and mode used for it is TE010, which is not dominant mode.
Equivalent circuit for cavity:

So a cavity can be represented by LCR circuit

Cavity resonators are used as turned circuits at Microwave frequencies. The cavity suffers from
disadvantage that their resonant frequencies are harmonically related and it is a serious draw back in
situations where pulses of energy are fed to cavity.
Waveguide coupling:
Probe coupling and loop coupling are the two commonly used waveguide coupling techniques. Both probe
and loop coupling can be used to launch a particular mode in the waveguide. Probes couple primarily to an
electric field, while loops couple to a magnetic field.
Waveguide diaphragm / Apertures / Irises:
Waveguide diaphragms or apertures or irises are used to provide impedance matching in waveguides as
stubs in case of transmission lines. The diaphragm may be capacitive, inductive or resonant.

Waveguide posts:
Waveguide posts are also used for impedance matching. A cylindrical post extending into the waveguide
from one of the two broadsides has the effect of providing a lumped reactance at that point. The reactance
provided by post may be inductive or capacitive depending upon how for it extends into waveguide. Posts
are easier to adjust as compared to diaphragms.
A coupling probe is places at a point where electric filed has maximum intensity. A coupling loop is placed
at a point of maximum magnetic field intensity.
Antenna &wave propagation:
Antenna is a region of transition between guided wave and free space. An antenna is a passive device and
behavour like an inductor.
115

Hertzian dipole / Short antenna / short dipole:

1. Near filed or Fresnel zone 1/r2
2. Far field or Fraunhoper zone 1 /r
For field represents radiation of antenna and contributes flow of energy away from source. Near field or
induction field represents energy started in magnetic field. Both near and for field are equal at r = ( /2)
Value of E and H in case of hertzian dipole:

The value of fields at point pare calculated.

I m dl sin
2 r

E
I dl sin
120 E m
.120
H
2 r
I m dl sin
.60
r
Effective height of antenna:
In case of antenna effective height is different from its actual height. But in case of sort antenna actual
height & effective height are same.
E

le l

I avg
Im

I avg Aveg . value of current

I m Max m value of current
l Actual height of antenna

1. In case of linear current distriubution

I aveg

I
Im
l
le l avg
2
Im 2

2. In case of sinusoidal current distribution

I aveg

2Im

le l

I avg
Im

2l

Vertical grounded antenna:

Radiation resistance of vertical grounded antenna is

116

 l r
Rr 160 2 e
r
For free space r 1& r 1
2

l
Rr 160 e

This vertical grounded antenna is used for transmission at medium frequency. Power radiated by an antenna
W I rms 2 Rr

is

Value of electric field radiated by vertical grounded antenna:

Value of electric field at a distance r by an antenna which radiates power Wr
90Wr
r

1
r
Value of electric field at a distance r by an isotropic antenna which radiates power Wt
Erms

Erms

30Wt
r

so

so

Erms

Erms

1
r

Note:
1. Radiation resistance of / 2 dipole is 73.0 ohm
2. Radiation resistance of / 4 monopole is 36.5 ohm.
Important formulas of antennas:
1. Radiation intensity U ( , ) : It is nothing but power per unit solid angle.
Total power
4
Pavg

4 r 2
4
Pavg r 2

U ( , )

2. Average value of Radiation Intensity is given by

U avg

Prad
4

Prad U ( , ) sin d d

3. Directive gain (Gd): It is ratio of radiation intensity to average value of radiation intensity.
U ( , )
Gd ( , )
U avg
4. Directivity(D): It is the value of antenna is given as maximum value of directive gain
U ( , ) max
D Gd ( , ) max
U avg
5. Power gain(GP):
4 U ( , )
GP
Pin
117

6. Directive gain (Gd):

4 U ( , )
Gd
Prad
7. Efficiency of antenna:

Gp
Gd

Prad
Rr

Pin
Rr Rl

Rr Radiation Resistance
Rl Ohmic loss in antenna

Radiation equation:
Tx

Rx

d
If Pt is power transmitted by antenna and Pr is power received by antenna. If Gt and Gr are gain of Tx and Rx
antenna.

Pr PG
t t Gr

4 d
operating wavelength
d distance between Tx and R x antenna
2

(Pt )dB -(Pr )dB 22 20 log

(G t )dB (G r )dB

Isotropic antenna:
1. Gain value is 1.
2. Gain value is 0-dB
3. Ae = 0.082
Hertzian- dipole:
1. Gain value is 1.5
2. Gain value is 1.76 dB
3. Rr = 802 (l/)2
4. Ae = 0.12 2
/ 2 dipole antenna:
1. Gain value is 1.64
2. Gain value is 2.15 dB
3. Radiation resistance is 73.0 ohm
4. Ae = 0.13 2
/ 4 monopole antenna:
1. Gain value is 3.28
118

2. Gain value is 5.15 dB

3. Radiation resistance is 36.5 ohm
4. Ae = 0.26 2
Radiation resistance of Loop antenna:
Rr = 320 4

(A / 2)2

Here A is area of loop antenna

A = r2: r is radius of Loop.

If Loop antenna has N- turns then
Rr = 320 4 N2 (A / 2)2

Rr N2
Directivity of antenna:
4
Gd
HPBW HPBW

Gd

41000
HPBW HPBW

where HPBW & HPBW are in Radians.

where HPBW & HPBW are in degree.

Gain of antenna:
Directivity of antenna is
4
D 2 Ae

Here is operating wavelength and Ae is the effective area of antenna.

Q.
Calculate the gain of an antenna with a circular aperture of diameter 3 meter at a frequency of 5
GHz.
Sol:

Sol : D

Ae

4
32

24649
(3 / 50) 2
4

2
Parabolic Reflector:
In case of parabolic reflector effective area is around 60% of total area.
G = 6 (D /)2
G Gain of parabolic antenna
D Diameter of antenna
Wavelength.
140
In degree
BWFN
D
70
BWFN
In degree
D
Note: From above formula it is clear that by increasing the frequency value of decreases which means
BWFN decreases and value of directivity increases.
Aperture number:
Ratio of focal length to diameter is
f/D = 0.25 Cot / 2
Generally f/D is between (0.2 0.5)
Antenna array:

119

By putting antenna in a proper arrangement one can get directivity of antenna in desired direction this
arrangement is called antenna array.
Advantages of antenna array:
1. Broad side array:
It is a linear array of n, isotropic point sources, which have some magnitude and phase. In broad side array
maximum radiation will be perpendicular to axis AA, while mill radiation will be along AA. To avoid
grating to be /2
1

A
A
2. End fire array:
It is a linear array of n, isotropic point sources, which have same magnitude but out of phase in this case end
fire array maximum radiation will be along axis AA, while null radiation will be perpendicular to AA.
Broad side array:
1. Length of array = (n 1) d n.d
57.30
2. HPBW=
Here L = n.d
L/
3. BWFN =

114.6 0
L/

4. Directivity = (2L/)
End fire array:
2
1. HPBW= 57.30
L/
2
L/
3. Directivity=(4L/)
Note: The BWFN for End fire array is always greater than that of Broad side array. So For End fire array
under identical conditions the range of transmission is less and the area of coverage is more than that of
broad side array.
Antenna&wave propagation:
Different modes of propagation for EM wave are:
1. Ground wave propagation (< 2MHZ)
2. Ionospheric wave propagation (2 30 MHZ)
3. Line of sight wave propogation (>30MHZ)
4. Tropospheric / Beyond the horizon (>300MHZ)
Ground wave propagation:
It is also known as medium wave propogation. It is generally used for broadcasting medium wave & long
wave. Ground wave propagation is a wave which is guided along earth as in case of a waveguide.
Ground wave propogation is produced by vertical antenna only (which is vertically polarized) because
horizontal component of EM wave will be short circuited and i.e. why horizontal antenna is not used.
120

2. BWFN= 114.60

Ground wave propagation cannot be used at a frequency which is greater than 2MHZ due to high
attenuation.
Sky wave propagation:

Ionosphere is made up of 4 layers D, E, F1 & F2. In night both D&E layers will disappear & F1 & F2 will
merge together. So at night only 1 layer F layer is present.
Concept of sky wave propagation:
Ionosphere has free electrons and ions. Due to EM wave dielectric constant will be reduced and it will cause
reflection of EM wave from ionosphere. If any wave which has a frequency greater than 30 MHZ will
penetrate ionosphere and transmit the ionosphere.
R.I= 1
Q.

81N
f2

Calculate the value of frequency at which an EM wave must be propagated through the D region
with an index of refraction of 0.5 and an electron density of 3.24 104 electrons / m3

Sol:

81N
81 3.24 104

0.5

f2
f2

f 1870.61Hz

Maximum Usable Frequency and Critical frequency:

Critical frequency is the highest frequency reflected by ionosphere at vertical incidence but it is not the
highest frequency for general angle of incidence.
Critical frequency fc 9 Nmax
Here Nmax is the maximum ionic density.

D
MUF f c sec i f c 1
2h
D Skip distance
h Virtual height

Skip distance is the minimum value of distance for a particular value of incident angle.
Fading: Fluctuation of signal strength at receiver end is called as fading. Fading occurs at high frequency
and can be overcome by:
1. Automatic volume control
2. Frequency density
3. Space density

121

Space wave propagation:

Radio- horizon = 4.12 ht km

where ht is in meter.

4
Radio horizon= Optical horizon
3
Distance between TX and RX antenna is

4.12 ht 4.12 hr Km

where ht & hr arein meter

Electric field at receiver antenna is

88 P ht hr
d 2
ER ht hr
ER

1
d2
Transpospheric scattering wave propagation:
It is used at VHF & UHF frequency range.
Super refraction or ducting:
It is used in frequency range from (300 MHZ 30 GHZ)
Microwave:
Microwave is the range of frequencies which lies between 1-300GHz. Microwaves are the wavelengths
which are measured in centimeter. Microwave is a signal which has wavelength less than 1Foot. Microwave
signal Contains UHF, SHF&EHF.
Important frequency range:
1. Medium wave: 300 KHz-3MHz.
2. Short wave:3MHz-30MHz
3. Very High Frequency:30MHz-300MHz
4. Ultra High Frequency:300MHz-3GHz
5. Super High Frequency:3GHz-30GHz
6. Extra High Frequency:30GHz-300GHz
Microwave frequency band:
1. L-band: (1-2 GHz)
2. S-band:(2-4 GHz)
3. C-band:(4-8GHz)
4. X-band:(8-12GHz)
5. Ku-band:(12-18GHz)
6. K-band:(18-27GHz)
122
ER

7. Ka-band:(27-40GHz)
Advantages of microwave:
1. Ability to use high gain antenna
2. Ability to use high directive antenna
3. Greater privacy or secure communication
4. Increased value of bandwidth
Applications of microwave:
1. Used in telecommunication
2. Used in Radar
3. Used in Electronic Count Measure(ECM)
4. They are also used in industrial, scientific and medical field.
Microwave systems:
A microwave system normally consists of a transmitter subsystem, including a microwave oscillator,
waveguides, and a transmitting antenna, and a receiver subsystem that includes a receiving antenna,
transmission line or waveguide, a microwave amplifier, and a receiver.
Figure shows a typical microwave system.
In order to design a microwave system and conduct a proper test of it, an adequate knowledge of the
components involved is essential. Besides microwave devices, the text therefore describes microwave
components, such as resonators, cavities, microstrip lines, hybrids, and microwave integrated circuits.
Microwave
source
Wavemeter

Calibrated
attenuator

Transmitting
horn antenna

Receiving
horn antenna

Output to
oscilloscope or
power meter

Waveguide
termination
Waveguides

Stand

Stand

Crystal
mount
Stand

Microwave measurement:
The quantities required to be measured in microwave circuits are frequency, power and impedance.
Microwave frequency measurement is done by slotted line, resonant cavities
And transfer oscillator. Microwave measurement uses bolometer and microwave power
meters. Microwave impedance measurement is done by measurement of reflection coefficient and
VSWR.slotted line and probe is a basic tool for these measurements.
Measurement of power:
1. Low power (0.01 mw-10mw): For low power measurement Bolometer or thermocouple method is used.
Concept of bolometer is based upon change of resistance with respect to power. If positive temperature
coefficient of resistance then Barretrs and for negative temperature coefficient of resistance thermistor is
used.
123

2. Medium power(10 mw-1w)&high power(>10w): For this power measurement

Calorimetric wattmeter method is used.
Measurement of VSWR:
1. Low value of VSWR(S<10): Instrument used for low value of VSWR is VSWR meter.
2. High value of VSWR(S>10): For high value of VSWR method used is double minima method.
Measurement of Impedance:
1. High value of Magic-T
2. By slotted line method
3. By reflectometer
Calculation of VSWR by reflectometer:
If Pi is the incident power and Pr is the reflected power in case of reflectometer then value of reflection
coefficient will be
1/2

K= (Pr/Pi)

Once value of reflection coefficient is known then one can calculate VSWR.
Wave meter:
It is a single cylindrical cavity .It uses a short circuit plunger which can change the resonance frequency of
cavity by changing its length. Most suitable mode for cylindrical
Cavity is TE011due to its higher value of quality factor.
Scattering parameter(S-Matrix):
At microwave frequency elements behave like distributed elements so measurement of voltage and current is
not possible and i.e. why impedance parameters are not possible
but at microwave frequency direct measurement of power is possible and i.e. why scattering matrix is
possible. These parameters are called scattering parameters because of multiple reflections at microwave
junction.
Properties of S-matrix:
1. It is a square matrix
2. It is a symmetric matrix
3. It is unitary matrix
Waveguide Corners, Bends, and Twists:
The waveguide corner, bend, and twist are shown in Figure. These waveguide components are normally
used to change the direction of the guide through an arbitrary angle.
In order to minimize reflections from the discontinuities, it is desirable to have the mean length L between
continuities equal to an odd number of quarter-wavelengths. That is,
L 2n 1

g
4

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ., and g is the wavelength in the waveguide. If the mean length L is an odd number
of quarter wavelengths, the reflected waves from both ends of the waveguide section are completely
canceled. For the waveguide bend, the minimum radius of curvature for a small reflection is given by
Southworth [2] as where a and b are the dimensions of the waveguide bend as illustrated in

124

b
a

....
.
........
.....
..

..
.....
........
.
....

(a)

(b)

L
(c)

(d)

Tee junctions:
In microwave circuits a waveguide or coaxial-line junction with three independent ports is commonly
referred to as a tee junction. From the S-parameter theory of a microwave junction it is evident that a tee
junction should be characterized by a matrix of third order containing nine elements, six of which should be
independent. The characteristics of a three-port junction can be explained by three theorems of the tee
junction. These theorems are derived from the equivalent-circuit representation of the tee junction. Their
statements follow:
1. A short circuit may always be placed in one of the arms of a three-pot junction in such a way that no
power can be transferred through the other two arms.
2. If the junction is symmetric about one of its arms, a short circuit can always be placed in that arm so that
no reflections occur in power transmission between the other two arms.
(That is the arms present matched impedances.)
It is impossible for a general three-port junction of arbitrary symmetry to present matched impedances at all
three arms
Waveguide junctions:
Waveguide junctions are used whenever it is desired to combine two or more signals into one or split a
signal into two or more components in a waveguide system. The commonly used waveguide junctions
include T junction and hybrid junctions .E-plane Tee junction and H-plane Tee junctions are the two popular
Tee junction. In E-plane Tee all the arms lie in plane of electric field while all the three arms of H-plane Tee
lie in plane of magnetic field.
H plane Tee:
1

H-PLAN TEE

It is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the width of main waveguide. Here port 1 &2 are called
collinear ports while port-3 is called as H-arm or side arm. All three arms of H-plane T lie in plane of
magnetic field .It is also called as shunt-T or current junction.
A signal in H arm splits equally into coplanar arms. If lengths of coplanar arm are equal then output electric
fields are in phase. It is clear that power coming out of port 1 and port 2 is 3dB down or reduced to half with
respect to port-3.It is also called as 3dB splitter.
125

E plane Tee:
3

E-PLANE TEE

It is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the broader dimension of main waveguide. Here port 1 &2
are called collinear ports while port-3 is called as E-arm .All three arms of E-plane T lie in plane of electric
field .It is also called as series -T or voltage junction.A signal in E arm splits equally into coplanar arms. If
the Tee is fed at port 3 and lengths of port 1 and port 2 are equal then electric fields at two outputs are 180 0
out of phase. The power delivered at port 1 and ports 2 are equal. It is clear that power coming out of port 1
and port 2 is 3dB down or reduced to half with respect to port-3.It is also called as 3dB splitter.
The S-matrix for E-plane Tee is as follows.
Magic Tee: It is a four port device and is a combination of E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee. Ports 1 and port 2
are called coplanar arms .Port 3 is called as E-arm and port 4 is called as H-arm. The features of magic Tee
are
Ar
-3
m

Arm-1

Arm-2

MAGIC-TEE

1. All ports are perfectly matched

2. If a signal is fed at coplanar arms 1 or (2) it splits equally between E&H arms. At each output port
Pout=0.5Pin and Vout=0.707Vin.There will be no output at other coplanar arms 2or(1)
3. If a signal is fed in H-arm it splits equally between coplanar arms the outputs in coplanar arms being in
phase equidistant from junction. There will be no output at E port.
4. If a signal is fed in E-arm it splits equally between coplanar arms the output being 1800 out of phase
equidistant from junction.
The Magic Tee has a property that the arms 3 &4 are both individually connected to arms 1 and 2 i.e. arms 3
is connected to arm 1 and arm 2 and arm 4 is also connected to arms 1 and arm2 but they are not connected
to each other. One of the common applications of Magic tee is in the front end of a microwave receiver. In
this application the antenna and local oscillator may respectively feed arms 3 and arms 4 with mixer
connected to arm 2 and a matched termination to arm 1.
Applications of magic Tee:
1. Used as a mixer
2. Used as a duplexer
3. Used for impedance measurement
126

Hybrid rings:
2 Z0

Z0

Z0

Port 1

Port 3
2 Z0

2 Z0

Port 4

Port 2
Z0

2 Z0

Z0

It is also called as Rat-race but it has a annular ring to which are connected four ports. The ports 1 and ports
2 are decouple while ports 3 and ports 4 are decoupled. Their features are
1. A signal entering port 1 or port 2 is split equally between port 3 and port 4.
2. A signal entering port 3 or port 4 is split equally between ports 1 and ports 2.
Directional coupler:
Wave guides directional couplers like transmission lines directional couplers are mainly used for
unidirectional power flow measurement and SWR measurement.
It is a 4 port device in which portions of forward and reverse traveling waves are separately coupled to two
of the ports. In simple terms it consists of two transmission lines and a mechanism for coupling signals
between them. Their features are
PORT-1

PORT-2

PORT-3

PORT-4

1. A portion of wave traveling from port 1 to port 2 is coupled to port 4 but not to port 3.
2. A portion of wave travelling from port 2 to port 1 is coupled to port 3but not to port 4 .
3. A portion of wave travelling from port 3 to port 4 is coupled to port 2 but not port 1.
4. A portion of wave travelling form port 4 to port 3 is coupled to port 1and not port 2.
Coupling factor:
It is the ratio of incident power to forwarded power
C=10log(P1/P4) Coupling factor measures of how much incident power is being sampled.
Directivity:
It is the ratio of forwarded power to backward power
D=10log (P4/P3) Directivity measures distinction between forward and reverse travelling wave power.
Isolation factor: It is the sum of both coupling factor and directivity.
127

S-matrix of 2-hole directional coupler is

S12
0
S14
0

0
S23
0
12

0
S23
0
S34

0
S34
0
S14

It can also be written in other form as follows:

p
0
jq
0
p 0

jq 0

0
jq 0
p

p
0
jq 0

Two-Hole Directional Couplers:

A two-hole directional coupler with traveling waves propagating in it is illustrated in Fig. 4-5-3. The spacing
between the centers of two holes must be
L (2n 1)

g
4

where n is any positive integer.

