Durham E-Theses

Soils and agricultural development in the region of

Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia
Al-Jerash, Mohammed Abdullah

How to cite:

Al-Jerash, Mohammed Abdullah (1968)

Saudi Arabia,

Soils and agricultural development in the region of Al-Qassim,

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REFERENCE
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ABSTRACT
The process of a g r i c u l t u r a l development and i t s r e l a t e d
problems is. a serious economic d i f f i c u l t y f a c i n g the developi n g countries throughout the w o r l d . I n Saudi Arabia such
d i f f i c u l t y i s g r e a t l y a m p l i f i e d by the almost t o t a l l a c k of
comprehensive research and studies about the physico-economic
elements of a g r i c u l t u r e , n o t a b l y the s o i l and i t s r e l a t e d
problems and measures of improvement and conservation. The
region of al-Qassim i s one of the most important a g r i c u l t u r a l
areas i n Saudi A r a b i a . The r e g i o n i s of an area of 17,800
square kilometres w i t h 8i+,000 hectares of arable lands. The
importance of the r e g i o n as a crop producing area i n C e n t r a l
Arabia has been g r e a t l y a m p l i f i e d by the discovery of a r t e s i a n
water, i n 1953, i n q u a n t i t i e s estimated t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o
support a l l the arable lands i n the r e g i o n f o r many generations
t o come. The recent completion of al-Qassim highway, i n
September, 1967, which connected w i t h the great highway of
Arabia - from Dammam on the Arabian-Persian Gulf t o Jeddah
on the Red Sea - has added a s i g n i f i c a n t economic importance,
by breaking down the region's geographical i s o l a t i o n , imposed
by the surrounding sand-dunes.. These favourable p h y s i c a l
requirements f o r promoting a g r i c u l t u r e are a l l i e d t o the ever
increasing demand f o r a more valuable and d i v e r s i f i e d d i e t
by the expanding urban p o p u l a t i o n as a r e s u l t of the i n c r e a s i n g
r i s e i n the standard o f l i v i n g due t o the increased n a t i o n a l
income from o i l revenues. As a r e s u l t a remarkable expansion
i n c u l t i v a t e d areas and c o r r e l a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s
has evolved. The change from an a g r i c u l t u r a l - economy based
on a semi-subsistence type of a g r i c u l t u r e d i c t a t e d by a
shortage of i r r i g a t i o n water t o a water-surplus economy

characterized by market-orientated production was r a t h e r

sudden, quick, and unpreceded by appropriate studies and
p l a n s . Over the years, ..hese random e f f o r t s of expansion
have produced a complex of i n t e r c a l a t e d s o i l and a g r i c u l t u r a l
problems. This research i s dedicated t o give a p r e l i m i n a r y
account o f the s o i l s and a g r i c u l t u r e i n the r e g i o n . A v i t a l
conclusion concerning the s o i l s , however, i s t h a t the region's
s o i l s comprise a sizeable p r o p o r t i o n o f a l l u v i u m s o i l s of
h i g h l y promising prospects w i t h i n the wadi and Qaa a s s o c i a t i o n s .
A g r i c u l t u r e has been approached through two themes: f i r s t l y ,
the p a t t e r n of a g r i c u l t u r a l production and i t s r e l a t e d land
system, method of c u l t i v a t i o n , and marketing processes, and,
secondly, the problems f a c i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l development a t the
present, time, .namely* labour shortage and mechanization,
i r r i g a t i o n system, s t r u c t u r e and methods, and p l a n t and
animal disease c o n t r o l .

SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

IN THE REGION OP AL-PASSIM. SAUDI ARABIA
BY
MOHAMMED ABDULLAH AL-JERASH
(B'.A. UNIVERSITY OP AR RIYADH, SAUDI ARABIA)

The copyright of this thesis rests with the author.

No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
from it should be acknowledged.

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE

OP MASTER OP ARTS, DURHAM UNIVERSITY
SEPTEMBER, 1968

1.