L = (2n + 1)
Primary

waveguide

Port 1

Port 2

Port 3 Canceled

Added Port 4

Secondary

waveguide

A fraction of wave energy entered into port 1 passes through the holes and is radiated into the secondary
guide as the holes act as slot antennas. The forward waves in the secondary guide are in the same phase,
regardless of the hole space, and are added at port 4. The backward waves in the secondary guide (waves are
progressing from right to left) are out of phase by (2L/g)2 rad and are canceled at port 3.
S- Matrix of a Directional Coupler:
In a directional coupler all four ports are completely matched. Thus the diagonal elements of the S matrix
are zeros and
S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0
As noted, there is no coupling between port 1 and port 3 and between port 2 and port 4. Thus
S13 = S31 = S24 = S42 = 0
Consequently the S matrix of a directional coupler becomes

0
S
S 21
0

S41

S12
0

0
S23

S32
0

0
S43

S14
0
S34

0
128

Microwave Circulators:
A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow only from the nth port
to the (n + 1)th port in one direction .Although there is no restriction on the number of ports, the four-port
microwave circulator is the most common. One type of four-port microwave circulator is a combination of
two 3-dB side-hole directional couplers and a rectangular waveguide with two nonreciprocal phase shifters
as shown in Figure. Port 4
Coupler 1
Coupler 2
Primary guide
Phase shifter
Port 1

Port 3

Port 2

180

Port 1

90

90

270

Port 3
Phase shifter

Port 2

180
Port 4

90

Secondary guide

The operating principle of a typical microwave circulator can be analyzed with the aid of given Figure.
Each of the two 3-dB couplers in the circulator introduces a phase shift of 90, and each of the two phase
shifters produces a certain amount of phase change in a certain direction as indicated. When a wave is
incident to port 1, the wave is split into two components by coupler 1. The wave in the primary guide arrives
at port 2 with a relative phase change of 180. The second wave propagates through the two couplers and the
secondary guide and arrives at port 2 with a relative phase shift of 180. Since the two waves reaching port 2
are in phase, the power transmission is obtained from port 1 to port 2. However, the wave propagates
through the primary guide, phase shifter, and coupler 2 and arrives at port 4 with a phase change of 270.
The wave travels through coupler 1 and the secondary guide, and it arrives at port 4 with a phase shift of 90.
Since the two waves reaching port 4 are out of phase by 180, the power transmission from port 1 to pot 4 is
zero. In general, the differential propagation constants in the two directions of propagation in a waveguide
containing ferrite phase shifters should be

1 3 (2m 1)
rad /s
2 4 2n
rad /s
Where m and n are any integers, including zeros. A similar analysis shows that a wave incident to port 2
emerges at port 3 and so on. As a result, the sequence of power flow is designated as 1 2 3 4 1.
A perfectly matched, lossless, and nonreciprocal four-port circulator has an S matrix of the form

0
S
S 21
S31

S41

S14
S24
S32 0 S34

S42 S43 0
Using the properties of S parameters as described previously, the above S matrix can be simplified to
S12
0

S13
S23

129

0
1
S
0

0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0

0 1 0

Circulators:
It is a 3port device and in this case signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2(but not to port 3) from port 2
to port 3(but not port 1 ) and then from port 3 to port 1(but not port 2). S-matrix of a circulator is as follows
0
S
21
0

S13

S32

PORT-1

PORT-2

PORT-3

It is impossible to construct a perfectly matched lossless reciprocal 3 port junction. Circulators are used in
duplexer, parametric amplifier and tunnel diode.
Ferrite devices: A ferrite is a ceramic like material with relative permeability of several thousands and
specific resistance of about 1014 times that of metals. The chemical composition is manganese, oxygen and
ferrous etc. Ferrites are used in fabrication of microwave isolators, circulators and resonators etc.
Yitrium Iron Garnet (YIG) is a rare earth material having ferromagnetic properties but very low losses. It is
used in fabrication of microwave resonators and its resonance frequency can be changed by changing
magnetic field strength.
Gyrators: It is a device in which a relative phase difference f 1800 from port 1 to port 2 but no phase
difference from port 2 to port 1.

PORT-1

PORT-2

GYRATOR

Isolators: It is a 2 port non reciprocal device which provides a minimum attenuation to EM wave in one
direction and very high attenuation in opposite direction. Ferrite based isolators are of two types namely
Faraday rotation isolators used for powers up to a few hundred watts and resonant absorption isolators used
for higher powers.
SOURCE

ISOLATOR

LOAD

Microwave Isolators:
An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one component from reflections of
other components in the transmission line. An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for propagation in
one direction and provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction. Thus the isolator is usually called
uniline. Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave generators, such as
klystrons and magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load affects the generating frequency. In such
130

cases, the isolator placed between the generator and load prevents the reflected power from the unmatched
load from returning to the generator. As a result, the isolator maintains the frequency stability of the
generator.
Isolators can be constructed in many ways. They can be made by terminating ports 3 and 4 of a four-port
circulator with matched loads. On the other hand, isolators can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the
axis of a rectangular waveguide as shown in given Figure. The isolator here is a Faraday-rotation isolator. Its
operating principle can be explained as follows .The input resistive card is in the y-z plane, and the output
resistive card is displaced 45 with respect to the input card. The dc magnetic field, which is applied
longitudinally to the ferrite rod, rotates the wave plane of polarization by 45. The degrees of rotation
depend on the length and diameter of the rod and on the applied dc magnetic field. An input TE10 dominant
mode is incident to the left end of the isolator. Since the TE10 mode wave is perpendicular to the input
resistive card, the wave passes through the ferrite rod without attenuation. The wave in the ferrite rod section
is rotated clockwise by 45 and is normal to the output resistive card. As a result of rotation, the wave arrives
45
at the output

45

Output
waveguide

Direction
of rotation
Resistive
vane

x
z
Input
waveguide

H
Magnetic
field

Ferrite rod
Reflected
y wave
vector

Microwave amplifiers and oscillators:

Microwave devices:
These devices are used for high power and high frequency. These devices can be categorized as follows.
1. Cross field devices: Example is magnetron which is a high power oscillator.
2. Velocity modulated devices: examples are 2-cavity klystron, multi cavity klystron and reflex klystron. In
which 2 cavity and multi cavity are amplifiers while reflex klystron is Oscillator.
3. Traveling wave tubes: It is a broad band amplifier. It can be categorized into helix and coupled cavity
type of TWTs
O-type tubes (linear beam tubes): These are linear beam tubes. Examples are TWT and klystron type of
tubes.O-type tubes can be categorized into 3 types
1. Cavity type: Klystron is an example of it.
2. Slow-wave structure: TWT is an example of it. It is of 2 types forward wave and backward wave. In
forward it behaves like an amplifier while in backward it behaves like an oscillator.
3. Hybrid tubes: It is combination of TWT and klystron
M-type tubes (cross field device): Here magnetic field is perpendicular. It is again of 2 types
131

1. Resonant structure: Magnetron is the best example of resonant structure

2. Non resonant structure:
1. FW-CFA:
2. FW-CFO: Dematron
3 .BW-CFA: Amplitron
4 .BW-CFO: Carcinotron
Comparision of O-type and M-tube:
1. In O-type energy conversion is from kinetic energy to radio frequency energy but in case of M-type it is
from potential energy to radiofrequency energy.
2. In O-type E&H fields are parallel to direction of electron flow and H is used for focusing while in case
of M-type E&H are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to direction of propagation.
3. In O type analyses is easy while in M type it is difficult
4. O type has low value of gain but M-type has moderate gain
5. O type has moderate efficiency and moderate output while M type has high efficiency and high output.
6. In O type noise is low but in M type it is high.
Microwave triodes:
Oscillator circuits using vacuum tubes have the following limitations at very high frequencies or microwave
frequencies.
1. The stray capacitances and inductances become important and affect the operation of the circuit.
2. At low frequencies the transit time between cathode and anode is a small fraction of period of
oscillation. However at microwave frequencies this transit time becomes comparable to time period of
oscillations.
If a vacuum tube a triode for instance is to be used at microwave frequencies the internal capacitances and
inductances must be reduced and transit time must be minimized.
Problems due to transit time effect:
1. There is problem in design
2. More power is absorbed or grid loss is increased
3. Effect of noise will be increased
Solution to overcome transit time effect:
1. Both electrodes are brought close together
2. Voltage is increased at anode
3. Higher anode current is used.
Two-cavity klystron:
Two cavity klystron tubes make use of transit time effect for this operation. A high velocity electron beam is
produced by oxide coated indirectly heated cathode and is focused and accelerated by focusing electrode.
This beam is transmitted through a glass tube. The beam passes a gap in the buncher cavity. The RF signal
to be amplified is applied to buncher cavity. As electrons move ahead they see an accelerating field for half
cycles and retarding field for the other half cycle. Therefore some electrons are accelerated and some are
retarded. This process is called velocity modulation. The velocity modulation causes bunching of electrons.
This bunching effect converts velocity modulation into density modulation of beam.
132

Buncher
cavity

Catcher
cavity

Input
Cathode

Output

.. . . ...... . .... .... .............. .... .... ........ ...................... . . ...... . .... .... .............. .... .... ............. ......................
.......................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................. ....................................
. . . .. . . . . . . ... . . .
........... . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . ......... ..... . . ..

Collector

Drift space

Note:
The beam is allowed to drift freely till it reaches another gap in the catcher cavity. Oscillations are excited in
the catcher cavity the power of these oscillations is much higher than that in buncher cavity. The drift space
is pretty long and transit time in this space is made use of to form electron bunches as shown. The gaps must
be so small that the voltage across them does not change significantly during the passage of a bunch of
electrons.
Different modulations in 2-cavity klystron:
1. Velocity modulation in buncher cavity
2. Density modulation in drift space
3. Current modulation in catcher cavity
Bunching is not complete in 2 cavity klystron so gain value will be very low.
Efficiency of 2 cavity klystron:
Maximum efficiency of 2 cavity klystron is 58% but in general case this value is 15-30%.
Oscillations in 2 cavity klystron:
If a portion of signal in a catcher cavity is coupled back to buncher cavity then oscillations will take place
but condition is that feedback of output to input cavity must be in proper phase and it must have correct
polarity and sufficient amplitude.
Multi-cavity klystron:
To improve efficiency and power gain of 2 cavity klystron extra cavities are used and up to 7 cavities can be
used. In case of multi cavity klystron each intermediate cavity is placed at a distance of 1.841 away from
previous cavity and this will increase velocity modulation. Here each intermediate cavity is buncher cavity.
If intermediate cavities are tuned to same frequency (Synchronous tunning) then gain and efficiency will
increase but not the bandwidth. If cavities are tuned to different frequency (Stagger tunning) then other than
gain and efficiency bandwidth is also increased.
Important features of multi cavity:
1. Frequency range: 0.25GHz to 100GHz
2. Power output: 10kw to several hundred KW
3. Power gain: 60dB
4. Efficiency: about 40%
Reflex klystron:
It is a klystron like microwave tube with only one cavity (which can be used as both buncher and catcher
cavity) and a repeller electrode. Its parts are electron gun, resonator, repeller and output coupling. This
operates on the principle of positive feedback. The repeller electrode with a very high negative potential
133

provides the feedback and converts tube into oscillator. Reflex klystron is a low efficiency low power
microwave oscillator.
It has small electron gun compared to multi cavity because device is short and does not require focusing.
Focussing
electrode

Output
Electron beam

Repeller

.. . .. ...... . .... .... .............. .... ............. . .. ...... . .... .... ..............
.............................................................................................................................................................
. . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ...
Cavity (Anode)

Operation of reflex klystron:

Here electrons never reach the repeller because it has a high negative voltage and after covering some
distance electrons will be turned back. If voltages are properly chosen then returning electrons will give
more energy to gap than it took from gap in onward journey and continuous oscillation will take place. Here
the positive voltage on the anode and negative voltage on the repeller electrode are critical to operation and
need to be carefully adjusted and also need to be highly regulated.
Transit time in reflex klystron:
If energy delivered by bunching electrons to cavity in returning energy is greater than energy loss in cavity
then cavity can sustain oscillations at resonance frequency of cavity
So optimum transit time for bunches to arrive at cavity is n+3/4 cycles after beam initially left the cavity.
Different values of n will give different modes. These modes in a reflex klystron give same frequency but
different transit times.
Specification of reflex klystron:
1. Operating frequency is 4-200 GHz
2. Output power is 100mw.
3. Maximum efficiency is 22.7% but for low power oscillations it is in range of 10%
4. Reflex klystron is preferred to 2 cavity klystron because reflex klystron is easier to tune than 2-cavity
klystron.
Applications of reflex klystron:
1. Signal source in microwave generator
2. Local oscillator in microwave receiver
3. Pump oscillator for parametric amplifier.
4. Included in radar receiver
Travelling wave tube:
A travelling wave is basically a microwave amplifier like a klystron. This is a linear beam amplifier, has
high value of bandwidth &gain and also has low noise figure. However it is different from klystron in sense
that interaction between electron beam and RF field is continuous. In klystron the resonant structure limits
the bandwidth but TWT provides large value of bandwidth and can be used as a medium or high power
pulsed or CW microwave amplifier.
134

Input
guide

Output
guide

Attenuator

Magnetic
field
.. . . ...... . .... .... ... ....... .. ... ....... . ... . .... .
................................................. ........ ........... .......... .......... ........
.. . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .

................................................................... ....... ................ ............. ......

... . ..... ... . ............. ... . .........
................................................. ....

Helix

Glass
tube

Electron
beam

........................
.
.......... .................

...... ..........
...........

Collector

Types of slow wave structure:

1. Helix: It has non resonant structure and can provide large value of bandwidth. But at high frequency and
high power performance of helix is reduced.
2. Coupled cavity: It is used for high power and high frequency but it is limited up to 100GHz Only.
3. Ring bar: This is used for frequency more than 100GHz.
Focusing in TWT: Focusing of electron beam is done with the help of
1. Permanent magnet
2. Electro magnet
3. Solenoid
4. Periodic permanent magnet
In general case periodic permanent magnet is used to reduce the bulk of permanent magnet.
Attenuators in TWT:
In case of TWT gain is increased continuously and due to continuous bunching there may be chance of
oscillations and thats why there is need of attenuator to reduce gain and prevent oscillations. The attenuator
may be lossy metallic coating and kanthal&aquadag.
Operation of Travelling Wave Tube amplifier:
A narrow electron beam is sent through the centre of a long axial helix which is made positive with respect
to cathode. The collector is made more positive with respect to helix. The beam acquires a high velocity.
The RF signal is applied to input end of helix this field propagates around the helix with a speed equal to
velocity of light in free space. The axial velocity of this electric field is however equal to velocity of light
multiplied by ratio of helix pitch to circumference. The axial velocity can be made equal to electron beam
velocity. The axial RF field and the electron beam interact continuously
The electron beam bunching gives energy to the field. The interaction between the beam and RF field is
similar to that of magnetron.TWT is preferred to magnetron for use in Radar transmitter because it is
capable of longer duty cycle.
Why high value of gain in TWT:
Here RF field and electron beam interact continuously and gives almost complete bunching and which will
give high value of gain.
Backward wave amplifier: It is similar to TWT but only difference is that position of output and inputs are
interchanged. But bandwidth of backward amplifier is less than TWT.
135

Backward oscillator: This oscillator is obtained by BWA by some modification.

BWO is based upon TWT.
Twystron: It is combination of both TWT and Klystron and generally at input side
multi-cavity klystron is used and output side TWT is used.
Magnetron:
1. It is a cross field amplifier.
2. It is a high power amplifier
3. It has high efficiency
Concept of magnetron:
If a magnetic field is zero then all electrons will move from cathode to anode but if certain value of magnetic
field is applied then electrons will not reach at the anode.
But if a magnetic field greater than cut-off magnetic field is applied then all electrons will come back at
cathode forming a cloud known as Brillioun cloud. In case of magnetron permanent magnets are used to
ensure that electrons will orbit around the cathode.
Anode
cavities
Cathode

Output
Interaction
space
Gaps

Mode jumping: Magnetron acts as a transmission line filter in which various modes differ very little in
frequency from each other so due to nearness of frequency one mode will jump to another mode. Strapping
is used to avoid mode jumping and by use of strapping separation between frequency of two modes become
25-30%.It means wires are connected in magnetron.
Rising sun magnetron: No of modes in this magnetron are same as strapped magnetron but here half no of
modes are resonant at a frequency above mode and other half are resonant at a frequency above mode.
But in case of strapped magnetron all modes are resonant below mode. In case of rising sun magnetron
frequency separation is increased.
Tunnel Diode:
Tunnel diode is a voltage controllable negative resistance device having V-I characteristics expressed by
single valued function of voltage negative resistance differential resistance. It can behaves like an oscillator
or amplifier in microwave band. In this output power is very low and is of the order of mill watt .In this case
doping value is very high and generally 1000 times higher than normal diode. Tunnel diode has high speed,
low power operation, low weight and low value of noise. Materials used for tunnel diode is Ge,Si,GaAs and
GaSb. But generally used materials are Ge not Si because Si has higher value of noise, high forbidden gap
and low mobility.
136

Applications of tunnel diode:

1. Used for microwave amplifications
2. Used for high speed switching
3. Used as low noise amplifier and mixer
4. Due to high speed device and high speed switching logic it is used for binary memory.
5. They are used as moderate to low noise preamplifiers in all kinds of microwave receivers up to a
frequency range of 50GHz.
Backward diode: If tunnel diode works in Reverse bias with large value of reverse current then these types
of diode are called as backward diodes. But for higher values of reverse bias there will be zener break down.
Varactor diode: This diodes work in reverse bias and value of capacitance decreases with increase in
reverse bias voltage. This is also known as voltage variable capacitor.
Varactor diode is used for frequency multiplication due to variation of its capacitor.
Application of varactor diodes are in electronic tuning and parametric amplifier.
Most important application of varactor diode is in frequency multiplication and can never be used for
frequency oscillation within the useful operating region the varactor diode is equivalent to capacitance in
series with a resistance at high frequency. The high frequency cut-off is used as the figure of merit for
varactors.
Step recovery diode: It is similar in construction to varactor diode. It stores charge however when it is
conducting with a forward bias and it generates a current pulse rich in harmonics when it is made to
discharge by applying a reverse bias. It works like varactor diode and is used for frequency multiplication
but with higher value of factor than varactor diode. Varactor diodes are used at very high frequency while
step recovery at lower than varactor diode. It is also known as snap-off varactor.
Gunn-diode:
Transferred Electron Effect (TED) (Gunn Effect):
If sufficient voltage is applied across material like GaAs, InP,CdTl&InAs then electrons will acquire higher
value of energy and will transfer to higher energy band form lower energy band .This will result decrease in
mobility i.e. value of current is decreased by increasing voltage and shows negative resistance phenomenon.
This effect occurs in N-type material only.
RIDLEYWATKINSHILSUM (RWH) THEORY
Differential Negative Resistance
The fundamental concept of the RidleyWatkinsHilsum (RWH) theory is the differential negative
resistance developed in a bulk solid-state III-V compound when either a voltage (or electric field) or a
J

137

current is applied to the terminals of the sample. There are two modes of negative-resistance devices:
voltage-controlled and current-controlled modes as shown in given figures.
In the voltage-controlled mode the current density can be multivalued, whereas in the current-controlled
mode the voltage can be multivalued. The major effect of the appearance of a differential negative-resistance
region in the current-density-field curve is to render the sample electrically unstable. As a result, the initially
homogeneous sample becomes electrically heterogeneous in an attempt to reach stability. In the voltagecontrolled negative-resistance mode high-field domains are formed, separating two low-field regions. The
interfaces separating low and high-field domains lie along equipotentials thus they are in planes
perpendicular to the current direction as shown in Fig-1 below In the current-controlled negative-resistance
mode splitting the sample results in high-current filaments running along the field direction as shown in
Fig-2 below.
High field

High field

Low field

Low field

Expressed mathematically, the negative resistance of the sample at a particular region is

dI dJ
= negative resistance

dV dE
If an electric field E0 (or voltage V0) is applied to the sample, for example, the current density J 0 is
generated. As the applied field (or voltage) is increased to E2 (or V2), the current density is decreased to J2.
When the field (or voltage) is decreased to E1 (or V1), the current density is increased to J1. These
phenomena of the voltage-controlled negative resistance are shown in Fig-1 Similarly for the currentcontrolled mode the negative-resistance profile is as shown in Fig-2.
J

J1

J1

J0
J2

J0

J2

E1 E0 E2

E1

E0

E2

Two-Valley Model Theory

According to the energy band theory of the n-type GaAs, a high-mobility lower valley is separated by an
energy of 0.36 eV from a low-mobility upper valley as shown in Figure below.

138

Upper valley
Lower valley

Conduction
band

Forbidden
band

Eg = 1.43 eV

Valley

Valence
band

Data for two valleys in GaAs:

< 100 >

Effective Mass
Me

Lower
Upper

Mobility

Separation

M e = 0.068

8000 cm 2 /V-sec E = 0.36 eV

M eu 1.2

u 180 cm 2 /V-sec

E = 0.36 eV

The data for the two valleys in the n-type GaAs and Table shows the data for two-valley semiconductors.
Electron densities in the lower and upper valleys remain the same under an equilibrium condition. When the
applied electric field is lower than the electric field of the lower valley (E < E ), no electrons will transfer to
the upper valley as shown in Fig-a when the applied electric field is higher than that of the lower valley and
lower than that of the upper valley ( E E Eu ), electrons will begin to transfer to the upper valley as
shown in Fig-(b). And when the applied electric field is higher than that of the upper valley (Eu < E), all
electrons will transfer to the upper valley as shown in Fig-(c)
E

0
K

(a) E < EQ
(b) EQ < E < Eu
Data for two-valley semiconductors:

(c) Eu < E

Gap energy
(at 300K)
Eg(eV)

Separation energy
between two valleys

Ge
GaAs
InP

0.80
1.43
1.33

CdTe
InAs
InSb

1.44
0.33
0.16

0.18
0.36
0.60
0.80
0.51
1.28
0.41

Semiconductor

E(eV)

Threshold
field
Eth(KV/cm)

Peak velocity

2.3
3.2
10.5

1.4
2.2
2/5

13.0
1.60
0.6

1.5
3.6
5.0

p(107 cm/s)

139

If electron densities in the lower and upper valleys are n and nu, the conductivity of the n-type GaAs is

e( n u u )
where e = the electron charge
= the electron mobility
n = n + nu is the electron density
Gunn diode: A Gunn diode uses GaAs which has a negative differential mobility i.e. a decrease in carrier
mobility with increase in electric field. The impedance of Gunn diode is tens of ohms. The Gunn effect is
instrumental in generation of microwave oscillations.
This diode differs from the other semiconductor diodes in the sense that they depend for their operation on
bulk properties of the semiconductor rather than their junction properties. It is also a negative resistance
device. Here negative resistance is due to electron transfer to a less mobile energy band. The Two-valley
method is used for analysis of Gunn diode.
Modes of operation in Gunn diode:
Since Gunn first announced his observation of microwave oscillation in the n-type GaAs and n-type InP
diodes, various modes of operation have been developed, depending on the material parameters and
operating conditions. As noted, the formation of strong space-charge instability depends on the conditions
that enough charge is available in the crystal and that the specimen is long enough so that the necessary
amount of space charge can be built up within the transit time of the electrons.
This requirement sets up a criterion for the various modes of operation of bulk negative-differentialresistance devices. Copeland proposed four basic modes of operation of uniformly doped bulk diodes with
low-resistance contacts.
Gunn oscillation mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of frequency multiplied by
length is about 107 cm/s and the product of doping multiplied by length is greater than 10 12/cm2. In this
region the device is unstable because of the cyclic formation of either the accumulation layer or the highfield domain. In a circuit with relatively low impedance the device operates in the high-field domain mode
and the frequency of oscillation is near the intrinsic frequency. When the device is operated in a relatively
high-Q cavity and coupled properly to the load, the domain is quenched or delayed (or both) before
nucleating. In this case, the oscillation frequency is almost entirely determined by the resonant frequency of
the cavity and has a value of several times the intrinsic frequency.
1. Stable amplification mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of frequency times
length is about 107 cm/s and the product of doping times length is between 1011 and 1012/cm2.
2. LSA oscillation mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of frequency times length is
above 107 cm/s and the quotient of doping divided by frequency is between 2 104 and 2 105.It has
advantage that operating frequency is not limited by transit time effect .So sample length can be made
longer and device can sustain higher voltage and higher power dissipation.LSA mode is preferred when
high output power is necessary at high frequency but this mode is generally not used for frequency
greater than 20GHz.
3. Bias-circuit oscillation mode: This mode occurs only when there is either Gunn or LSA oscillation, and
it is usually at the region where the product of frequency times length is too small to appear in the figure.
140

When a bulk diode is biased to threshold, the average current suddenly drops as Gunn oscillation begins.
The drop in current at the threshold can lead to oscillations in the bias circuit that are typically 1 kHz to
100 MHz.
Applications of Gunn diode:
1. It is used in continuous wave radar
2. It is used in pulsed radar
3. It is used in microwave receivers
4. It is used as pump oscillator and can be used as broad band amplifier
5. It can be used as medium power oscillator
Frequency of oscillation in Gunn diode:
Frequency of oscillation of Gunn diode is

f=vd/L
Here Vd is drift velocity and L is effective length of diode.
IMPATT diode :( Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit Time)
IMPATT diodes dont depend for their operation on the junction properties. It exhibits negative resistance
which may be defined as the voltage across diode being 1800out of phase with the current flowing through
it. First delay is involved in generating avalanche multiplication which gives 90 0 phase shift and second
delay is due to transit time through drift space which gives another 900 phase shift.
Materials for IMPATT:
IMPATT diodes are made from Silicon or GaAs or even Indium Phosphide .Silicon IMPATT diodes can be
used in excess of 200GHz.IMPATT diodes are used as microwave amplifiers and oscillators.
Important features of IMPATT:
1. The impedance of IMPATT diode is a few ohms
2. Frequency of IMPATT is from 1GHz-300GHz
3. Power output is in the range of 0.5W to 5W for single diode circuit.
4. Efficiency is around 20%.
5. Frequency of oscillation for IMPATT is f=vd/2L
Where f is the frequency of oscillation and vd is drift velocity and L is the length of active region.
Limitation of IMPATT:
The noise is the biggest problem with these diodes. The noisy performance arises from the avalanche
process where the high operating current generates shot noise. When used as amplifiers they produce noise
figures of the order of 30dB.IMPATT oscillators are not as good as klystrons or Gunn diodes. IMPATT
diodes are more efficient and more powerful than Gunn diode but due to noise problem they are not able to
replace Gunn diodes.
So IMPATT diodes are known as narrow band device while Gunn diodes are broadband devices.
Applications of IMPATT diodes:
1. Police radar system
2. Low power microwave transmitter

141

TRAPATT Diode :( Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit)

TRAPATT diode is very similar to an Impatt diode and is only a different method of operating the Impatt
diode. It is also a negative resistance device capable of producing high pulse microwave powers at relatively
low frequencies.
Specifications of TRAPATT:
1. Frequency 3-50GHz
2. Power output 1-3 watt
3. Efficiency of about 25%
Applications of TRAPATT:
1. Low power Doppler radar
2. Microwave beacon landing system
3. TRAPATT behaves like class-C and i.e. why used for pulsed operation.
BARITT diode:
It is Barrier Injected Transit time diode and is less noisy than IMPATT.
PIN Diode:
A PIN diode has an intrinsic layer (i) between P and N layers. The effective width of depletion layer
increases by the width of intrinsic layer .It can be used as a voltage controlled attenuator. This PIN diode is
used for high frequency switching circuits, limiters and modulators etc.
MESFET:
It is a field effect transistor for microwave frequencies It is fabricated in GaAs and uses a metal
semiconductor schottky junction for the gate contact .It is a low noise amplifier
and is used in high frequency logic circuits.
Parametric amplifier:
Parametric amplifiers are used for low noise amplification at microwave frequency.
It is a low noise amplifier as it does not involve any resistance in amplifying process.
It makes use of a device whose reactance is varied in such a manner so to yield amplification. Varactors are
commonly used as the active devices.
Difference b/w parametric&normal amplifier:
A conventional amplifier depends for its amplification process on a variable resistance (which is the
collector resistance in transistor amplifier) and DC power supply.
The parametric amplifier uses a variable reactance and an AC power supply. The reactance is varied at a
frequency called the pump frequency.
Concepts of parametric amplifier:
Amplification is obtained by electronically variation of reactance in some predetermined fashion at some
frequency higher than frequency of signal being amplified. Here energy
is taken from pump source and is added to signal at signal frequency and will result in amplification.
Power gain in parametric amplifier:
If fp and fs are pump frequency and signal frequency then
Power gain of up-convertor= ( fp+ fs)/ (fs): If the pump frequency is much higher than
Signal frequency then configuration is called an Up-convertor.
142

Power gain of down-convertor= ( fs)/ (fs+ fp): If the pump frequency is only slightly higher so that the idler
frequency is less than signal frequency a down convertor results.
Degenerate modes:
If fp= 2fs then modes will be degenerate modes. But if pump frequency is other than twice the signal
frequency the two signals beat and a difference signal called the idler frequency appears. It may be noted
that there is no requirement of pump frequency to be a multiple of signal frequency in a non degenerate
parametric amplifier.
Applications of parametric amplifier:
1. Radar tracking
2. Communication
3. Earth satellite station
MASER:
Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
This provides extremely low noise microwave amplification. The basic principle of operation of a MASER
is as following:
Certain materials have atomic systems that can be made to resonate magnetically at frequencies depending
upon the atomic structure of material and the applied strength magnetic field. Resonant absorption takes
place when such a resonance is stimulated by an external signal at that frequency. If the material is suitably
excited or pumped from another source emission will occur.
The materials used could be gaseous such as Ammonia or solid state such as Ruby.
Ruby Maser is the more practical maser amplifier .Noise figures of a fraction of a dB are common in masers.
Strip-lines and micro-strip lines
Strip lines and Micro strips are also conducting media developed as an alternate to waveguide for
applications that require miniaturization.Striplines evolved from a coaxial line and propagation in a strip line
is by means of a TEM mode. Microstrip is analogous to parallel wire line .Semiconductor microwave
devices are often packaged so that they can be directly connected to a strip line or a microstrip. In recent
years with the introduction of Monolithic Microwave Integrated circuits(MMICS) microstrip lines and
coplanar strip lines have been used extensively because they provide one free and accessible surface over
which solid state device can be placed.
Schematic diagram of strip lines:
Strip
conductor

z
H
t

h
E
Ground plane

143

Important points about Microstrip lines:

1. It is also called as open strip line
2. Modes on microstrip lines are only Quasi Transverse Electric and Magnetic(TEM)
3. Radiation loss is a problem in case of micro-strip line particularly at such discontinuities as short
circuited posts ,corners and so on
4. By use of thin high dielectric material radiation loss of open strip line is reduced
Characteristic impedance of microstrip line:
t

w
d

h
h

Z0

60

ln

4h
d

for h d

h is height from the centre of the wire to the ground plane .

d is diameter of the wire
r is the dielectric constant of ambient medium.
Empirical equation of effective dielectric constant ( re ):

re 0.475 r 0.67
re is the effective relative dielectric constant for a microstrip line
r is the relative dielectric constant for micro strip line
Comparison of Microstrip and strip line:
1. Microstrip has advantage over strip line that it is simpler in construction and easier integration with
semiconductor devices
2. There is a greater tendency with microstrip to radiate from irregularities and sharp corners.
3. There is a lower isolation between adjoining circuits in microstrip than strip line
4. Both Q and power handling are lower with microstrip line.
Comparison of strip line and wave guide:
1. Advantages of strip line over wave guide are reduced bulk and greater bandwidth
2. Another advantage of strip line over wave guide is greater compatibility for integration with microwave
devices.
3. But strip line has greater losses, lower Q and lower power handling capability than wave guides.
4. Another disadvantage of strip-line and consequently of microstrip is that components made of it are not
readily adjustable.
Modes in strip line and microstrip line:
In case of strip line mode is purely TEM while for microstrip line mode is quasi TEM.

144

Study material for RADAR

Radar i.e. Radio Detection and Ranging is used for gathering information about distant objects or targets by
E.M waves. It is used for detecting static or mobile objects. It is also an effective method for guiding pilots
with regard to his location in space. Frequency generally used by radar lies in upper UHF and Microwave
range. Radar consists of a transmitter and receiver each connected to a directional antenna .Here both
transmitter and receiver antennas are of same type generally. Transmitter used for radar is klystron, TWT &
transistor amplifier while antenna used are parabolic reflector, planar arrays&phased arrays.
Note:
Radar can see through fog, rain&snow and can determine location of target very accurately.
Radar cant resolve like eye and also cant recognize color of object.
Block diagram of an elementary Pulsed Radar:
Transmitter
Duplexer

Receiver

Duplexer:
Radar which is using same antenna for transmitter and receiver is called as duplexer.
Such type of radars is called as mono-static radar. Duplexer uses quarter wavelength transmission lines.
The functions of duplexer are:
1 .To isolate transmitter and receiver
2. To protect receiver from transmitter
3. To help use a single transmitter and receiver antenna
Devices used for duplexer are solid state ferrite circulator &solid state devices.
Range of target:
Range =C.T/2 Here T is the time taken by radar signal to travel to target and back
Range (Km) =0.15 T (microsecond)
Maximum Unambiguous Range (MUR):
After the radar pulse has been transmitted a sufficient rest time must be allowed for the echo to return so as
not to interface with next transmit pulse. This PRT or Pulse Repetition Time determines the maximum
distance to the target to be measured.
Any signal arriving after transmission of the second pulse is called a second return echoes and is called
Maximum Un ambiguous Range (MUR). So the range beyond which object appears as second around
echoes is called the MUR.

C
PRT

2 PRF 12.2
C Velocity of light
MUR

PRT is in sec

145

If PRF is too high then ambiguity in majority range might be present. If a large reflector object is very close
the echoes may return before the complete pulse may be transmitted.
To eliminate this ambiguity the receiver is blocked or turned-off.
Factors affecting range of a radar:
Maximum range of RADAR is given by:
1/4

Pt Ae 2 S
rmax

2
4 Smin
Pt Peak Transmitted pulse power
S capture area of target
Ae Effective area of transmitting antenna

Operating wavelength
Smin Minimum detectable power
Radar displays:
1. A-scope display: This is the most popular and similar to ordinary CRO .It displays system which
indicates the range of target. A-scope displays range vs amplitude of the received echo signals .It is
suited for tracking of radar rather than surveillance of radar.
2. B-scope display: It displays signal range vs angle. Here amplitude is a function of azimuth.
Normally this is used in air-borne radar.
3. Plane Position Indicator (PPI): It is a presentation that maps in polar coordinates and the location
of target in azimuth&range.This is used for surveillance radar.
Scanning of radars: Scanning refers to the way in which the antenna keeps moving in azimuth and
elevation for covering an area which has the desired target. So scanning is nothing but movement of an
antenna to cover an area in which target is present.
1. Horizontal scanning: ship to ship radar
2. Elevation/vertical/nodding scanning:
3. Helical scanning:
4. spiral scanning:
Tracking of radars: After scanning method it is necessary to locate its path very accurately to predict its
future position. This is called antenna tracking. For tracking target we need range, velocity, azimuth angle&
elevation angle of target.
Methods of tacking:
An antenna having narrow pencil shaped beam helps in antenna tracking. But just a pencil beam is not
sufficient for accurate tracking of target because accuracy of this type of antenna is insufficient in itself.
Three techniques are used for tracking.
1. Lobe switching technique: It is also called sequential lobing. Here direction of antenna beam is rapidly
switched between two positions in this system so that strength of echo from target will fluctuate at the
switching rate unless target is exactly mid way between two directions.