PREFACE
The prime aim o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o study the r e l a t i o n s
between man and land i n the al-Qassim r e g i o n , Saudi A r a b i a .
The. method o f approach adopted i s t o study one o f the basic
resources o f the area, namely the s o i l , and t o analyse the
a g r i c u l t u r a l problems which need t o be tackled.", before a
more r a t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l economy i s achieved. Recent
changes i n the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f farm i n p u t s , notably t h e
tapping o f vast new supplies o f a r t e s i a n water f o r i r r i g a t e d
a g r i c u l t u r e , have a l t e r e d the t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l
techniques o f the r e g i o n . Few a g r i c u l t u r a l problems have
a r i s e n as increased water a v a i l a b i l i t y has changed the
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f a t r a d i t i o n a l and s t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l
economy.
The work f o r t h i s t h e s i s commenced i n October, 1 9 6 6
and f i n i s h e d i n September, 1 9 6 8 . The p e r i o d from J u l y t o
November, 1967 was spent i n Saudi Arabia and mostly i n a l Qassim, during which time the f i e l d work was conducted.
The whole o f June, 1967 was spent i n Rome where the w r i t e r
had many i n t e r v i e w s w i t h various s p e c i a l i s t s o f P.A.O.
The w r i t e r was able t o spend most o f t h e time i n t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s c e n t r a l l i b r a r y and t o consult a l l the
a v a i l a b l e r e p o r t s and documents on the status o f water and
a g r i c u l t u r e i n Saudi Arabia, as w e l l as many neighbouring
c o u n t r i e s . The outcome o f t h i s short v i s i t has had a
tremendous e f f e c t on the general p l a n and theme o f t h i s study.
Acknowledgments
I am indebted and g r a t e f u l t o King Abdul-aziz. U n i v e r s i t y
of Jeddah, Saudi A r a b i a - f o r i t s moral and f i n a n c i a l support
during the study p e r i o d . I also would l i k e t o acknowledge
the sincere i n t e r e s t , c o n s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e , and u n f a i l i n g

patience and guidance o f my supervisor, Dr. K. Atkinson.

My thanks are also due t o Professor W. B. Fisher f o r g i v i n g
me t h e chance t o conduct t h i s study i n h i s department. I
would l i k e t o record my g r a t e f u l thanks t o the o f f i c i a l s o f
the M i n i s t r y o f Water and A g r i c u l t u r e i n Saudi Arabia f o r
t h e i r h e l p f u l co-operation, notably His Excellency the M i n i s t e r ,
Mr.: Ha&an Meshary f o r h i s encouragement and generous cooperation which r e s u l t e d i n ready access t o a l l t e c h n i c a l
f i l e s , documents, and r e p o r t s o f the M i n i s t r y . Moreover, h i s
help was extended t o the f i e l d "by p r o v i d i n g accommodation and
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . I am g r a t e f u l t o Mr. Taher Ahmed
Ohaid, t h e M i n i s t e r ' s secretary; f o r Technical A f f a i r s , f o r
supplying much t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n and data. Also, I
would l i k e t o extend my thanks t o the heads o f the F i e l d
Extension Services Centres i n al-Qassim f o r t h e i r k i n d
co-operation and help i n t h e f i e l d . I would l i k e t o record
my g r a t e f u l thanks t o Dr. D. Burdon, the D i r e c t o r o f the
Land and Water Resources Branch of F.A.O. and t o Dr. R. Budal,
the D i r e c t o r i n charge of the World S o i l Resources O f f i c e o f
F.A.O. and t o Dr. V..G. Cervi the Chief o f I n f o r m a t i o n
L i a i s o n Section o f F.A.O.
F i n a l l y , I should l i k e t o thank my f e l l o w research
students, and t e c h n i c a l s t a f f i n t h i s department f o r t h e i r
sympathetic encouragement and many u s e f u l comments.

MOHAMMED AL-JERASH
DURHAM, U.K.
SEPTEMBER, 1 9 6 8 .

iii.

INTRODUCTION
Studies o f s o i l s as r e l a t e d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l development,
and v i c e versa, are o f acute necessity i n the developing
countries throughout the w o r l d . This i s "because o f the l a c k
of knowledge and research assessments on such aspects i n
these c o u n t r i e s . This i s o f t e n a r e s u l t , i n one way or
another, o f the socio-economic complex o f those c o u n t r i e s .
This c e r t a i n l y applies t o Saudi Arabia where socio-economic
f a c t o r s have retarded studies on the s o i l s and the a g r i c u l t u r e .
Even a f t e r s o l v i n g the ecdnomic d i f f i c u l t y t o finance such
s t u d i e s , since the e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s through the ever i n c r e a s i n g
o i l revenue, Saudi Arabia has f a i l e d , so f a r , t o keep pace
w i t h the development studies o f i t s a g r i c u l t u r a l economy.
This f a i l u r e i s , undoubtedly, due t o a complex o f s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s , which are beyond the scope o f t h i s study.
The s e v e r i t y o f such a shortage i n a g r i c u l t u r a l planning
studies i s w e l l demonstrated by the f a c t t h a t there i s , so
f a r , no comprehensive study or maps o f s o i l s nor socio-economic
s t a t i s t i c a l data f o r the a g r i c u l t u r a l areas i n Saudi Arabia,
apart from wadi J i z a n area (south-west o f Saudi A r a b i a ) where
p r e l i m i n a r y s o i l and c a p a b i l i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n studies were
conducted by P.A.O. i n 1 9 5 2 .
However, a kingdom-wide master p l a n f o r water, s o i l , and
a g r i c u l t u r e p o t e n t i a l i t y studies was i n i t i a t e d i n 1 9 6 5 .
According t o t h i s p l a n the kingdom i s d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t areas
and each was given t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l engineering consultants
t o i n v e s t i g a t e and r e p o r t on the n a t u r a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f
those areas. I t i s expected t h a t the f i r s t r e s u l t s o f these
studies w i l l be a v a i l a b l e by the end o f 1968 and the l a t e s t
around e a r l y 1 9 7 1 . Such r e s u l t s w i l l c o n s t i t u t e a sound and
very valuable base o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r any s p e c i f i c f u r t h e r
detailed studies.