146

Target direction

Alternate
lobe positions

A single beam is switched between two squinted angular positions to obtain angular measurement.
Thus sequential lobing is used for tracking a target accurately in one plane.
2. Conical scanning/or switching. After a target has been acquired the best scanning system for tracking is
conical. It is a logical extension of lobe switching and is achieved by mounting the parabolic antenna
slightly-off centre and then rotating it about the axis of parabola the rotation is slow compared to PRF.

Path of lobe tip

Lobe

The name conical scan is derived from the surface described in space by pencil radiation pattern of
antenna as the tip of pattern moves in a circle. The conical system is just as accurate in elevation as in
azimuth.
Disadvantages of lobe scanning &conical scanning:
1. The motion of antenna is more complex in both scanning
2. More than one returned pulse is required to locate a target(Minimum 4 pulses are required)
3. Amplitude comparisons are not particularly accurate.
Mono-pulse tracking:
An ideal system in which all information can be tracked only in 1 pulse is known as monopulse.
Generally 4 pulses are required in case of conical scanning. Most important advantage is that it is not
affected by amplitude fluctuations of target echo. It is preferred when acute angle measurement is required.
If target cross section is changing then best system for accurate tracking is mono-pulse.
The disadvantage of mono-pulse is that it requires two extra receiving channels and a more complex feeding
arrangement which makes the system bulky and expensive.
Limitation in tracking:
1. Glint: Angle noise which affects all tracking radars.
2. Amplitude fluctuations of target echo
3. Receiver noise
Beam shapes for radar:
1. Pencil-beam: Beam width of pencil beam in horizontal beam is equal to horizontal beam width in
vertical plane. Beam width of pencil beam is generally less than a few degrees. It is used in tracking
radar, 3-D radar &phased array radar.
2. Fan-beam: It has one angle small compared with others. Here azimuthal beam width might be one or
few degree while elevation beam width might be 4-10 times the azimuthal beam width.
This beam is generally modified to obtain more complete coverage example is cosecant squared shaped
beam. Surveillance radar and airborne ground surveillance radar use it.
147

Doppler Effect: when target is moving relative to radar then there will be a shift in carrier frequency of the
received signal and this effect is called as Doppler effect. The shift in frequency is Doppler shift and it is a
measure of velocity of target. CW Doppler Radar is the based upon concept of Doppler Effect.
2v
If fd is Doppler frequency and vR is the relative frequency then f d r Hz. Pulse to pulse change in

frequency is known as frequency agility. The same magnitude of Doppler shift is observed regardless of
whether a target is moving towards the radar or away from it with a given velocity. Radars which use
concept of Doppler effect are CW, FM-CW and MTI radar.
Note:
Doppler Effect is observed only for radial motion and not for tangential motion. Thus no Doppler effect is
noticed if a target moves across the field of view of a radar.
CW Doppler radar: It is used for calculating speed of moving objects. This radar is limited in maximum
power it transmits and this place a limit on its maximum range. This radar is not capable of indicating range
of target and shows only its velocity.

Advantages of CW Doppler Radar:

1. It is capable of giving accurate measurement of relative velocities using low transmitter powers,
simple circuitry, low power consumption and small size equipments.
2. It is unaffected by presence of stationary targets
3. It is also capable of measuring a large range of target speeds quickly and accurately.
4. CW radar can even the measure the direction of the target in addition to its target
Disadvantages of CW Doppler Radar:
1. It is limited in maximum power it transmits and this naturally places a limit on maximum range.
2. It is rather easily confused by presence of a large number of targets
3. Radar is incapable of indicating the range of the target. It can only show its velocity because the
transmitted signal is un-modulated. The receiver cant sense which particular cycle of oscillation is
being received at the moment and therefore cant tell how long ago this particular cycle was
transmitted so the range cant be measured.
Applications of CW Doppler radar:
This radar is generally is used for
1. Mobile applications,
2. Police radars and also in
3. Aircraft navigation.
4. Radar speed meter
Clutter: Echoes from natural environment such as land, sea &weather are called as clutter. Clutter echoes
can be many order of magnitude larger than aircraft echoes and aircraft might nt be detectable.
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MTI-Radar or Pulse Doppler radar:

Pulse radar that employs Doppler shift for removing clutter problem in case of moving targets is called as
MTI radar or a pulse radar. The basic principle of an MTI radar is to compare a set of received echoes with
those received during the previous sweep and canceling out those whose phase has remained unchanged.
Moving targets will give change of phase and are not cancelled. Thus clutter due to stationary targets both
man-made and natural are removed from display and this allows easier detection of moving targets.
Delay line canceller is used in MTI radar and is an example of time domain filter that rejects stationary
clutter at zero frequency. It has a frequency function that can be derived from time domain representation of
signals. The function of quartz delay in MTI radar is to help in subtracting a complete scan from previous
scan.
Blind speed: If target has uniform velocity the successive sweeps will have Doppler phase shifts of exactly
360 degree and target appears stationary and gives wrong radar Indication .The speed corresponding to this
condition is called as blind speed. If any object is moving with blind speed then it will look stationary.
Methods for reducing blind speed:
1. Operate the radar at long wave length i.e. low frequency.
2. Operate with high Pulse Repetition Frequency
3. Operate with more than one PRF frequency is used.
Frequency Modulated CW radar:
This radar is used for measuring height of aero plane This FM-CW radar overcome limitation of CW radar
and can calculate height as well as speed of objects.
FM/CW radar is mostly used as altimeter in aircraft due to shorter ranges and lower power requirements as
compared to pulsed radar.
Radio navigational system:
1. LORAN(Long Range Navigational Aid):This is based on principle on time difference between receipt
of signals from a pair of radio transmitters .A given constant time difference between signals from two
stations is represented by hyperbolic line of position .It is based upon pulsed system &hyperbolic system.
LORAN-A: 2 MHZ and LORAN-C: 90-110 KHZ
2. VOR :( VHF Omini-directional Range): It is a radio navigational system used for aircraft .It broadcasts
a VHF signal. VOR is using LOS propagation and limits in range of 240 km only. All VOR beacons use a
phased antenna array such that signal is rotated electronically. Frequency range is 108-136 MHZ.
3. OMEGA: It is the 1st truly global navigational system for aircraft .OMEGA employed hyperbolic radio
navigational technique and chain is operated in VLF range of 10-14 KHZ.
4. DECCA: It is also hyperbolic system.
LORAN is pulsed system while DECCA &OMEGA are continuous system. While LORAN&DECCA are
hyperbolic system.
Radar beacons: Radar is small radar consisting of a receiver, a separate transmitter and an antenna which is
often ominidirectional. One of the functions of a beacon may be to identify itself This beacon may be
installed on target such as an aircraft and will transmits a specific code. This system is used in airport traffic
control and also for military purposes where it is called as Identification Friend or Foe. It is used for
1. Target identification 2. Navigation 3.Very significant extension of maximum range
149

Phased array: It is a group of antenna in which relative phases of respective signals feeding antenna are
varied in such a way that effective radiation pattern of array is reinforced in a desired direction and
suppressed in undesired direction. It is used in SONAR, optical communication & warship of several navies.
It is used for
1. Very fast scanning 2.scan&track together 3.can track many target together 4.complex circuit.
Distance measuring equipment: It is secondary radar used in aircraft.DME system consists of a pulse
transmitter and receiver in aircraft and pulse transmitter and receiver on earth station. The equipment in
aircraft is called the interrogator and equipment on ground is called as transponder. An important feature of
the transponder is that any aircraft fitted with interrogator equipment can measure its distance from
transponder.
Instrument Landing System: This instrument landing system provides the pilot information about his
position in relation to prescribed approach path continuously with the help of instrument on ground and in
the aircraft. This instrument must have 3 units
Localizer, glide-slope& marker beacons.
Ground Control Approach system: It is a high precision radar system located near the runaway of
airports. The radar system is used to bring the aircraft into approach zone and guide it along the correct path
of descent to a point very near to run away. GCA
Comprises of 2 radars one called surveillance Radar element and other called Precision Approach Radar.
Radomes: It is a sheltering structure for antennas which must be operated in severe weather conditions
Radomes must be mechanically strong and no interference with normal operation of antenna.

150

Study material for satellite communication

A communication satellite is basically a microwave link repeater between many transmitting stations and
many receiving stations. It receives by an earth station and returns to earth at a frequency of about 2 GHz
away .This prevents interference between the uplink and down link frequency. Communication satellites
have same angular velocity as the earth and so they appear to be stationed over one spot on globe. Frequency
of satellite is in the range of 1-10 GHz while for long distance frequency is in the range of 3-6 GHz. A
satellite in circular orbit 35800 km away from earth will complete a revolution in 24 hours as does the earth
below it and that is why it appears stationary.
Merits of satellite:
1. Satellite remains fixed in its position relative to earth
2. It requires a limited earth station antenna tracking
3. It is capable of providing continuous and uninterrupted communication over the desired area.
4. Satellite communications are unaffected by Doppler frequency shift.
Demerits of satellite:
1. A costly vehicle is required for launching
2. Regions near the north and south poles are not covered in communication range of satellite.
3. There is a time delay of about 300 m sec between a transmitted and received signal.
4. It requires increased EIRP as compared with low altitude system.
Working of satellite: Thus in geosynchronous satellite a message signal is transmitted from an earth station
via an uplink to a satellite amplified in transponder on board the satellite and then retransmitted from down
link to another earth station. For C-band
Frequency used are 6/4 GH z. For Ku band it is in the range of 14/12 GHz and for Ka band it is 31/21 GHz.
Typical signal received from geosynchronous satellite is of the order of pico-watt. Satellite use technique
concept of frequency reuse.
Round trip-delay: It is approximately 480 msec but if we calculate exact time then it is around 540 msec.
Different bands used in satellite:
Satellite uses C band and Ku-bands for satellite communication In C-band uplink frequency is from 5.925
GHz to 6.425 GHz and down link frequency is from 3.7GHz to 4.2GHz. So satellite bandwidth in C-band is
0.5GHz or 500 MHz.
In Ku-band transponder uplink frequency is form 14 to 14.5 GHz and down link frequency is from 11.7 to
12.2 GHz so band width is again 0.5 GHz or 500 MHz.
Why uplink has higher frequency than down link frequency:
High power uplink is transmitted to satellite and weak signal is received at ground station from satellite.
Noise picked up by down link frequency is lower than uplink frequency.
Down link weak signals can be easily amplified by earth station.
Advantages of 6/4 GHz:
1. Relative inexpensive microwave equipment.
2. Low attenuation due to rain fall
3. In significant sky back ground noise
151

6/4 GHz prefers over 14/12 GHz due to rain attenuation while by use of 14/12 GHz one can use small
component
Note: Satellite angle of elevation must be greater than 5 degree to prevent excessive signal attenuation
&noise in atmosphere.
Bandwidth of satellite: Satellite communication is a wide band RF repeater .Uplink transmission
frequencies employed range from 5.9 GHz to 6.4 GHz .In the satellite the signals are down converted to a
frequency range of 3.7 GHz to 4.2 GHz and retransmitted towards earth .So a bandwidth of 500 MHz is
required for satellite communication. The bandwidth of 500 MHz is often divide into 12 channels each of 40
MHz bandwidth .Each channel can be used for TV signal.
Frequency reuse in satellite:
The use of polarization to increase the available frequency bandwidth is to referred as frequency reuse.
It will also be observed that uplink signals in each group are polarized in the opposite sense to down
link signals. Right Hand Circular Polarization (RHCP) and LHCP may also be used in addition to vertical
and horizontal polarization which permits a further increase in frequency reuse.
Power sources for satellite: Power requirement of satellite are met by solar cells&storage batteries. .Solar
cell converts solar energy into electrical energy &these are capable of providing a power of 5 Kw while the
usual power requirement of power satellite is of the order of 1 Kw. The power from storage batteries is used
when satellite comes in the shadow zone of earth. No of days when earths shadow falls on geosynchronous
satellite is 88 days.
Telemetery&telecommand:
Telemetry is a system which gives information about satellite. When a partial parameter of a satellite
deviates from its signal value then a particular is sent and this is called telecommand.
Types of satellite:
1. Passive satellite: They dont have any type of equipments and dont use any kind of electrical
energy. They act only as reflectors in space for reflecting the signals transmitted from ground.
2. Active satellite: These satellites need power for operating these equipments which is derived from
sun in form of solar energy. The solar cells convert solar energy into electrical energy. Availability
of solar fuels decides life of a particular satellite.
Coverage of earth: Three satellites can cover the entires earth surface except small areas near south and
north poles but here condition is that minimum elevation angle required for earth station does not exceed 10
degree .For coverage of polar region Molina orbit is required which is highly eccentric.
So one satellite can cover 40% of earths satellite .Earth coverage satellite antennas from synchronous
altitude have a beam width of 17.3 degree.
Geostationary orbit (Clarke-orbit): An orbit in which a satellite appears stationary relative to any point on
the earth is called geostationary orbit. Here satellite is placed in an equatorial orbit of about 3600 km above
earth .This orbit is achieved by synchronizing the revolution of satellite around earth with the speed of
earths rotation about its own axis .
It is the orbit which remains stationary relative to earth. There is only one geostationary orbit but this is
occupied by a large number of satellite.
152

Requirement for geostationary orbit:

1. It must have zero inclination. Any other inclination would carry the satellite over some range of
latitudes and hence would not be geo stationary.
2. Second condition is that geostationary satellite should travel eastwards at the same rotational velocity as
the earth.
3. Orbit must be circular because velocity is constant.
4. The earth makes one complete rotation relative to fixed stars in approximately 23 h 56 min since it is
slightly less than the time required for one complete rotation about its own axis which is 24 hr.
5. Radius of geostationary orbit is 42164Km. The earths equatorial radius is approximately 6378Km and
hence the height of geostationary orbit above earth is h=42164-6378=35786 Km
Drift in position of satellite:
The gravitational field of moon and to a lesser extent that of sun causes a drift in angle of inclination which
amounts to be about 0.85 degree per year.
For satellite operating in C band (6/4 GHz) the drift must be kept must within 0.10 and for Ku band (14/12)
GHz satellites it must be within 0.050
Look angles in satellite:
To maximize transmission and reception the direction of maximum gain of the earth station antenna referred
to as antenna bore sight must point directly at the satellite.
To align the antenna in this way two angles must be known these are azimuth or angle measured from the
true north and the elevation or angle measured up from the local horizontal plane as shown in figure:
The azimuth and elevation angles are usually referred as the look angles. It is often necessary to know the
range of distance from the earth station to satellite.
Mean radius of earth R= 6378Km
Radius of geostationary orbit: ageo 42164 Km
Geosynchronous orbit: A satellite whose period of revolution equals to period of rotation of earth about its
axis. In this orbit a satellite has 24 hours non equatorial orbit.
Synchronous orbits are circular in nature. Life span of geosynchronous satellite is around 10 years. Radius
of geosynchronous orbit is 42250 km.
Note:
So geostationary orbit lies in equatorial orbit plane while orbital plane of geosynchronous is inclined to
equatorial plane. All geostationary orbits are geosynchronous but reverse is not true. Generally
communication satellites are not used in low orbit because they dont provide 24 hours time period.
Path loss in satellite:
Path loss (dB)=32.5+20logf+20logd where f is in MHz and d is distance and is in Km.
So if frequency is increased 2 times then path loss will be increased by 6 dB but if f is reduced 2 times then
path loss will be decreased by 6 dB.
Basic transmission loss for a satellite signal for uplink frequency of 6 GHz will be around 200 dB.
EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power):
EIRP=PT.GT PT is transmitted power and GT is gain of transmitted antenna.
Figure of merit:
153

F.O.M=G/T
where G is the gain of antenna and T is the total noise temperature.
F.O.M (dB) = G (dB)-10 logT
unit of FOM is in db/degree Kevin
Carrier to noise ratio:
C/N=EIRP+M-La+228.6 here C/N is in dB. M is figure of merit and La is path loss.
Apogee&perigee:
Maximum height of an elliptical orbit is called the apogee while minimum height of an elliptical orbit is
called perigee. Apogee is the point farthest from earth and perigee is the point of closest approach to earth.
Ascending node is the point where the orbit crosses the equatorial planes going from south to north.

154

Study material for optical fiber communication

Optical fiber:
Optical fibres are used for light and infrared transmission in a manner identical to waveguide at microwave
frequencies. Optical fibres are increasingly replacing wire. Optical fiber concept is extension of microwave
link. In fibre optic system a light carrier is modulated by information and the modulated light carrier is
carried through fiber. The main advantage of fibre optic is low loss and high data carrying capacity.
Basic Fibre optic system:

The optical fibre use light as the carrier of information. An optical fibre use light as the carrier of
information.It uses light as the carrier of information. In optical fibre a light carrier is modulated by the
information and the modulated light carrier is carried through a fibre.The main advantage of fibre optic
technologies are the low loss and high data carrying capacity.
A laser or light emitting diode generates a light beam .This light carrier is modulated by the digital
information to be carried then modulated signal is injected into a fiber optic cable.
The light rays bounce back and forth between the walls of fibre cable until they reach the receiving end of
fibre. At the receiving end a photo detector is used to translate the modulated beam back into an electrical
signal. So optical fibre is a medium in which voice, data or video is transmitted in form of light.
Propagation of optical fibre:
Total Internal Reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a optical fibre .This analysis consider
only meridional rays those that pass through the fibre axis each time they are reflected .Other rays called
skew rays travel down the fibre without passing through the axis .The path of a skew ray is typically helical
wrapping around the central axis. Fortunately skew rays are ignored in most fibre optics analysis.
Propagation of light through fibre depends upon:
1. The size of fibre
2. The composition of fibre
3. The light injected into the fibre
Sequence of transmission in optical fibre:
1. Information is encoded into electrical signal
2. Electrical signals are converted into light signals
3. Light travel down the fibre.
4. A detector changes the light signal into electrical signal
5. Electrical signals are decoded into information
Light source: It may be Light Emitting Diode (LED) or LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission).Laser is nearly perfect single optical frequency source .Radiation from Laser is due to stimulated
emission.
155

Photo detector: Photo detectors may be divided into photo emissive, photovoltaic or photo conductive type
they convert optical signals into electrical current. These may be Photodiode or Avalanche Photo Diode
(APD).
Responsivity:
Light wave receivers or detectors are the final device in our basic optical communication. These detectors
are usually low power, low noise PIN diodes coupled to a FET amplifier.
The main consideration in choice of detector is repsonsivity.
A Diode current
Repsonsivity=

W Incident light
Advantages of optical fibre communication:
1. Light weight
2. Larger information
3. Less space and easy installation
4. Immunity to interference
5. No capacitance &inductance information
6. Secure communication
7. Resistivity to temperature &environment changes
8. Cheaper cable
9. A single fiber can handle as many voice channels as 1500 pair cable.
Optical fibre construction: An optical fire consists of a central core and an outer cladding. The material of
core has higher index of refraction as compared to cladding. Light can propagate through an optical fibre by
total internal reflection and continuous refraction. Optical fibres that propagate light by TIR are most widely
used. Materials used for optical fibres are glass (fused silica) and plastic. Glass material has superior optical
quantities but is fragile and more expensive as compared to plastic. There are three varieties of optical fibre
available today.
1. Glass core with glass cladding
2. Glass core with plastic cladding
3. Plastic core with plastic cladding
Glass fibres are more costly as compared to plastic fibres. Glass fibres propagate light more efficiently than
plastic. Glass fibres are used for high speed applications and also used for long transmission paths. Plastic
fibres are more flexible and rugged than flux.
Total internal reflection in optical fibre:

156

sin a n1
sin c
n

&
2
0
sin
1
sin 90
n1

but c 900

n2 2
sin cos c 1 2
n1
sin a n1 sin n12 n2 2
Numerical aperture: The Numerical Aperture is measure of light gathering ability of an optical fibre. The
fiber with a large numerical aperture accepts more light as compared to fibre with small numerical aperture.
The numerical aperture of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre accepts and
propagates light. A fibre with a large numerical aperture accepts light well while fibre with a low numerical
aperture requires high directional light.

N . A n0 sin a n12 n22

Losses in fibers:
1. Rayleigh losses: These losses are induced because of this scattering effect vary inversely with the
fourth power of wavelength so that their effects are reduced to less than about 0.3dB per km at wave
length of 1.3 km.
2. Absorption losses: Ultraviolet absorption, infrared absorption and ion resonance absorption
contribute to absorption losses.
3. Ultraviolet absorption: Takes place because of pure fused silica, valance electrons can be ionized
into conduction electrons by light with a centre wavelength of about 0.14 micro meter.
4. Infrared absorption: It takes place because photons of light energy are absorbed by the atoms
within glass molecules and converted to the random mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
5. Ion resonance absorption: It takes place because photons of light energy are absorbed by the atoms
within the glass molecules and converted to the random mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
6. Bending losses: It occurs because small bends acts as scattering which cause mode coupling to
occur. Since micro-bends are randomly distributed over the length of fibre, losses resulting from
them will be randomly distributed and a total figure for a fibre can be obtained.
Types of fiber index:
The refractive index profile describes the relation between the indices of core& cladding.
It is of 2 types:
1. Step index 2.Greaded index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout the profile shows a sharp step at the junction
of core and cladding .In contrast the graded index has a non uniform core .The index is highest at centre and
gradually decreases until it matches with that of cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between core
and cladding.
Modes of propagation:
Modes are the various paths the light can take in travelling down the fiber. The light can travel in single
mode and multi mode. If there is only one path for light to take down the cable it is called a single mode. If
there are more than one path it is called multi mode. In single mode propagation the central core of fibre is
so small that there is only one path the light can take as it propagates down the fibre.
157

In multi mode propagation the central core is much larger and in this case the

Single mode

By this classification there are 3 types of fibres:

1. Multi mode step index fibre
2. Multi mode graded index fibre
3. Single mode step index fibre
Step index multi mode fibre:
This fibre is called step index because the refractive index changes abruptly from clad to core .The cladding
has a refractive index somewhat lower than the refractive index of core glass. The paths along which the
modes of this step index fibre travel differ depending on their angles relative to the axis. As a result the
different modes in a pulse will arrive at the far end of the fibre at different times resulting in pulse spreading
which limits the bit rate of a digital signal which can be transmitted.
Modal dispersion in step index fibre:
The multi mode step index has a fiber core of diameter from 100 to 970 micro meter. with this large core
diameter there are many paths through which light can travel(multi mode).Therefore the light ray travelling
the straight path through the centre reaches the end before the other rays. The difference in the length of time
it takes the various light rays to exist the fiber is called modal dispersion. This is a form of signal distortion
which limits the bandwidth of the fiber.
Graded index multi mode fibre:
This fibre is called graded index because there are many changes in the refractive index with larger values
towards the centre. As light travels faster in a lower index of refraction so the farther the light is from center
axis the greater is its speed. Graded index fibers have core diameter of 50, 62.5 or 85 micro meter and a
cladding diameter of 125 micro meter.
Modal dispersion in graded index fibre:
Since light travel faster through the lower index of refraction the light at the fiber core travels more slowly
than the light nearer the surface. Therefore both light rays arrive at the exits point at almost the same time.
Thus reducing modal dispersion. The graded index reduces model dispersion to 1ns/km or less. The graded
index fibre is used in application requiring a wide bandwidth and a low model dispersion. The no of modes
in fibre is about half that of step index fibre having the same diameter &Numerical aperture.
Step index single mode fibre:
Another way to reduce model dispersion is to reduce the cores diameter until the fibre only propagates one
mode efficiently. The single mode fibre has a small core diameter of only 5-10 micro meter. Standard
cladding diameter is 125 micro meter. Since the fibre carries only 1 mode so model dispersion does not
exist. So single mode fibre easily have a potential bandwidth of 50-100 GHz km .The core diameter is so
small that the splicing technique and measuring techniques are very difficult .One advantage of single mode
158

is that once they are installed the systems capacity can be increased. Single step index has a high critical
angle of 77 0 .
Single mode step index fibers are the most widely used in todays wide band communication. In this fiber a
light ray can travel on only one path therefore modal dispersion is zero.
Specification of single mode fiber:
1. The bandwidth is from 50 to 10 GHz/km
2. The digital communication rate is in excess of 2000Mbytes/sec
3. More than 100,000 voice channels are available
4. Light wavelength approach core diameter therefore high frequency capabilities are achieved
5. The Mode Field Diameter (MFD, spot size) is larger than core diameter.
Calculation of number of mode in a multi mode fiber:
The normalized frequency of cut-off (Also called cut-off parameter or V number) is useful for determining
how many modes a given fiber will support. It can be proved that

d
d
n12 n2 2
N .A
0
0

N . A Numerical aperture

d diameter of core
n1 R.I of core & n2 R.I of cladding

If the waveguide parameter V found is considerably larger than unity then the approximate number of modes
which the fiber will support is given by: Number of modes

V2
2

Numerical aperture& number of modes:

In general fibers with a high bandwidth have a lower numerical aperture. They thus allow fewer modes
means less dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A larger numerical aperture promotes more modal
dispersion since more paths for the rays are provided numerical aperture although it can be defined for a
single mode fibre is essentially meaningless as a practical. NA ranges from 0.50 for plastic to 0.21 for
graded index fibers.
Window frequency in fibre:
Attenuation of fibre for optical power varies with wavelengths of light. Windows are low loss regions where
fibres carry light with little attenuation.
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates.
1. First window: 800-900 nm Wavelength=850nm
2. Second window: 1250-1350 nm Wavelength=1300 nm
3. Third window: 1500-1600 nm Wavelength=1550nm
Attenuation:
It is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance a fibre with lower attenuation will allow more
power to reach a receiver than fibre with high attenuation.
Attenuation is of 2 types:
1. Extrinsic attenuation
2. Intrinsic attenuation
159

Intrinsic attenuation: It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre .It may occur as
1. Absorption: natural impurities in the glass absorb light energy
2. Scattering: light rays traveling in the core reflect from small imperfections into a new pathway that may
be lost through the cladding.
Extrinsic attenuation: It is lost due to external sources. It may occur as
1. Micro bending: The fibre is sharply bent so that the light traveling down the fibre cant make the turn
&is lost in cladding. It is due to small surface irregularities in the cladding causes light to be reflected at
angles where there is no further reflection.
2. Macro bending: Macro bending or small bends in fibre caused by crushing contraction etc. These bends
may not be visible with the naked eyes. It causes certain modes not to be reflected and therefore causes
losses to cladding.
Attenuation losses in optical fiber:
Attenuation is the loss of optical energy as it travels through the fiber. This loss is measured in decibels per
Km. These losses may vary from 300dB/Km for expensive fiber to as low 0.21 dB/Km for high quality
single mode fibers.
Dispersion:
It is the spreading of light pulse as it travels down the length of an optical fiber.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information capacity of a fibre. Dispersion is of 3 types.
1. Modal dispersion: It occurs only in modal dispersion
2. Material dispersion:
3. waveguide dispersion: It is most significant in single mode fibre.
OFC splicing:
Splices are permanent connection between two fibers .The splicing involves cutting of the edges of two
fibers to be spliced .The following 3 methods are used for splicing.
1. Adhesive bonding or glue splicing
2. Mechanical splicing
3. Fusion splicing
This technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice losses.
Splice loss measurement is to be taken by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)

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Chapter-5: Important terms used in Electronics&communication

Absorption: Loss or dissipation of energy as it travels through a medium Example: radio waves lose some
of their energy as they travel through the atmosphere.
AC coupling: Circuit that passes an AC signal while blocking a DC voltage.
AC load line: A graph representing all possible combinations of AC output voltage and current for an
amplifier.
Active component: A component that changes the amplitude of a signal between input and output.
Active filter: A filter that uses an amplifier in addition to reactive components to pass or reject selected
frequencies.
Active region: The region of BJT operation between saturation and cutoff used for linear amplification.
Admittance :( symbol "Y") Measure of how easily AC will flow through a circuit. Admittance is the
reciprocal of impedance and is measured in Siemens.
Alternating current: An electric current that rises to a maximum in one direction, falls back to zero and
then rises to a maximum in the opposite direction and then repeats.
Amplifier: A circuit that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal.
Amplitude: Magnitude or size of a signal voltage or current.
Analog: Information represented as continuously varying voltage or current rather than in discrete levels as
opposed to digital data varying between two discrete levels.
Antenna, transmitting: A device that converts an electrical wave into an electromagnetic wave that
radiates away from the antenna.
Antenna, receiving: A device that converts a radiated electromagnetic wave into an electrical wave.
Armstrong oscillator: An oscillator that uses an isolation transformer to achieve positive feedback from
output to input.
Astable multivibrator: An oscillator that produces a square wave output from a DC voltage.
Attenuate: To reduce the amplitude of an action or signal. The opposite of amplification.
Band-pass filter: A tuned circuit designed to pass a band of frequencies between a lower cut-off frequency
(f1) and a higher cut-off frequency (f2). Frequencies above and below the pass band are heavily attenuated.
Band-stop filter: A tuned circuit designed to stop frequencies between a lower cut-off frequency (f1) and a
higher cut-off frequency (f2) of the amplifier while passing all other frequencies.
Bandwidth: width of the band of frequencies between the half power points.
Barrier potential: The natural difference of potential that exists across a forward biased pn junction.
Baud: A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of signal events per second. Not necessarily the same
as bits per second.
Bias: A DC voltage applied to a device to control its operation.
Bistable multivibrator: A multivibrator with two stable states. An external signal is required to change the
output from one state to the other. Also called a latch.
Bleeder current: A current drawn continuously from a source. Bleeder current is used to stabilize the
output voltage of a source.
Bridge rectifier: A circuit using four diodes to provide full wave rectification. Converts an AC voltage to a
pulsating DC voltage.
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Buffer: An amplifier used to isolate a load from a source.

Bulk resistance: The natural resistance of a "P" type or "N" type semiconductor material.
Butterworth filter: A type of active filter characterized by a constant gain (flat response) across the
midband of the circuit and a 20 dB per decade roll-off rate for each pole contained in the circuit.
Bypass capacitor: A capacitor used to provide an AC ground at some point in a circuit.
Capacitance: The ability of a capacitor to store an electrical charge. The basic unit of capacitance is the
Farad.
Capacitive reactance: The opposition to current flow provided by a capacitor. Capacitive reactance is
measured in ohms and varies inversely with frequency.
cascaded amplifier: An amplifier with two or more stages arranged in a series configuration.
Cascode amplifier: A high frequency amplifier made up of a common-source amplifier with a commongate amplifier in its drain network.
Center frequency: Frequency to which an amplifier is tuned. The frequency half way between the cut-off
frequencies of a tuned circuit.
Center tap: Midway connection between the two ends of a winding.
Center tapped transformer: A transformer with a connection at the electrical center of a winding.
Center tapped rectifier: Circuit that make use of a center tapped transformer and two diodes to provide full
wave rectification.
Ceramic capacitor: Capacitor in which the dielectric is ceramic.
Charge: Quantity of electrical energy.
Chebyshev filter: A type of active filter characterized by high roll-off rates (40 dB per decade per pole) and
midband gain that is not constant.
Choke: Inductor used to oppose the flow of alternating current.
Circuit: Interconnection of components to provide an electrical path between two or more components.
Circuit breaker: A protective device used to open a circuit when current exceeds a maximum value. In
effect a reusable fuse.
Clamper: A diode circuit used to change the DC level of a waveform without distorting the waveform.
Clapp oscillator: A variation of the Colpitts oscillator. An added capacitor is used to eliminate the effects of
stray capacitance on the operation of the basic Colpitts oscillator.
Clipper: A diode circuit used to eliminate part of a waveform
Coaxial cable: Transmission line in which the signal carrying conductor is covered by a dielectric and
another conductor.
Colpitts oscillator: An oscillator with a pair of tapped capacitors in the feedback network.
Common-mode rejection ratio :( CMRR) The ratio of op-amp differential gain to common-mode gain. A
measure of an op-amp's ability to reject common-mode signals such as noise.
Comparator: An op-amp circuit that compares two inputs and provides a DC output indicating the polarity
relationship between the inputs.
Complementary symmetry amplifier: A class B amplifier using matched complementary transistors. Does
not require a phase inverter for push-pull output.

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Complementary transistors:
Two transistors, one NPN and one PNP having near identical charastictic N-channel and P-channel FETs
can also be complementary.
Constant current circuit: Circuit used to maintain constant current to a load having resistance that changes.
Crossover distortion: Distortion caused by both devices in a class B amplifier being cut-off at the same
time.
Crystal: Natural or synthetic piezoelectric or semiconductor material with atoms arranged with some degree
of geometric regularity.
Crystal-controlled oscillator: Oscillator that uses a quartz crystal in its feedback path to maintain a stable
output frequency.
Current: Measured in amperes, it is the flow of electrons through a conductor. Also know as electron flow.
Current amplifier: Amplifier to increase signal current.
Current-limiting resistor: Resistor in the path of current flow to control the amount of current drawn by a
device.
Current mirror: Term used to describe the fact that DC current through the base circuit of a class B
amplifier is approximately equal to the DC collector current.
Cutoff: Condition when an active device is biased such that output current is near zero or beyond zero.
Cutoff frequency: Frequency at which the power gain of an amplifier falls below 50% of maximum.
Darlington pair: An amplifier consisting of two bipolar junction transistors with their collectors connected
together and the emitter of one connected to the base of the other. Circuit has an extremely high current gain
and input impedance.
DC load line: A graph representing all possible combinations of voltage and current for a given load resistor
in an amplifier.
DC offset: The change in input voltage required to produce a zero output voltage when no signal is applied
to an amplifier.
Degenerative feedback: Also called negative feedback. A portion of the output of an amplifier is inverted
and connected back to the input. This controls the gain of the amplifier and reduces distortion and noise.
Delay time: The time for collector current to reach 10% of its maximum value in a BJT switching circuit.
Depletion region: The area surrounding a P-N junction that is depleted of carriers.
Depletion mode: In a FET, an operating mode where reverse gate-source voltage is used to deplete the
channel of free carriers. This reduces the size of the channel and increases its resistance.
Dielectric: Insulating material between two plates where an electrostatic field exists.
Dielectric constant: Property of a material that determines how much electrostatic energy can be stored per
unit volume when unit voltage is applied.
Dielectric strength: The maximum voltage an insulating material can withstand without breaking down.
Differential amplifier: An amplifier in which the output is in proportion to the differences between voltages
applied to its two inputs.
Diffusion: Tendency of conduction band electrons to wander across a pn junction to combine with valence
band holes.
Digital: Relating to devices or circuits that have outputs of only two discrete levels. Examples: 0 or 1, high
or low, on or off, true or false etc.
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Diode: A two terminal device that conducts in only one direction.