The r e g i o n o f al-Qassim occupies the n o r t h e r n p a r t

of Najd, the c e n t r a l and dominant p l a t e a u i n the Arabian
Peninsula. I t extends between L a t i t u d e s 2 5 30* N. and
2 7 00' and between Longitudes 1+3 00' and Uh 30' E . ( P i g H ) .
This p a r t o f Najd i s o f a r e l a t i v e l y low r e l i e f and forms
an extensive basin. The b a s i n i s bounded and penetrated from
the east, north-east, and south-east by huge sand bodies;
and by the r e l a t i v e l y h i g h t a b l e lands o f the H a i l Province
on the n o r t h , the r e g i o n o f al-Hejaz on the west, and the
region o f Central Kajd on the south. With an area o f 18,700
square k i l o m e t r e s , al-Qassim consists o f many l a r g e p e n e t r a t i n g
sand-dunes which occupy about 20 per cent o f the region's
t o t a l area.
The widespread a r i d i t y , and the s i m p l i c i t y o f the
sedimentary geologic composition o f the r e g i o n have r e s u l t e d
i n a r a t h e r simple, geomorphic s e t t i n g , and t h e r e f o r e t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f these major physiographic elements on the s o i l
pattern i s readily studies.
Wadi Ar Rma, the l a r g e s t wadi i n A b i a , which crosses
the c e n t r a l p a r t o f the r e g i o n , i s the most prominent
physiographical f e a t u r e i n the area from the economic h i s t o r y
standpoint. I t has played s i g n i f i c a n t h i s t o r i c a l and economic
r o l e s throughout the known h i s t o r y o f Arabia. The economic
r o l e was, i s , and w i l l remain o f great i n f l u e n c e and impact
t o t h e extent t h a t the f o l l o w i n g statement: "al-Qassim i s
the g i f t o f Ar Rma" can never be inaccurate or misleading. The
h i s t o r i c a l r o l e was f a c i l i t a t e d by the s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e
wadi t e r r a i n and the abundance o f water w e l l s along i t s
stream bed which e x t r a c t the shallow subsurface wadi f l o o d
water from the a l l u v i a l bed o f the wadi. These favourable
c o n d i t i o n s make the wadi the most proper t r a c k f o r the ancient
caravan routes which.:cross Arabia from east t o West - n o r t h
to wouth communicating p i l g r i m s and trades t o and from t h e
h o l y lands i n the r e g i o n o f al-Hejaz. This phenomenon has
r a

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has brought about r e l a t i v e l y a c t i v e economic a c t i v i t i e s

and n o t i c e a b l e p r o s p e r i t y t o the region's s e t t l e m e n t s .
Consequently, these a c t i v i t i e s promoted a g r i c u l t u r e i n the
r e g i o n t o a semi-subsistence type of farming at an e a r l y
date i n the h i s t o r y o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n Central A r a b i a .
Therefore, and because of the r e l a t i v e l y f e r t i l e s o i l of
the wadi a l l u v i u m and the abundance o f subsurface shallow
water, these a c t i v i t i e s have pronounced e f f e c t s on the
a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t u s i n the r e g i o n , and al-Qassim i s considered
one of the f i n e s t a g r i c u l t u r a l areas i n Saudi Arabia, i f not
the most advanced. Such a f a c t has played a" s i g n i f i c a n t
p o l i t i c a l r o l e i n the h i s t o r y of the r e g i o n . This s i g n i f i c a n c e
has been c l e a r l y demonstrated throughout the w r i t t e n h i s t o r y
o f Najd, and the l a s t demonstration was i n the recent
p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s at the time of the establishment o f the
t h i r d and present, kingdom of the house of I b n Saud. The two
c o n f l i c t i n g p a r t i e s over the r u l e of Najd d u r i n g the 1 9 3 0 s ;
I b n Rashid i n the province o f H a i l n o r t h of al-passim and
I b n Saudi i n the r e g i o n of C e n t r a l Najd, south t o al-Qassim,
have r e a l i z e d t h a t the capture and occupation o f al-Qassim
i s the margin between defeat and v i c t o r y due t o i t s great
economic p o t e n t i a l i t y i n terms of food supply capacity f o r
t h e i r armies.. Therefore, al-Qassim has played a d e l i c a t e
and c r i t i c a l p a r t i n the recent p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y of Arabia,
and the l a t e I b n Saud succeeded i n g a i n i n g the confidence of
the r u l i n g leaders i n the r e g i o n who accordingly co-operated
w i t h him. Then, the resistance o f I b n Rashid f a i l e d t o delay
h i s f i n a l defeat which brought about the end of A a l Rashid
r u l e i n Northern Arabia and the s t a r t of a new era i n the
p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y of Arabia.
The a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o s p e r i t y through the years so expanded
the p o p u l a t i o n of the r e g i o n t h a t there r e s u l t e d an overp o p u l a t i o n problem, w i t h the l i m i t e d source of i r r i g a t i o n
water i n the past i n h i b i t i n g f u r t h e r expansion i n c u l t i v a t e d

vi.