Direct coupling: Where the output of an amplifier is connected directly to the input of another amplifier or
to a load. Also known as DC coupling because DC signals are not blocked.
Discrete component: Package containing only a single component as opposed to an integrated circuit
containing many components in a single package.
Dissipation: Release of electrical energy in the form of heat.
Distortion: An undesired change in a waveform or signal.
Distributed capacitance: Any capacitance other than that within a capacitor. For example, the capacitance
between adjacent turns of wire in a coil.
Distributed inductance: Any inductance other than that within an inductor. Example inductance in any
conductor.
Domain: A moveable magnetized area in a magnetized material. Also known as magnetic domain.
Doping: The process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic (pure) silicon or germanium to improve the
conductivity of the semiconductor material.
Drift: A problem that can develop in tuned amplifiers when the frequency of the tuned circuit changes due
to temperature or component aging.
Dual in-line package: Integrated circuit package having two rows of connecting pins.
Dual trace oscilloscope: Oscilloscope that can simultaneously display two signals.
Efficiency: The amount of power delivered to the load of an amplifier as a percentage of the power required
from the power supply.
Electric charge: Electric energy stored on the surface of a material. Also known as a static charge.
Electric field: A field or force that exists in the space between two different potentials or voltages. Also
known as an electrostatic field.
Electricity: Science states that certain particles possess a force field or charge. The charge possessed by an
electron is negative while the charge possessed by a proton is positive. Electricity can be divided into two
groups, static and dynamic. Static electricity deals with charges at rest and dynamic electricity deals with
charges in motion.
Electromagnetic communication: Use of an electromagnetic wave to pass information between two points.
Also called wireless communication.
Electromagnetic wave: wave that consists of both electric and magnetic variation.
Emitter feedback: Coupling from the emitter output to the base input of a bipolar junction transistor.
Emitter follower: A common collector amplifier. Has a high current gain, high input impedance and low
output impedance.
Enhancement-mode MOSFET:A field effect transistor in which there are no charge carriers in the channel
when the gate source voltage is zero.
Feedback: A portion of the output signal of an amplifier which is connected back to the input of the same
amplifier.
Feedback amplifier: An amplifier with an external signal path from its output back to its input.
Fiber optics: Lasers light output carries information that is conveyed between two points by thin glass
optical fibers.
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Field effect transistor :(FET) A voltage controlled transistor in which the source to drain conduction is
controlled by gate to source voltage.
Flip flop: A bistable multivibrator. A circuit which has two output states and is switched from one to the
other by means of an external signal (trigger).
Floating ground: Common connection in a circuit that provides a return path for current but is not
connected to an earth ground.
Flywheel effect: Sustaining effect of oscillation in an LC circuit.
Free running multivibrator:A multivibrator that produces a continuous output waveform without any
signal input. A square wave generator used to produce a clock signal.
Frequency-division multiplex :( FDM) Transmission of two or more signals over a common path by using
a different frequency band for each signal.
Frequency-domain analysis: A method of representing a waveform by plotting its amplitude against
frequency.
Function generator: Signal generator that can produce sine, square, triangle and saw tooth output
waveforms.
Gain: Increase in voltage, current and/or power. Gain is expressed as a ratio of amplifier output value to the
corresponding amplifier input value.
Gain bandwidth product: A device parameter that indicates the maximum possible product of gain and
bandwidth. The gain bandwidth product of a device is equal to the unity gain frequency (funity) of the device.
Ground: An intentional or accidental conducting path between an electrical system or circuit and the earth
or some conducting body acting in place of the earth. A ground is often used as the common wiring point or
reference in a circuit.
Gunn diode: A semiconductor diode that utilizes the Gunn effect to produce microwave frequency
oscillation or to amplify a microwave frequency signal.
half power point: A frequency at which the power is 50% of maximum. This corresponds to 70.7% of
maximum current or voltage.
h-parameters:(hybrid parameters) Transistor specifications that describe the component operating limits
under specific circumstances.
Hartley oscillator: An oscillator that uses a tapped inductor in the feedback network.
High-pass filter: A tuned circuit designed to pass all frequencies above a designated cut-off frequency.
Frequencies below the cut-off frequency are rejected or attenuated
Hole: A gap left in the covalent bond when a valence electron gains sufficient energy to jump to the
conduction band
Hybrid circuit: Circuit that combines two technologies (passive and active or discrete and integrated
components) onto one microelectronic circuit. Passive components are usual made by thin film techniques,
while active components are made with semiconductor techniques.
Hysteresis: Amount that the magnetization of a material lags the magnetizing force due to molecular
friction. In Schmitt Trigger circuits, the difference between the upper and lower trigger points.
IC: Abbreviation for "integrated circuit"
IC voltage regulator: Three terminal device used to hold the output voltage of a power supply constant
over a wide range of load variations.
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Impedance :(Z) Measured in ohms it is the total opposition to the flow of current offered by a circuit.
Impedance consists of the vector sum of resistance and reactance.
Impedance matching: Matching the output impedance of a source to the input impedance of a load to attain
maximum power transfer.
Inductance: Property of a circuit to oppose a change in current. The moving magnetic field produced by a
change in current causes an induced voltage to oppose the original change.
Input impedance: Opposition to the flow of signal current at the input of a circuit or load.
Integrated: When two or more components are combined into a circuit and then incorporated into a single
package.
Integrator: A device that approximates and whose output is proportional to an integral of the input signal. A
low pass filter.
Intermediate frequency amplifier :In a superheterodyne radio it amplifies a fixed frequency lower than the
received radio frequency and higher than the audio frequency.
Internal resistance: Every source has some resistance in series with the output current. When current is
drawn from the source some power is lost due to the voltage drop across the internal resistance. Usually
called output impedance or output resistance.
Intrinsic material: A semiconductor material with electrical properties essentially characteristic of ideal
pure crystal. Essentially silicon or germanium crystal with no measurable impurities.
Intrinsic stand-off ratio: A unijunction transistor (UJT) rating used to determine the firing potential of the
device.
Junction: Contact or connection between two or more wires or cables. The area where the p-type material
and n-type material meet in a semiconductor.
Junction diode: A semiconductor diode in which the rectifying characteristics occur at a junction between
the n-type and p-type semiconductor materials.
Kirchhoff"s current law: The sum of the currents flowing into a point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing out of that same point.
Kirchhoff"s voltage law: The algebraic sum of the voltage drops in a closed path circuit is equal to the
algebraic sum of the source voltages applied.
Knee voltage: The voltage at which a curve joins two relatively straight portions of a characteristic curve.
For a PN junction diode, the point in the forward operating region of the characteristic curve where
conduction starts to increase rapidly. For a zener diode, the term is often used in reference to the zener
voltage rating.
Laser: Device that produces a very narrow intense beam of light. The name is an acronym for "light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
LED: Abbreviation for "light emitting diode."
Lenz's law: The current induced in a circuit due to a change in the magnetic field is so directed as to oppose
the flux, or to exert a mechanical force to oppose the motion.
Level detector: An op-amp circuit that compares two inputs and provides a DC output indicating the
polarity relationship between the inputs.

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Lie-detector: Piece of electronic equipment also called a polygraph used to determine whether a person is
telling the truth by looking for dramatic changes in blood pressure, body temperature, breathing rate, heart
rate and skin moisture in response to questions.
Light-emitting diode: A semiconductor diode that converts electric energy into electromagnetic radiation at
a visible and near infrared frequencies when its pn junction is forward biased.
Limiter: Circuit or device that prevents some portion of its input from reaching the output. A clipper.
Linear: Relationship between input and output in which the output varies in direct proportion to the input.
Loading effect: Large load impedance will draw a small load current and so loading of the source is small.
(light load). Small load impedance will draw a large load current from the source. (heavy load).
Load regulation: The ability of a voltage regulator to maintain a constant output voltage under varying load
currents.
Load resistance: Resistance of a load.
Logic: Science of dealing with the principle and applications of gates, relays and switches.
Magnetic poles: Points of a magnet from which magnetic lines of force leave (north pole) and arrive (south
pole).
Matched impedance: Condition that occurs when the output impedance of a source is equal to the input
impedance of a load.
Matching: Connection of two components or circuits so that maximum power is transferred between the
two.
Maximum power transfer: A theorem that states that maximum power will be transferred from source to
load when input impedance of the load equals the output impedance of the source.
Metal oxide field effect transistor :( MOSFET) A field effect transistor in which the insulating layer
between the gate electrode and the channel is a metal oxide layer.
Microphone: Electro acoustic transducer that converts sound energy into electric energy.
Microwave: Band of very short wavelength radio waves within the UHF, SHF and EHF bands.
Midband gain: Gain of an amplifier operating within its bandwidth.
Miller's theorem: A theorem that allows you to represent a feedback capacitor as equivalent input and
output shunt capacitors.
Minority carriers: The conduction band holes in n-type material and valence band electrons in p-type
material. Most minority carriers are produced by temperature rather than by doping with impurities.
Mismatch: Term used to describe a difference between the output impedance of a source and the input
impedance of a load. A mismatch prevents the maximum transfer of power from source to load.
Modulation: Process by which information signal (audio for example) is used to modify some characteristic
of a higher frequency wave known as a carrier (radio for example).
Monostable multivibrator: A multivibrator with one stable output state. When triggered, the circuit output
will switch to the unstable state for a predetermined period of time and then return to the stable state. A
timer.
MOSFET: Abbreviation for "metal oxide field effect transistor" also known as an "insulated gate field
effect transistor). A field effect transistor in which the insulating layer between the gate electrode and the
channel is a metal oxide layer.
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Multivibrator:A class of circuits designed to produce square waves or pulses. Astable multivibrators
produce continuous pulses without an external stimulus or trigger. Monostable multivibrators produce a
single pulse for some predetermined period of time only when triggered. Bistable multivibrators produce a
DC output which is stable in either one of two states. Either high or low. An external stimulus or trigger is
required for the bistable circuit to change states, either high to low or low to high.
Negative feedback: A feedback signal 180 out of phase with an amplifier input signal. Used to increase
amplifier stability, bandwidth and input impedance. Also reduces distortion.
Negative resistance: A resistance such that when the current through it increases the voltage drop across the
resistance decreases.
Negative temperature coefficient: A term used to describe a component whose resistance or capacitance
decreases when temperature increases.
Network: Combination of interconnected components, circuits or systems.
Noise: Unwanted electromagnetic radiation within an electrical or mechanical system. An operational
amplifier circuit having no phase inversion between the input and output.
Non-inverting input: The terminal on an operational amplifier that is identified by a plus sign.
Norton's theorem: Any network of voltage sources and resistors can be replace by a single current source
in parallel with a single resistor.
Notch filter: A filter which blocks a narrow band of frequencies and passes all frequencies above and below
the band.
NPN transistor: A bipolar junction transistor in which a p-type base element is sandwiched between an ntype emitter and an n-type collector.
Offset null: An op amp control pin used to eliminate the effects of internal component voltages on the
output of the device.
Ohm's law: Relationship between voltage, current and resistance. Ohm's law states that current in a
resistance varies in direct proportion to voltage applied and inversely proportional to resistance.
Ohms per volt: Refers to a value of ohms per volt of full scale defection for a moving coil meter
movement. The number of ohms per volt is the reciprocal of the amount of current required to produce full
scale deflection of the needle. A meter requiring 50 microamps for full scale deflection has an internal
resistance of 20 kW per volt. The higher the ohms per volt rating, the more sensitive the meter.
One-shot: Monostable multivibrator.
Op-amp: Abbreviation for operational amplifier.
Open loop gain: Gain of an amplifier when no feedback is present.
Open loop mode: An amplifier circuit having no means of comparing the output with the input. (No
feedback.)
Operational amplifier: A high gain DC amplifier that has high input impedance and a low output
impedance. Op-amps are the most basic type of linear integrated circuits.
Oscillate: To produce a continuous output waveform without an input signal present.
Oscillator: An electronic circuit that produces a continuous output waveform with only DC applied.
Oscilloscope: An instrument used to display a signal graphically. Shows signal amplitude, period and
waveshape in addition to any DC voltage present. A multiple trace oscilloscope can show two or more
waveforms at the same time for phase comparison and timing measurements.
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Output: Terminal at which a component, circuit or piece of equipment delivers current, voltage or power.
Output impedance: Impedance measured across the output terminals of a device without a load connected.
Overload: condition that occurs when the load is greater than the system was designed to handle. (Load
resistance too small, load current too high.) Overload results in waveform distortion and/or overheating.
Overload protection: Protective device such as a fuse or circuit breaker that automatically disconnects a
load when current exceeds a predetermined value.
Paper capacitor: Fixed capacitor using oiled or waxed paper as a dielectric.
Parallel resonant circuit: Circuit having an inductor and a capacitor in parallel with one another. Circuit
offers a high impedance at resonant frequency. Sometimes called a "tank circuit."
Pass band: The range of frequencies that will be passed and amplified by a tuned amplifier. Also the range
of frequencies passed by a band pass filter.
Passive component: Component that does not amplify a signal. Resistors and capacitors are examples.
Passive filter: A filter that contains only passive or non amplifying components.
Passive system: System that emits no energy. It only receives. It does not transmit or reveal its position.
Peak inverse voltage:(PIV) The maximum rated value of a AC voltage acting in the direction opposite to
that in which a device is designed to pass current.
Peak to Peak: Difference between the maximum positive and maximum negative values of an AC
waveform.
Pentavalent element: Element whose atoms have five valence electrons. Used in doping intrinsic silicon or
germanium to produce n-type semiconductor material. Most commonly used pentavalent materials are
arsenic and phosphorus.
Percent of regulation: The change in output voltage that occurs between no-load and full-load in a DC
voltage source. Dividing this change by the full-load value and multiplying the result by 100 gives percent
regulation.
Percent of ripple: The ratio of the effective rms value of ripple voltage to the average value of the total
voltage. Expressed as a percentage.
Phase shift oscillator: An oscillator that uses three RC networks in its feedback path to produce the 180
phase shift required for oscillation.
Phase splitter: Circuit that takes a single input signal and produces two output signals that are 180 apart in
phase.
Photoconductive cell: Material whose resistance decreases or conductance increases when exposed to light.
Photoconduction: A process by which the conductance of a material is change by incident electromagnetic
radiation in the visible light spectrum.
Photo-detector: Component used to detect or sense light.
Photodiode: A semiconductor diode that changes its electrical characteristics in response to illumination.
Photon: Discrete portion of electromagnetic energy. A small packet of light.
Photo resistor: Also known as a photoconductive cell or light dependent resistor. (LDR) A device whose
resistance decreases with exposure to light.
Photovoltaic cell: Component commonly called a solar cell used to convert light energy into electrical
energy.
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Piezoelectric crystal: Crystal material that will generate a voltage when mechanical pressure is applied and
conversely will undergo mechanical stress when subjected to a voltage.
Piezoelectric effect: The production of a voltage between opposite sides of a piezoelectric crystal as a result
of pressure or twisting. Also the reverse effect which the application of a voltage to opposite sides causes a
deformation to occur at the frequency of the applied voltage. (Converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy and electrical energy into mechanical energy.)
Pinch-off region: A region on the characteristic curve of a FET in which the gate bias causes the depletion
region to extend completely across the channel.
Pole: In an active filter, a single RC circuit. A one pole filter has one capacitor and one resistor. A two pole
filter has two RC circuits and so on.
Positive feedback: A feedback signal that is in phase with an amplifier input signal. Positive feedback is
necessary for oscillation to occur.
Potentiometer: A variable resistor with three terminals. Mechanical turning of a shaft can be used to
produce variable resistance and potential. Example: A volume control is usually a potentiometer.
Power: Amount of energy converted by a circuit or component in a unit of time, normally seconds.
Measured in units of watts. (Joules/second).
Power amplifier: An amplifier designed to deliver maximum power output to a load. Example: In an audio
system, it is the power amplifier that drives the loudspeaker.
Power dissipation: Amount of heat energy generated by a device in one second when current flows through
it.
Programmable UJT: Unijunction transistor with a variable intrinsic stand-off ratio.
Quality factor of an inductor or capacitor:
It is the ratio of a component's reactance (energy stored) to its effective series resistance (energy dissipated).
For a tuned circuit, a figure of merit used in bandwidth calculations. Q is the ratio of reactive power to
resistive power in a tuned circuit. Also the symbol for charge in coulombs (Q for quantity).
Quiescent: At rest. For an amplifier the term is used to describe a condition with no active input signal.
Quiescent point :( Q point) A point on the DC load line of a given amplifier that represents the quiescent
(no signal) value of output voltage and current for the circuit.
Radio communication: Term used to describe the transfer of information between two or more points by
use of radio or electromagnetic waves.
Radio-frequency amplifier: Amplifier having one or more active devices to amplify radio signals.
Radio-frequency generator: Generator capable of supplying RF energy at any desired frequency in the
radio-frequency spectrum.
Radio-frequency probe: Probe used in conjunction with an AC meter to measure radio-frequency signals.
RC time constant: Product of resistance and capacitance in seconds.
Reactance: Symbol "X". Opposition to current flow without the dissipation of energy. Example: The
opposition provided by inductance or capacitance to AC current.
Recombination: Process by which a conduction band electron gives up energy (in the form of heat or light)
and falls into a valence band hole.
Rectangular coordinates: A Cartesian coordinate of a Cartesian coordinate system whose straight-line axes
or coordinate planes are perpendicular.
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Regenerative feedback: Positive feedback. Feedback from the output of an amplifier to the input such that
the feedback signal is in phase with the input signal. Used to produce oscillation.
Regulated power supply: Power supply that maintains a constant output voltage under changing load
conditions.
Regulator: Device or circuit that maintains a desired output under changing conditions.
Relay: Electromechanical device that opens or closes contacts when a current is passed through a coil.
Relaxation oscillator: Free running circuit that outputs pulses with a period dependent or one or more RC
time constants.
Reluctance: Resistance to the flow of magnetic lines of force.
Residual magnetism: Magnetism remaining in the core of an electromagnet after the coil current is
removed.
Resistance: Symbolized "R" and measured in ohms. Opposition to current flow and dissipation of energy in
the form of heat.
Resistive power: Amount of power dissipated as heat in a circuit containing resistive and reactive
components. True power as opposed to reactive power.
Resistor: Made of material that opposes flow of current and therefore has some value of resistance.
Resonance: Circuit condition that occurs at the frequency where inductive reactance (XL) equals capacitive
reactance (XC).
Reverse bias: Bias on a PN junction that allows only leakage current (minority carriers) to flow. Positive
polarity on the n-type material and negative polarity to the p-type material.
Reverse breakdown voltage: Amount of reverse bias that will cause a PN junction to break down and
conduct in the reverse direction.
Reverse current: Current through a diode when reverse biased. An extremely small current also referred to
as leakage.
Reverse saturation current: Reverse current through a diode caused by thermal activity. This current is not
affected by the amount of reverse bias on the component, but does vary with temperature.
Ripple frequency: Frequency of the ripple present in the output of a DC source.
Ripple voltage: The small variations in Dc voltage that remain after filtering in a power supply.
Rise time: Time for the leading edge of a pulse to rise from 10% of its peak value to 90% of its peak value.
RL differentiator: An RL circuit whose output voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage.
RL filter: Selective circuit of resistors and inductors that offers little or no opposition to certain frequencies
while blocking or attenuating other frequencies.
RL integrator: RL circuit with an output proportionate to the integral of the input signal.
Rms value: Rms value of an AC sine wave is 0.707 times the peak value. This is the effective value of an
AC sine wave. The rms value of a sine wave is the value of a DC voltage that would produce the same
amount of heat in a heating element.
Roll-off rate: Rate of change in gain when an amplifier is operated outside of its bandwidth.
Rotary switch: Electromechanical device that has a rotating shaft connected to one terminal capable of
making or breaking a connection to one or more other terminals.
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R-2R ladder: Network or circuit composed of a sequence of L networks connected in tandem. Circuit used
in digital to analog converters.
Saturation: Condition in which a further increase in one variable produces no further increase in the
resultant effect. In a bipolar junction transistor, the condition when the emitter to collector voltage is less
than the emitter to base voltage. This condition puts forward bias on the base to collector junction.
Saw tooth wave: Repeating waveform that rises from zero to maximum value linearly drops back to zero
and repeats. A ramp waveform.
Schmitt trigger: Circuit to convert a given waveform to a square wave output.
Schottky diode: High speed diode that has very little junction capacitance. Also known as a "hot-carrier
diode" or a "surface-barrier diode."
Selectivity: Chrematistic of a circuit to discriminate between wanted and unwanted signals.
Self biasing: Gate bias for a field effect transistor in which source current through a resistor produces the
voltage for gate to source bias.
Self inductance: Property that causes a counter electromotive force to be produced in a conductor when the
magnetic field expands or collapses with a change of current.
Semiconductor: An element which is either a good conductor or a good insulator, but rather lies somewhere
between the two. Characterized by a valence shell containing four electrons. Silicon, germanium and carbon
are the semiconductors most frequently used in electronics.
Series circuit: Circuit in which the components are connected end to end so that current has only one path
to follow through the circuit.
Series resonance: Condition that occurs in a series LC circuit at the frequency where inductive reactance
equals capacitive reactance. Impedance is minimum, current is maximum limited only by resistance in the
circuit.
Seven segment displays: Device made of several light emitting diodes arranged in a numeric or
alphanumeric pattern. By lighting selected segments numeric or alphabet characters can be displayed.
Shield: Metal grounded cover used to protect a wire, component or piece of equipment from stray magnetic
and/or electric fields.
Short circuit: Also called a short. Low resistance connection between two points in a circuit typically
causing excessive current.
Signal: Electrical quantity that conveys information.
Signal to noise ratio: Ratio of the magnitude of the signal to the magnitude of noise usually expressed in
decibels.
Silicon :( Si) Non metallic element (atomic number 14) used in pure form as a semiconductor.
Silicon-controlled rectifier :(SCR) Three terminal active device that acts as a gated diode. The gate
terminal is used to turn the device on allowing current to pass from cathode to anode.
Silicon controlled switch: An SCR with an added terminal called an anode gate. A positive pulse either at
the anode gate or the cathode gate will turn the device on.
Silicon dioxide: Glass like material used as the gate insulating material in a MOSFET.
Simplex: Communication in only one direction at a time. Example: FAX.
Simulcast: Broadcasting a program simultaneously in two different forms, for example a program broadcast
in both AM and FM.
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Single pole double throw :(SPDT) Three terminal switch in which one terminal can be connected to either
one of the other terminals.
Single pole single throw :(SPST) Two terminal switch or relay that can open or close one circuit.
Single sideband :(SSB) AM radio communication technique in which the transmitter suppresses one
sideband and therefore transmits only a single sideband.
Single throw switch: Switch containing only one set of contacts which can be either opened or closed.
Sink: Device such as a load that consumes power or conducts away heat.
Skin effect: Tendency of high-frequency (rf) currents to flow near the surface layer of a conductor.
Slew rate: The maximum rate at which the output voltage of an op-amp can change.
Software: Program of instructions that directs the operation of a computer.
Solar cell: Photovoltaic cell that converts light into electric energy. Especially useful as a power source for
space vehicles.
solid state: Pertaining to circuits where signals pass through solid semiconductor material such as transistors
and diodes as opposed to vacuum tubes where signals pass through a vacuum.
Sonar: Acronym for "sound navigation and ranging." A system using reflected sound waves to determine
the position of some target.
Sound wave: Pressure waves propagated through air or other plastic media. Sound waves are generally
audible to the human ear if the frequency is between approximately 20 and 20,000 vibrations per second.
(Hertz)
Source follower: FET amplifier in which signal is applied between gate and drain with output taken
between source and drain. Also called "common drain."
Source impedance: Impedance through which output current is taken from a source.
Spectrum: Arrangement or display of light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation separated according
to wavelength, energy or some other property.
Spectrum analyzer: Instrument used to display the frequency domain of a waveform plotting amplitude
against frequency.
Speed-up capacitor: Capacitor added to the base circuit of a BJT switching circuit to improve the switching
time of the device.
Stop band: Range of frequencies outside the pass band of a tuned amplifier.
Storage time: In a BJT switching circuit, it is the time required for collector current to drop from 100% to
90% of its maximum value.
Stranded conductor: Conductor composed of a group of strands of wire twisted together.
Stray capacitance: Undesirable capacitance that exists between two conductors such as two leads or one
lead and a metal chassis.
Superconductor: Metal such as lead or niobium that, when cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero,
can conduct current with no resistance.
Super heterodyne receiver: Radio receiver that converts all radio frequencies to a fixed intermediate
frequency to maximize gain and bandwidth before demodulation.
Super high frequency :( SHF) Frequency band between 3 GHz and 30 GHz. So designated by Federal
Communications Commission (FCC).
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Superposition theorem: Theorem designed to simplify networks containing two or more sources. It states
that in a network containing more than one source, the current at any one point is equal to the algebraic sum
of the currents produced by each source acting separately.
Sweep generator: Test instrument designed to produce a voltage that continuously varies in frequency over
a band of frequencies. Used as a source to display frequency response of a circuit on an oscilloscope.
Switch: Electrical device having two states, on (closed) or off (open). Ideally having zero impedance when
closed and infinite impedance when open.
Switching transistor: transistor designed to change rapidly between saturation and cut-off.
Synchronization: Also called sync. Precise matching of two waves or functions.
Synchronous: Two or more signals in step or in phase.
System: Combination of several pieces of equipment to perform in a particular manner.
Tank circuit: Parallel resonant circuit containing only a coil and a capacitor. Both the coil and capacitor
store electrical energy for part of each cycle.
Telegraphy: Communication between two points by sending and receiving a series of current pulses either
through wire or by radio.
Telemetry: Transmission of instrument readings to a remote location either by wire or by radio.
Telephone: Apparatus designed to convert sound waves into electrical waves which are sent to and
reproduced data distant point.
Telephone line: Wires existing between subscribers and central stations in a telephone system.
Television :System that converts both audio and visual information into corresponding electrical signals
which are then transmitted through wires or by radio waves to a receiver which reproduces the original
information.
Thermal runaway: Problem that can develop in an amplifier when an increase in temperature causes an
increase in collector current. The increase in collector current causes a further increase in temperature and so
on. Unless the circuit is designed to prevent this condition, the device can be driven into saturation.
Thermal stability: The ability of a circuit to maintain stable characteristics in spite of increased
temperature.
Thermistor: Temperature sensitive semiconductor that has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
As temperature increases, resistance decreases.
Thermocouple: Temperature transducer consisting of two dissimilar metals welded together at one end to
form a junction that when heated will generate a voltage.
Thermostat: Device that opens or closes a circuit in response to changes in temperature.
The venins theorem: Theorem that replaces any complex network with a single voltage source in series
with a single resistance.
Threshold voltage: For an enhancement MOSFET, the minimum gate source voltage required for
conduction of source drain current.
Thyristor: A term used to classify all four layer semiconductor devices. SCRs and triacs are examples of
thyristors.
Time constant :(t) Time required for a capacitor in an RC circuit to charge to 63% of the remaining
potential across the circuit. Also time required for current to reach 63% of maximum value in an RL circuit.
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Time constant of an RC circuit is the product of R and C. Time constant of an RL circuit is equal to
inductance divided by resistance.
Time division multiplexing :( TDM) Transmission of two or more signals on the same path, but at different
times.
Transconductance: Also called mutual conductance. Ratio of a change in output current to the change in
input voltage that caused it.
Transmission line: Conducting line used to transmit signal energy between two points.
Triggering: Initiation of an action in a circuit which then functions for a predetermined time. Example: The
duration of one sweep in a cathode ray tube.
Trimmer: Small value variable capacitor, resistor or inductor used to fine tune a larger value.
Tuned circuit: Circuit that can have its component values adjusted so that it responds to one selected
frequency and rejects all others.
Tunnel diode: Heavily doped junction diode that has negative resistance in the forward direction of its
operating range.
Turn-off time: Sum of storage time and fall time.
Turn-on time: Sum of delay time and rise time.
Ultrasonic: Signals that are just above the frequency range of human hearing of approximately 20 kHz.
Unijunction transistor: Three terminal device that acts as a diode with its own internal voltage divider
biasing circuit.
Varactor diode: PN junction diode with a high junction capacitance when reverse biased. Most often used
as a voltage controlled capacitor. The varactor is also called: varicap, tuning diode
Very high frequency :(VHF) Electromagnetic frequency band from 30 MHz to 300 MHz
Very low frequency :(VLF) Frequency band from 3 kHz to 30 kHz.
Video amplifier: Amplifier having one or mare stages designed to amplify video signals.
Virtual ground: Point in a circuit that is always at approximately ground potential. Often a ground for
voltage, but not for current.
voice synthesizer: Synthesizer that can simulate speech by stringing together phonemes.
Voltage amplifier: Amplifier designed to build up signal voltage. By design amplifiers can have a large
voltage gain or a large current gain or a large power gain. Voltage amplifiers are designed to maximize
voltage gain often at the expense of current gain or power gain.
Voltage controlled oscillator: Oscillator whose output frequency depends on an input control voltage.
Voltage follower: Operational amplifier circuit characterized by a high input impedance, low output
impedance and unity voltage gain. Used as a buffer between a source and a low impedance load.
Voltage gain: Also called voltage amplification. Ratio of amplifier output voltage to input voltage usually
expressed in decibels.
Voltage multiplier: Rectifier circuit using diodes and capacitors to produce a DC output voltage that is
some multiple of the peak value of AC input voltage. Cost effective way of producing higher DC voltages.
Voltage doublers and voltage triplers are examples.
Waveguide: Rectangular or circular pipe used to guide electromagnetic waves at micro frequencies.
Wien-bridge oscillator: Oscillator that uses an RC low-pass filter and an RC high-pass filter to set the
frequency of oscillations.
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Wheatstone bridge: Four arm bridge circuit used to measure resistance, inductance or capacitance.
Wideband amplifier: Also called "broadband amplifier." Amplifier with a flat response over a wide range
of frequencies.
Woofer: Large loudspeaker designed primarily to reproduce low frequency audio signals.