areas. Therefore, the Qassim became u n t i l r e c e n t l y a

depopulation area. I n many urban centres i n the kingdom,
e s p e c i a l l y Maccah, and Ar Riyadh, complete quarters are
occupied almost e n t i r e l y by the Qassimi immigrants. However,
the absolute number of p o p u l a t i o n i n the Qassim i s u n c e r t a i n .
(1 )
But, according t o the o f f i c i a l l y unreleased S.P.B.E. '
census the p o p u l a t i o n number of the Qassim was 2 2 2 , 7 6 1 i n
1963 which c o n s t i t u t e s 6 . 7 per cent of the kingdom's t o t a l
p o p u l a t i o n . Taking i n t o account the annual increase of
p o p u l a t i o n i n Saudi Arabia estimated a t an average of 2 . 5
per cent, the p o p u l a t i o n of the-Qassim at the present time
i s presumed t o be about 2 4 5 , 8 0 0 , a f i g u r e which may be taken
and considered as a minimum f o r development planning purposes.
The breakdown f i g u r e s and percentages of the region's
p o p u l a t i o n are given i n the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e : T a b l e . 1 . The Population of the Qassim
X

T o t a l p o p u l a t i o n i n 1963
Percentage annual increase
Estimated t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n i n 1967
Density per km.
Percentage of male
Percentage of female
Percentage of 0 - 1 0 years of age

222,761
2.5
2^5,886
13
4 8 ..8
51.2
42

1 0 - 3 0

"

"

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29

"

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"

"

"

19

"

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"

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10

"
"

" town dwellers

" sedentary p o p u l a t i o n
" nomadic "

kh.3

32.3
23.4

^Survey of Population, B u i l d i n g s , and Establishments i n Saudi

Arabia, 1 9 6 3 . The C e n t r a l Department of S t a t i s t i c s ,
M i n i s t r y of Finance and N a t i o n a l Economy.

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vii.

Throughout the centnries shortage of water has played

a premier r o l e i n determining the type of crops, types of
farming, l o c a t i o n o f c u l t i v a t e d areas, and the s i z e of
cropped area i n the r e g i o n . Crops were mostly confined t o
the very s t a p l e crops l i k e dates and c e r e a l s . Vegetables
were grown on a r a t h e r small area and confined t o l i m i t e d
and imperishable v a r i e t i e s , mainly of the squash group f o r
household consumption. The p r e v a i l i n g type o f farming was a
semi-subsistence or subsistence i n many l o c a l i t i e s . Water
was only abundant along the wadi bed i n the shallow hand-dug
w e l l s , and thus farms by necessity were e s t a b l i s h e d along the
banks of the major wadis i n the r e g i o n , n o t a b l y ar Rma, w i t h
a r a t h e r small p o r t i o n of the a c t u a l area of holdings being
c u l t i v a t e d . These types of farms, producing crops w i t h a very
low income, were n e c e s s a r i l y of a r a t h e r small, simple, and
p r i m i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . Drainage, s o i l s a l i n i t y , and s o i l
water logging were not problems where farms were always
u n d e r - i r r i g a t e d . Since the e a r l y 1950s. when a r t e s i a n water
was discovered i n huge q u a n t i t i e s a sudden change has occurred
i n t h i s simple p a t t e r n of farming. More areas were brought
under i r r i g a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r e expanded t o i n c l u d e other
types of s o i l s than the wadi a l l u v i u m s o i l . More water was
brought i n t o the o l d , earthen i r r i g a t i o n system w i t h the
grave r e s u l t s of s o i l water l a g g i n g , and s o i l s a l i n i t y
problems. Farmers who s u f f e r e d long from the shortage of.
water t o i r r i g a t e t h e i r lands tend now t o o v e r - i r r i g a t e t h e i r
farms. This improper p r a c t i c e i s , i n f a c t , a r e s u l t o f the
i n t r o d u c t i o n of such abundant f l o w i n g water onto the surface
without p r i o r research and s c i e n t i f i c assessments on the
water requirement of the crops and the proper sizes o f
i r r i g a t i o n channels f o r the d i f f e r e n t types of the c u l t i v a t e d
s o i l s . Neither has i t been preceded by drainage problem
studies and plana. These problems have been a m p l i f i e d by the
f a c t t h a t the marketing f a c i l i t i e s are those which were

viii

s u i t a b l e f o r the very l i m i t e d market-orientated crop

production before the 1 9 5 0 s . These problems have been
a m p l i f i e d throughout the years as a r e s u l t of the r a p i d but
badly planned and organized a g r i c u l t u r a l expansion by
i n d i v i d u a l e n t e r p r i s e s , and by the incompetent services and
inadequate development plans provided by the governmental
services concerned.
The f a c t t h a t the Qassim possesses a great s o i l
p o t e n t i a l i t y w i t h only 3'8 per cent of the c u l t i v a b l e land
being c u l t i v a t e d , the presence o f huge q u a n t i t i e s o f a r t e s i a n
water, and the closeness of the region's l o c a t i o n t o the vast
urban communities of C e n t r a l Najd w i t h a r Riyadh c i t y , and
of al-Hejjaz w i t h Maccan and Jeddah, gives the Qassim the
most favourable chance t o p l a y a major r o l e i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l economy of Saudi Arabia i f the present problems can be
i n v e s t i g a t e d and "cured. Because o f t h i s , the w r i t e r has
chosen t o discuss the s o i l s and a g r i c u l t u r a l problems i n the
Qassim as the main theme of t h i s work.
The t h e s i s is. d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p a r t s . Part one includes
two chapters. The f i r s t ( 1 ) i s on the geologic s e t t i n g of
the r e g i o n . The emphases i n t h i s chapter are placed on the
surface outcrop, and the t e x t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l nature o f
the d i f f e r e n t geologic formations so as t o r e l a t e the nature
of the s o i l series composition t o them. The second chapter
(2) i s about the geomorphic f e a t u r e s of the area, i n which
attempts were stressed t o show the d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s o f the
s o i l s which are, i n f a c t , being grouped i n t o a s s o c i a t i o n s .
Part two comprises two chapters on c l i m a t e and water.
The f i r s t ( 3 ) i s about the c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s and surface
hydrology; the emphases i n t h i s chapter are placed upon
evapotranspiration, r u n - o f f , and recharge c a p a c i t i e s i n order
6e c o r r e l a t e them w i t h each other w i t h a view t o d i s c l o s i n g
the water balance s t a t u s i n the r e g i o n . This assessment i s
one of the most v i t a l assessments f o r s o i l s and a g r i c u l t u r a l

development p r a c t i c e s and plans. The second chapter (k)

of t h i s p a r t i s about hydrology. As the deep a q u i f e r s are
the major source of i r r i g a t i o n water and a l l the f u t u r e
a g r i c u l t u r a l expansion and a c t i v i t i e s are e n t i r e l y dependent
on them, the chapter concentrates on the deep a q u i f e r s
e s p e c i a l l y on the aspects of t h e i r q u a l i t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i stics.
Part three consists of f o u r chapters discussing the
various aspects of the s o i l s of the r e g i o n . The f i r s t chapter
( 5 ) of t h i s p a r t i s dedicated t o the n a t u r a l vegetation and
s o i l formation f a c t o r s . Vegetation i n the Qassim has an
important e f f e c t on s o i l . The second chapter ( 6 ) elaborates
on s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n where s o i l s are grouped i n t o f o u r
categories, three categories f o r three i d e n t i c a l groups
( a s s o c i a t i o n s ) from the a g r i c u l t u r a l land use standpoint and
the f o u r t h f o r the a g r i c u l t u r a l l y non-productive s o i l s .
The t h i r d chapter ( 7 ) discusses the s o i l chemical p r o p e r t i e s
where emphases are placed on the fundamental chemical
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s o i l s , e.g. organic matter content, f r e e
oarbonate, gypsum, PM values, and E.C. values, e t c . , and
also the s o i l f e r t i l i t y and the response of l i m i t e d various
crops t o f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n . The f o u r t h chapter ( 8 ) i s
dedicated t o land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n aspects; where the discussion
i s r e s t r i c t e d to the arable land classes, d e f i c i e n c i e s , and
productive c a p a c i t i e s .
Part f o u r i s a l l o c a t e d t o the a g r i c u l t u r e i n the r e g i o n .
I t i s d i v i d e d i n t o two chapters, t h e f i r s t ( 9 ) includes a
discussion on the p a t t e r n of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n the
region supplemented by reviews on land systems, methods of
c u l t i v a t i o n and types of farming, and marketing c o n d i t i o n s
and d i f f i c u l t i e s . The second chapter ( 1 0 ) i s confined t o
discussions on problems of a g r i c u l t u r a l development, where
the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t e d problems were discussed: problems of
labour and mechanization, problems of i r r i g a t i o n , problems