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Chapter-6: Latest technology material for interview:

Anti-collision device:
The Anti-Collision Device (ACD) is a self-acting microprocessor-based data communication device
designed and developed by Konkan Railway.
When installed on locomotives (along with an auto-braking unit - ABU), guard vans, stations and levelcrossing gates (both manned and unmanned), the network of ACD systems prevents high-speed collisions in
mid-sections, station areas and at level-crossing gates.
The ACD uses both radio frequency and Global Positioning System (GPS) through satellites, whereby a
train is automatically brought to a halt if the track ahead is not clear. The train starts braking 3 kms ahead of
a blockade.
Block section in railway:
Trains cannot collide with each other if they are not permitted to occupy the same section of track at the
same time, so railway lines are divided into sections known as blocks. In normal circumstances, only one
train is permitted in each block at a time. This principle forms the basis of most railway safety systems.
Train detection circuit:
1. Track circuit
One of the most common ways to determine whether a section of line is occupied is by use of track circuit.
The rails at either end of each section are electrically isolated from the next section, and an electrical current
is fed to both running rails at one end. A relay at the other end is connected to both rails. When the section is
unoccupied, the relay coil completes an electrical circuit, and is energized. However, when a train enters the
section, it short-circuits the current in the rails, and the relay is de-energized.
2. Axle counter:
An alternative method of determining the occupied status of a block is using devices located at its beginning
and end that count the number of axles entering and leaving. If the same number leave the block as enter it,
the block is assumed to be clear. Although axle counters can provide similar functionality to track circuits,
they also exhibit a few other characteristics. In a damp environment an axle counted section can be far
longer than a track circuited one.
Global Positioning system:
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24
satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defence. GPS was originally intended for military
applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system available for civilian use. GPS works in any
weather conditions, anywhere in the world 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to
use GPS.
Working of GPS:
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal information to earth.
GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to calculate the user's exact location. Essentially,
the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received. The
time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the satellite is. Now, with distance measurements from a
few more satellites, the receiver can determine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map.
A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude
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and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the
user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the user's position has been determined, the GPS
unit can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing, track, trip distance, distance to destination,
sunrise and sunset time and more.
GPS Satellite system:
The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the earth about 12,000 miles above us.
They are constantly moving, making two complete orbits in less than 24 hours. These satellites are travelling
at speeds of roughly 7000 miles an hour.GPS satellite are powered by solar energy. They have backup
batteries onboard to keep them running in the event of a solar eclipse, when there's no solar power. Small
rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct path.
Generation of Mobile:
1G: Purely analog
2G: It is mainly for voice and slow transmission
2.5G: So the cellular services combined with GPRS became 2.5G.
GPRS could provide data rates from 56 kbit/s up to 114 kbit/s. It can be used for services such as Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet
communication services such as email and World Wide Web access.
2.75G: GPRS networks evolved to EDGE networks with the introduction of 8PSK encoding. Enhanced Data
rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC) is a
backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an
extension on top of standard GSM.
EDGE can be considered a 3G radio technology and is part of ITU's 3G definition, but is most frequently
referred to as 2.75G. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks .
3G:
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000):
Better known as 3G or 3rd Generation, is a family of standards for wireless communications defined by the
International Telecommunication Union, which includes EDGE, CDMA2000, the UMTS family as well as
DECT and WiMAX. Services include wide-area wireless voice telephone, video calls, and wireless data, all
in a mobile environment. Compared to 2G and 2.5G services, 3G allows simultaneous use of speech and
data services and higher data rates (up to 14.4 Mbit/s on the downlink and 5.8 Mbit/s on the uplink with
HSPA+). Thus, 3G networks enable network operators to offer users a wider range of more advanced
services while achieving greater network capacity through improved spectral efficiency.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):
It offers high speed data services in GSM network. It uses Packet Mode Technique to transfer data and
provides connectivity to Internet. Users will be able to browse Internet using handsets supporting Internet
browsing. They will also be able use their e-mail accounts as is being done through landline Internet access.
Also browsing of Internet from Laptops and Desktop computers is possible by connecting the computer with
the GPRS enabled mobile handset through a data cable or Infrared connectivity.
Using GPRS you can download in your mobile the following:
Polyphonic ring tones
MP3 tones
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 Colour logos
Wallpapers
Videos
GSM&CDMA:
GSM: Global system for Mobile Communication
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access.
GSM networks operate in a number of different frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges for
2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G). Most 2G GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz
bands. Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900
MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated.
Most 3G GSM networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band.
GSM-900 uses 890915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station (uplink) and
935960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 125 RF channels (channel numbers 0 to 124)
spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used.
In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This extended
GSM, E-GSM uses 880915 MHz (uplink) and 925960 MHz (downlink), adding 50 channels (channel
numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band. Time division multiplexing is used to allow
eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio
timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use
alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the
frame duration is 4.615 ms.The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in
GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.
SIM:
One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card. The
SIM is a detachable smart card containing the users subscription information and phone book. This allows
the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively the user can also change
operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by
allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them, this practice is known as SIM
locking, and is illegal in some countries.
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol):
It provides a standardized way of linking the Internet to mobile phones. WAP is an application
communication protocol. WAP is used to access services and information. It is inherited from Internet
standards. It is used for handheld devices such as mobile phones and PDAs. It is a protocol designed for
micro browsers. It enables the creating of web-applications for mobile devices WAP uses the mark-up
language called WML instead of regular HTML. The WAP facility is available over CSD & GPRS for the
Cell One customers.
MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service):
Mobile Messaging is evolving beyond SMS text messaging with the introduction of MMS (Multimedia
Messaging Service). MMS delivers a total communication experience allowing personalized multimedia
content such as images, audio, text, video and combinations of these.
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Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) is a store and forward messaging service that allows mobile
subscribers to exchange multimedia messages with other mobile subscribers. As such it can be seen as an
evolution of SMS, with MMS supporting the transmission of additional media types.
MMS is an important emerging service, which allows the sending of multiple media in a single message,
and the ability to send a message to multiple recipients. The originator can easily create a Multimedia
Message, either using a built-in or accessory camera, or can use images and sounds stored previously in the
phone (and possibly downloaded from a web site).Even if the recipient phone is not switched on, the
Multimedia Message will be stored and sent to the recipient as soon as they switch on their phone. If the
recipient has not subscribed to the MMS service, still he/she can view the MMS through internet based on
the SMS notification he/she gets.
A number of Multimedia Messages can be stored in the users handset and reviewed or forwarded at a later
date.
ATM&PVC:
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode & Permanent Virtual circuit):
ISDN:(integrated circuit Digital Network):
ISDN Has emerged as a powerful tool worldwide for provisioning of different services like voice, data and
image transmission over the telephone line through the telephone network. ISDN is being viewed as the
logical extension of the digitalization of telecommunication network and most developed countries are in
different stages of implementing ISDN.
An ISDN subscriber can establish two simultaneous independent calls (except when the terminal equipment
is such that it occupies two 'B' channels for one call itself like in video conferencing etc.) on existing pair of
wires of the telephone line (Basic rate ISDN) where as only one call is possible at present on the analog line
/telephone connection. The two simultaneous calls in ISDN can be of any type like speech, data, image etc.
Services Offered By ISDN
Normal Telephone & Fax (G3)
Digital Telephone -with a facility to identify the calling subscriber number and other facilities.
G4 Fax
Data Transmission at 64 Kbps with ISDN controller card
Video Conferencing at 128 Kbps
Video Conferencing at 384 Kbps (Possible with 3 ISDN lines)
Broadband service:
BSNL is in the process of commissioning of a world class, multi-gigabit, multi-protocol, convergent IP
infrastructure through National Internet Backbone-II (NIB-II), that will provide convergent services through
the same backbone and broadband access network. The Broadband service will be available on DSL
technology (on the same copper cable that is used for connecting telephone), on a countrywide basis
spanning 198 cities. In terms of infrastructure for broadband services NIB-II would put India at par with
more advanced nations. The services that would be supported includes always-on broadband access to the
Internet for residential and business customers, Content based services, Video multicasting, Video-ondemand and Interactive gaming, Audio and Video conferencing, IP Telephony, Distance learning
messaging: plain and feature rich, Multi-site MPLS VPNs with Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees.
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The subscribe will be able to access the above services through Subscriber Service Selection System (SSSS)
portal.
Important Terms in modern communication:
Wi-Fi: Wireless fidelity
1. Wi-Fi allows local area networks (LANs) to be deployed without wires for client devices, typically
reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables cannot be run, such as
outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
2. Wireless network adapters are now built into most laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continues to
drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more devices. Wi-Fi has become
widespread in corporate infrastructures.
3. Different competitive brands of access points and client network interfaces are inter-operable at a basic
level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards
compatible. Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Unlike mobile telephones, any standard Wi-Fi device will
work anywhere in the world.
4. Wi-Fi is widely available in more than 220,000 public hotspots and tens of millions of homes and
corporate and university campuses worldwide. The current version of Wi-Fi Protected Access encryption
(WPA2) is not easily defeated, provided strong passwords are used. New protocols for Quality of
Service (WMM) make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications.
Wi-MAX: worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WiMAX, meaning Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications technology
that provides wireless transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes, from point-to-multipoint
links to portable and fully mobile internet access. The technology provides up to 3 Mbit/sec broadband
speed without the need for cables. The technology is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard (also called
Broadband Wireless Access). The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed
in June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability of the standard. The forum describes WiMAX as "a
standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to
cable and DSL
What is electronics?
Electronics is flow of electrons or other electrically charged particles in semiconductor in a controlled
manner but electrical is study of presence or movement of electric charge.
Microwave oven:
It uses Magnetron microwave and generates microwave at frequency of 2.45 GHz for purpose of cooking of
food. This is based on molecule of water and other components and other compounds which rotate or vibrate
and due to this vibration heat is generated. Every organic matter is generally made up of matter.
Different microwave frequency band:
L, S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka (1-40GHz) and other higher frequency bands are as follows:
1. Q-band(30-50)
2. U-Band(40-60)
3. V-band(50-75)
4. E-band(60-90)
5. W-band(75-110)
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6. F-Band(90-140)
7. D-band(110-170)
Cable TV: CATV (Community Antenna TV)
CATV is a system of providing TV FM radio programming and other services to consumer via radio
frequency signals transmitted directly to peoples TV through optical fiber and Co axial cable. In case of
radio broad casting use of different frequency allow many channels to be distributed through same cable
without separates wires for each. Here tuner of TV-VCR (Video-Cassette-Recorder). Since here a point is
operating like an antenna from where many households are taking cables so it is known as community
antenna TV.
Plasma TV:
It is an emissive flat panel display. It is lighter and much thinner than traditional TV and video display .In
Plasma TV light is emitted by phosphorous which is excited by plasma discharge between two flat panels of
glass. Thickness of plasma is less than 10 cm. There is Neon and Xenon gas in plasma TV which is
contained between hundred of tiny cells. Phosphorus in a plasma display give-off colored light when they
are excited. Contrast ratio of plasma TV is 5000:1. Main advantage of plasma TV is that a very wide screen
can be produced using extremely thin materials. In plasma each pixel is lit individually so image is very
bright and looks good from almost every angle.
Plasma state: It is an ionized gas and considered to be a distinct phase of matter, here ionized means at
least one electron has been disassociated from a significant fraction of molecule. Plasma are most common
phase of matter and entire visible universe outside solar system is plasma.
LCD:
It is a thin flat display device made of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light
source or reflector. It uses a very small amount of power and i.e. Why suitable for use in battery powered
electronic devices. LCD works on concept of optical polarizer. For color LCD 3sub pixels are used which
are colored as red, green and blue. Main advantage of LCD is less power consumption and its disadvantages
are lower contrast ratio and larger response time.
Analog Digital TV:
Analog TV encodes television picture information as an analog signal i.e. by varying the voltage or
frequency of signal. Common Analog TV system are NTSC (National Television system Committee) and
PAL (Phase Alternating Line).
Digital TV uses digital modulation and compression to broad cast video audio and data signals. It can be
used to carry more channels in some amount of bandwidth than analog TV and it receive high definition
programming. This digital signal eliminates common analog broad casting defects such as ghosting, static
noise etcs.
Aspect ratio in case of digital TV is 16:9 while in analog it is 4:3.
High-Definition-TV (HDTV):
It has higher resolution than traditional formats like NTSC, PAL etcs. HDTV is broadcasted generally and
therefore coincides with introduction of digital TV. High definition means TV or display is able to accept
video over a HDMI connection using a new connector known as HDMI. HDTV has aspect ratio of 16:9 and
thus effective resolution is increased.
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High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI):