of p l a n t and animal disease c o n t r o l . This f i n a l chapter

i s concluded by a discussion on t h e " f u t u r e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
development i n the r e g i o n .
Related Previous Studies
Most o f the few a v a i l a b l e studies of geology, s o i l
f e r t i l i t y , drainage and i r r i g a t i o n problems, p a t t e r n of
crop p r o d u c t i o n and growth, and other r e l a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l
aspects i n the r e g i o n of al-Qassim are b r i e f l y mentioned and
discussed i n r e p o r t s concerned w i t h the general a g r i c u l t u r a l
studies o f Saudi Arabia as a whole. Most o f these s t u d i e s
are, i n f a c t , of a r o u t i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i v e nature
w i t h l i t t l e reference t o the r e a l causes of the s o i l and
a g r i c u l t u r a l problems. Therefore, t h i s research can be
regarded as the f i r s t comprehensive geographical study of
s o i l s and a g r i c u l t u r e i n the region of al-Qassim as a s i n g l e
geographical u n i t .
Method of f i e l d work
The f i e l d work was d i v i d e d i n t o two stages. F i r s t l y ,
s o i l s survey and sampling, and secondly, the socio-economic
i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the s o i l survey was
conducted i n Ar Riyadh c i t y at the o f f i c e o f the engineering
consultants Parson-Basil where the w r i t e r was p e r m i t t e d t o
use the a v a i l a b l e a e r i a l photographs f o r the r e g i o n ( s t e r e o
scale 1 : 6 0 . 0 0 0 and Mosaic scale 1 : 5 0 . 0 0 0 ) and use the
c a r t o g r a p h i c a l f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e there t o d e l i n e a t e the
boundaries of the suggested s o i l associations and t o a l l o c a t e
the l o c a t i o n s of the proposed s i t e s and the deep p i t s f o r s o i l
p r o f i l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and sampling. k8 p i t s were l o c a t e d
w i t h many i n t e r v e n i n g auger holes. I n the f i e l d the k& p i t s
were dug t o an average depth o f two metres ( p l a t e i ) , and 12
s o i l exposures were examined mostly w i t h i n the wadi and Qaa
associations ( p l a t e i i ) . 36 p r o f i l e s were sampled. The s o i l
samples ( t o t a l l i n g 82) were taken t o the s o i l l a b o r a t o r y o f
the Department of G-eography i n the U n i v e r s i t y of Durham, and

P l a t e No.i.

One

of the examined deep pit

mm

Plate No.ii.
One o f t h e examined s o i l e x p o s u r e s . I t
r e p r e s e n t s a d i s s e c t phase o f t h e s i l t loam s e r i e s
of t h e Wadi a s s o c i a t i o n .
T h i s exposure i s s i t u a t e d
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 km. e a s t of al-Mraboaa v i l l a g e .

xi.

each was g i v e n a : tii6o.ughroutine c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l

e x a m i n a t i o n . S o i l p r o f i l e s and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l
morphology were d e s c r i b e d i n s t a n d a r d terms, so t h a t
(1 )

d e s c r i p t i o n s may "be s t r i c t l y comparable w i t h each o t h e r .

'
I n g e n e r a l , terms used i n t h e s u r v e y f o l l o w s t a n d a r d s o i l
p r o f i l e d e s c r i p t i o n designed "by t h e S o i l Survey and F e r t i l i t y
Branch o f F.A.O., and i n t r o d u c e d under t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s
p u b l i c a t i o n s series N0.29317 t i t l e d "Guidelines f o r S o i l
P r o f i l e Description."
The f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g f a r m i n g c o s t s ,
income, p r a c t i c e s , t r e n d s o f g r o w t h , y i e l d s p e r u n i t f o r t h e
v a r i o u s c r o p s , e t c . were o f t e n o f a d i f f i c u l t and f r u s t r a t i n g
n a t u r e due t o t h e f a c t t h a t none o f t h e f a r m e r s keep d a t a o r
i n f o r m a t i o n on such m a t t e r s and f a r m b a l a n c e books a r e n o t
known. T h e r e f o r e , t h e use o f a s y s t e m a t i c socio-economic
q u e s t i o n n a i r e p r o v e d f r u i t l e s s as t h e m a j o r i t y o f f a r m e r s
f a i l e d t o answer many q u e r i e s about t h e q u a l i t i e s and q u a n t i t i e s
o f t h e i r f a r m p r o d u c t i o n and s p e c i f i c c a l c u l a t i o n s on f a r m
c o s t s and t h e p r o d u c t i o n b a l a n c e . Moreover, t h e e x i s t i n g
o f f i c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n on such aspects i s l i m i t e d i n q u a n t i t y ,
u n r e l i a b l e i n q u a l i t y , and does n o t even t o u c h on many
i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s . However, samples o f 50 farms f o r each o f
t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t s ( F i g . 2 8 ) were adopted f o r most o f
t h e f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s concerned w i t h t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
s e c t o r o f t h i s s t u d y . An even spread o f t h e s e samples
t h r o u g h o u t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e m e n t s was p o s s i b l e due
t o the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s provided
by t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e w h i c h enabled t h e w r i t e r t o
v i s i t almost every s i n g l e v i l l a g e and s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e r e g i o n .
F i n a l l y , a l t h o u g h t h i s r e s e a r c h has been b u i l t b a s i c a l l y
on raw m a t e r i a l s o b t a i n e d i n t h e f i e l d , f i e l d i n f o r m a t i o n
has been supplemented w i t h o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . These
supplementary d a t a a r e f r o m v a r i o u s sources, i n c l u d i n g
^ ^Appendix J .

xii.

u n p u b l i s h e d o r c o n f i d e n t i a l m a t e r i a l , and p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s
w i t h t o p o f f i c i a l s o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f Water and A g r i c u l t u r e .
Other sources, p a r t i c u l a r l y

those p u b l i s h e d b y t h e F.A.O.,

p r o v e d o f g r e a t v a l u e i n f i l l i n g many gaps and c r y s t a l l i z i n g

many i d e a s .

xiii

Contents
Preface

I-ii

Introduction

ii-xii
(Part I .

The Land.

1-23)

The G e o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g

2-8

1 .1

S t r u c t u r a l Geology

2-3

1.2

Surface outcrop

3-8

Geomorphic F e a t u r e s

9-23

Chapter 1 .

Chapter 2
2.1

The a r i d c y c l e o f e r o s i o n

2.2

General l a n d forms i n t h e r e g i o n

10-11

2.3

West f a c i n g escarpment

11-11+

2.4

14-17

2.5

Nuf ud
The g r a v e l p l a i n s

17-21

2.6

Wadi A r Rma

21-23

( P a r t I I . The C l i m a t e and Water.

Chapter 3

9-10

2k-kk)

C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s and s u r f a c e
hydrology

24r31

3.1

Temperatures

25-25

3.2

Relative Humidity

25-26

3.3

Wind and r a i n f a l l

26-27

3.4

Evaporation

27-29

3.5

Run o f f and r e c h a r g e

Chapter 4

29-31

Groundwater h y d r o l o g y

32-44

4.1

H i s t o r i c a l "background

32-33

4.2

Surface a q u i f e r s

33-35

4.3

Deep a q u i f e r s .

35-36

4.4

J i l h aquifer

36-36

4.5

Khuff aquifer

36-37

xiv

4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

Chapter 5
5.1
5.2

Chapter 6
6.1
6.2
6.3

Chapter 7
7.1
7.2

Chapter 8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

Talouk a q u i f e r
Sag a q u i f e r
Aquifers characteristics
Water u t i l i z a t i o n

38-39
39-41
41-44

(Part I I I .
The S o i l s . 4 6 - 1 0 2 )
N a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l
formation
Natural vegetation
The f a c t o r s o f s o i l

46-52
46-4-9

formation

Soil classification
The Wadi A s s o c i a t i o n

49-52

53-74
55-63

The Qa a ( B a s i n ) A s s o c i a t i o n
The S a h l ( D e s e r t P l a i n )
Association

69-74

S o i l c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and
soil fertility

75-86

63-69

Chemical p r o p e r t i e s
S o i l f e r t i l i t y and f e r t i l i z e r
practice

75-79

Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

87-1 02

Introduction
Class I I lands

87-90
(CIIL)

79-86

90-94

Class I I I lands
Class V I l a n d s
( P a r t I V . The A g r i c u l t u r e .

Chapter 9

37-38

94-1 00
1 00-1 02

103-166)

The p a t t e r n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
production

103-144

9.1

Introduction

1 03-105

9.2

The l a n d system
Methods o f c u l t i v a t i o n and t y p e s
of farming
Crop p r o d u c t i o n

1 05-114

9.3
9.4

114-124
124-136

XV

9.5
9.6
Chapter 10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

A n i m a l husbandry

136-141

A g r i c u l t u r a l marketing

141 -145

Problems o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
development
Labour f o r c e and f a r m equipment

145-166
145-152

Problems, o f i r r i g a t i o n and
p l a n t water requirements
Problems o f p l a n t and a n i m a l
diseases
F u t u r e a g r i c u l t u r a l development

Conclusion

152-158
158-163
163-166
1 6 7 H 73

(Appendices 174-220)
Appendix A.