It provides an interface between any compatible digital audio video/audio source such as set-top-box, DVD
player and digital TV. HDMI supports standard, enhanced or high definition video plus multichannel audio
on a single cable.
Direct to Home (DTH):
It is a term that describes satellite television service which is delivered via communication satellite.
Radio frequency:
It is a portion of electromagnetic spectrum in which electromagnetic waves can be generated by AC fed to
an antenna. Generally RF range is between 3Hz-300GHz.
Sub-marine cable:
This is cable laid beneath the sea to carry telecommunication between countries. Normal radio
communication cant travel through thick conductors such as salt water. VLF(3-30 KHz) can penetrate sea
water down to a depth of roughly 20 meter hence a submarine staying at shallow depth can use these
frequencies.
Repeater:
It is an analog device that amplifies an input signal which may be either digital or analog. Repeaters are used
in both copper wire cables and optical fiber carrying light. Repeaters are used in broadcasting where they are
known as booster.
FCC- Rules :( Federal Communication Commission)
These are certain rules and which governed all radio spectrums in world wide.
Short wave: (3MHz-30MHz)
Short wave frequencies are capable of reaching other side of planet because they can be reflected by
ionosphere. SW are used for domestic broad casting in countries with a widely dispersed population and also
for international broad casting.
Medium wave (300 KHz-3MHz)
It is standard AM broad cast band. These waves have property of following curvature of earth i.e ground
wave at all times and also reflect ionosphere. Medium wave is ideal for both local and continent worldwide.
Long wave (<500KHz)
Frequency below 500 KHz in these wave follow curvature of earth unlike SW they dont reflect or refract
from ionosphere.
Different broad cast frequency:
1. AM radio :535-1605 KHZ(LF)
2. TV band-I :54MHz-88MHZ(VHF)
3. FM radio band-II: 88MHz-108MHz(VHF)
4. TV band-III: 174MHz-216MHz
5. TV band-IV&V:512MHz-806MHz(UHF)
Audio frequency:
It has range between 20-20KHz. These range are audible to human ear. It contains bands ELF, SLF,
ULF&VLF.

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Nano technology:
This technology is based upon fact that properties of material becomes totally different when their size
approaches that of a few hundred or tens of atoms. By control of matter at dimension of roughly 1-100nm
property will change. 2 phenomenonas occur by going at that level.
1. Quantum confinement
2. Gibbs-Thomson effect.
So nano technology means there is plenty of room at bottom
Wi-Fi :( Wireless-fidelity)
By this technique a computer/laptop/PDA will connect to internet. There is a hot spot which is radiating
internet signals in air. Wi-Fi uses IEEE802.11 standard. For access to internet persons laptop must be Wi-Fi
enabled. In this case hot-spot will broadcast its SSID (Service Set Identifier Network) via packets.
Wi-Max (Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access):
It is similar to Wi-Fi concept but it is used for long distance access. Wi-MAX is a wireless MAN. It is a
network that connects IEEE 802.11(hot spot) with each other and to other parts of internet and provides a
wireless alternative to cable and DSL. IEEE 802.16 provides upto 50 km of linear service area range and
allows connectivity between users without a direct LOS.
ISDN: (Integrated service Digital Network)
It is a type of circuit switched telephone network which is designed to allow digital transmission of voice
and data over ordinary telephone copper wires which result in better quality and higher speed than available
with analog system. It provides simultaneous voice-data and text transmission between individual desktop
,video conferencing and group video conferencing systems.
Channels in ISDN:
B-channel are used for data and D-channels are intended for signaling and control but can be used for data
also.
Access in ISDN:
There are two types of access to ISDN.
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI): Here BRI consists of 2B channels with a B.W of 64Kbps and one D channel
with a B.W of 16 Kbps. So BRI contains 2B+D
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI): here PRI consists of large no of B channels and one D channel. PRI
consists of 23B+D
Digital Subscriber-Line (DSL):
DSL is replacement of ordinary modem over same copper cable. So it is a family of technologies that
provides digital data transmission over local telephone network. Down load speed ranges from 128 kbps to
24000kbps. It is a very high speed connection that uses same wire as regular telephone network.
Advantages of DSL Modem:
1. In this case one can leave interconnection open and can still use phone line for voice call.
2. Speed of DSL is higher than that of normal modem
3. DSL modem does not require new wiring and can use same phone line for internet connection.
Disadvantage of DSL modem:
1. DSL connection is better when you are closer to providers central office
2. Connection is faster for receiving data than for sending it over the internet
3. Service is not available every where
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ADSL-(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line):

Here data flow in 1direction is higher than data flow in other direction .Here down load speed is higher than
upload speed. ADSL uses two frequency band
1. 25.875KHz-138KHz is used for upstream
2. 138KHz-1104KHz is used for down load speed.
VDSL-Very high bit rate DSL: It is used for high bit rate DSL
SDSL- Symmetric DSL: It is used mainly by business man. Receiving and sending data rate is same for
both down load speed.
RADSL- Rate Adaptive DSL:
Variation of ADSL modem can adjust speed of connection depending upon length and quality of line.
Mechatronics:
It is combination of mechanical-engineering, electronics-engineering& software- engineering. Mechatronics
is related with self operating machine eg.robot.
Internet&World Wide Web:
Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks linked by copper wires&fiber optics cables.
While web is a collection of interconnected documents linked by hyper links and URL and is accessible
using internet. It is publically accessible worldwide system of interconnected computer network which
transmits data by packet switching using a standardized Internet protocol (IP). Internet is based upon packet
switching.
Internet was started as ARPANET in 1965 by DARPA (Defence Advance Research project Agency) which
later grew as internet. ARPANET is Advanced Research Project Agency Network.
Internet protocol (IP):
These are certain rules which govern communication of data across a packet switched network.
IP-Address:
It is a unique number that devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a network
utilizing internet protocol standard. Number currently used in IP address ranges from 1.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255. Internet protocol knows each logical host interface by a number, the IP address on any
given network.
I-Mode:
It is a wireless internet service which is very popular in Japan. It was inspired by WAP developed in USA. Imode was developed as an expensive method of packet switched high speed communication.
WAP :( Wireless Application Protocol)
It is an open international standard for application that uses wireless communication eg. Internet access from
a mobile phone. It is known protocol used for majority of worlds mobile internet sites.
POTS service: (Post office Telephone service)
ACARS :( Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting system):
It is a digital data link system for transmission of small message between aircraft and ground station via
radio or satellite. It was protocol defined in 1970 and used telex format.
Mobiles phone are not allowed in aircraft because mobile phone could interfere with sensitive equipment on
aircraft. Level of interference depends upon phone system used and phone components in plane. Older
analog phones transmit more power and so more interference.
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Blue tooth:
It is a way to connect and exchange information between two devices like mobiles Mobile jammer:
,PCs, laptops, printers and digital camera etc.It is available everywhere and i.e. why called as globally
available short range network. Both devices in this network must be blue tooth enabled.
General application of blue tooth:
It transfers file between 2 mobiles, laptop to laptop, 2 LANS can also be constructed keyboard to PC and
between desk top and mice.
Mobile Jammer:
By use of mobile jammer mobile cant transmit and receive signal from/to BTS. It is basically used for
avoiding disturbances at temple, church etc. It works on very simple concept that is interference. This
mobile jammer sends same frequency which mobile phone uses and this causes enough interference for
mobile signal which make mobile signal very weak and finally not able to communicate with respective
BTS.
E-mail:
For sending e-mail from one place to another important protocols used are SMTP and POP-3.
Working of E-mail:
Step-1: sender writes e-mail and his MUA (Mail-User-Agent)formats the message in internet e-mail format
and a protocol SMTP sends it to local MTA(Mail-Transfer-Agent). Mail-Transfer-Agent is a computer
program that transfer e-mail message from one place to another place MTA is same as Mail-ExchangeServer.
Step-2: MTA looks up this domain name in DNS to find another MTA accepting message for that domain
this another MTA is nothing but another Mail-Exchange-Server.
Step-3: Now message goes to Users inbox from this MTA by use of SMTP protocol. So mail is reached in
inbox from MTA by use of SMTP.
Step-4: Now user gets this e-mail by use of Post-Office-Protocol (POP-3)
Modem and Codec:
Modem: For long distance transmission data should be in analog form because digital data cant be sent for
long distance. In case of digital repeater, transformer cant be used efficiently. But in general modulation
used is Digital so to avoid this problem one will use Modem which will convert digital to analog on T X side
and analog to digital on Rx side. So by use of modem transmission is made easier over transmission channel.
So Modem means modulation and demodulation both.
Codec: It means coding/decoding or compression/decompression.
Difference between communication/Telecommunication: Exchanging information between 2entities is
known as communication if it is at long distance then it is known as telecommunication. If receiver is
listening and understands everything effectively then it is called as effective communication
Various channel Access method:
FDMA: Frequency Division Multiplexing
TDMA: Time Division Multiplexing
SSMA: Spread Spectrum Multiplexing
SDMA: Space Division Multiplexing
WDMA: wave length Division Multiplexing
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CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiplexing

FDMA: In this case total bandwidth is divided into many bands of frequency and each subdivision/band has
its own carrier frequency.
TDMA: In this case same frequency is divided into different time slots. This is generally used in mobile
telephony.
GSM uses FDMA to prevent interference between outward and inward signals while TDMA is used to allow
multiple handsets to work on a single cells.
SSMA: In this case energy generated at a single frequency is deliberately spread over a wide band of
frequency. This concept is generally used in mobile jammers.
SDMA: Here power is distributed in a particular direction which has more number of users. So directivity
of antenna will be high in a particular direction and low in another direction. So space division is according
to situation or availability of users.
WDMA: when multiple optical carrier signals are multiplexed on a single optical fiber by use of different
wavelengths of LASER light to carry different signals.
Note: WDM is applied to optical carrier while FDM is applied to radio carrier. Both Radio and light are both
forms of electromagnetic radiation.
CSMA: Transmitter listens for carrier wave before trying to send it, it tries to detect the presence of an
encoded signal from another station before attempting to transmit. Multiple accesses means multiple nodes
send and receive on one medium.
Line code: it is a code chosen for use within a communication system for transmission purposes. This line
code must not contain DC component because transmission of DC component is not possible for long
distance so line code is preferred for long distance communication. Example of line code are Uni-polar,
Polar, Bi-polar and Manchester.
Manchester coding is one in which each bit of data is signified by at-least on transition. It is known as self
clocking i.e. accurate synchronization of data stream is possible.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): It is a standard form of digital audio
&video and is used in Compact Disc (CD). PCM is a digital representation of an analog signal where
magnitude of signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals and then quantized to a series of symbols in
digital code.
MP-3 player: MPEG-1 audio layer-3 is a lossy compression format and it provides representation of PCM
audio data in much smaller size by compressing redundant terms. So MP-3 player is nothing but compressed
form of PCM based digital audio.
Dolby sound: It is a trade mark for audio noise reduction system and other systems that improves
performance and fidelity of audio recording.
FM&PM: Frequency modulation and Phase modulation are two modulation techniques. FM is generally
used at VHF radio frequency for high fidelity broadcasts of music and speech. Advantage of FM is that it is
more robust against noise and interference and i.e. why it is a high fidelity radio transmission. PM is not
preferred because it requires more complex receiving hardware and there can be ambiguity problem of
phase.

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TV/Car remote control:

IR (Infra-red) transmission is used for this type of remote control. IR transmission is used for short range
communication. Remote control contains LED which transmits IR light and TV/car contains Si-Photo-diode.
IR light from remote control falls on the photo diode of TV and this photo diode responds to IR light.
Generally this photo diode responds only to rapidly pulsing signal created by transmitter.
IR radiations are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density and it cannot penetrate walls &so
does not interfere with other devices in adjoining room.
I-MAX: It is a film projection system created by company called I MAX of Canada. It is 22 meter wide and
16 meter high.
Global-Positioning System (GPS): it is a satellite navigation system which is used to determine position of
a target by use of a satellite constellation of 24 satellite in intermediate circular orbit 20200Km. It is used for
locating a target, vehicle and also used for surveying.
Vehicle tracking by GPS/GPS tracking:
Every vehicle will contain GPS receiver and calculates current position using process of trilateration after
measuring distance to at least 4 satellites by comparing satellite coded time signal transmission. Here
receiver calculates the orbit of each satellite based on information encoded in their radio signals and
measures distance to each satellite. So this data is recorded in this unit,this recorded data can be stored
within tracking unit or it may be transmitted to a central location form where info can be send back to user
after making it in user friendly form.
Attenuation&distortion:
Attenuation means loss of signal and generally repeaters are used for compensating attenuation or loss. But
repeaters amplify the noise along with the signal resulting in a poor signal to noise ratio.
Distortion means inaccurate reproduction of a signal caused by changes in signals waveform,either
amplitude or frequency. To avoid distortion equalizers are used and one type of equaliser used in analog
environment is the load coil. By use of load coils frequency response is flatten.
Performance parameters in digital transmission:
In digital transmission system the quality of communication is mainly assessed by two factors:
1. Bit-Error-Rate
2. Jitter
BER: The BER is the measure of error bits with respect to total number of bits transmitted in a given time.
The total number of bits transmitted can be known from the bit rate of digital signal. For quality
communication the requirement is not more than one error bit in one million bits.
Short term variation of the significant instances of digital signal from their corresponding reference positions
is referred to as jitter.

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