G l o s s a r y o f A r a b i c words

1 751 76

Appendix B

C l i m a t i c data

177-186

Appendix C

Groundwater H y d r o l o g y Data

187-192

Appendix D

V e g e t a t i o n Species T a b l e s

19^H99

Appendix B

S o i l Chemical A n a l y s i s Data

200-204

Appendix F

Summary o f a r a b l e l a n d s d a t a
Summary o f l a n d h o l d i n g s i n t h e
Qassim

205-207
208-210

Agricultural statistics

211-215

I r r i g a t i o n Water d a t a

21 6-21 8

S o i l p r o f i l e d e s c r i p t i o n s sheet

219-220

Appendix G
Appendix H
Appendix I
Appendix J
Bibliography

221 - 2 3 2

Eist of Figures
Fig.1
Fig;2

L o c a t i o n o f al-Qassim
Main s e t t l e m e n t s and roads i n t h e
al-Qassim

Fig.3

S t r u c t u r a l geologic provinces of
Saudi A r a b i a

Fig.l+

Al-Qassim o u t c r o p sequence

Fig.5

Surface outcrop o f the g e o l o g i c

f o r m a t i o n o f t h e al-Qassim

Fig.6

Main geomorphic _ r e a t u r e s o f t h e
r e g i o n o f al-Qassim

Fig.7
Fig.8

M o n t h l y averages o f r e l a t i v e
h u m i d i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e
Temperature averages

Fig.9

R e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y percentage

Fig.10

M o n t h l y averages
and r a i n f a l l

Fig.11

Summary o f w e l l s i n v e n t o r y i n t h e
Qassim
Groundwater a q u i f e r s i n t h e r e g i o n
o f al-Qassim

Fig.12

of evaporation

Fig.13

T o t a l d i s s o l v e d s a l t s i n groundwater
o f t h e Qassim as r e l a t e d t o
electrical conductivity

Fig.1k

E f f e c t s of withdrawal of water,
Saq-sandstone, Qassim r e g i o n .

Fig.15

Piezometric surface contours of

Saq a q u i f e r i n t h e r e g i o n o f
al-Qassim

Fig.16

Geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
s o i l a s s o c i a t i o n , t h e Qassim

Fig.17

Levels o f f e r t i l i z e r s applied i n
the c i t e d experiments

Fig.18

I n d e x map o f l a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
zones, t h e Qassim

Fig.19

L o c a t i o n of arable lands i n the

r e g i o n o f al-Qassim, Saudi A r a b i a

a f t e r page i v .

xvii.

Pig.20

A r a b l e and n o n - a r a b l e l a n d s p e r c e n t a g e s A f t e r page 90

Pig.21

Glass I I l a n d s

it

Pig.22

it

Pig.23

Class I I I l a n d s
Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , the wadi zone,
the Qassim

Pig.24

Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , Ash Shmaseyyah

zone, t h e Qassim

&

Pig.25

Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , a l Asyah zone,

the Qassim

97

Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , Qusaiba zone,

t h e Qassim

98

Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , Midhnab zone,

t h e Qassim

99

Pig.26
Pig.27
Pig.28
Pig.29

Pig.30
Pig.31

Pig.32
Pig.33

A g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t s i n the region
o f al-Qassim
Percentages o f t y p e s o f h o l d i n g s i n
the a g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t s , the
Qassim
Percentages o f cropped areas i n t h e
a g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t s , t h e Qassim
Percentages o f p r o d u c t i o n o f main
crops i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t s ,
the Qassim
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n waters,
t h e Qassim
The w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f main c r o p s ,
t h e Qassim

"

ii

91
94

.'- 103

109
"

" 125

"

" 127

"

" 153

"

" 157

xviii

L i s t of Plates
Plate i
Plate i i
Plate i i i
Plate i v
Platevv
Plate v i
Plate v i i
Plate v i i i
Plate i x
Plate x
Plate x i
Plate x i i
Plate

xiii

Plate x i v
P l a t e xv
Plate x v i
Plate
Plate

xvii
xviii

Plate x i x
P l a t e xx

One o f t h e examined s o i l deep

pits
A f t e r page x
One o f t h e examined s o i l
exposures
" x
Hanadir s c a r p a t i t s p o i n t o f
interaction
F o s s i l wood f r o m Lower K h u f f
6
t r a n s i t i o n zone
6
F o s s i l wood same h o r i z o n as above
Log o f p e t r i f i e d wood, K h u f f
formation
Gross l a m i n a t e d sandstone, upper
II
As S i r r f o r m a t i o n
7
II
P a r t o f Khashm Khurtum
12
I
I
Gap r o c k o f Khurtum escarpment
12
II
A n o t h e r view o f Khurtum escarpment
12
Shale " b l u f f capped "by h a r d l i m e s t o n e
of Khuff formation
13
A s e r i e s o f s h i n g l e - l i k e "benches
o f t h e "back o f K h u f f escarpment
13
A remnant o f t h e r e t r e a t i n g c l i f f
it 13
o f K h u f f escarpment
it 1 U
Erg. al-Madhhur
Nufud a t T r e f i y a h
Nufud As S i r r , a view o f a r a d i a l
r i d g e on sand peak
Nufud Braydah, "bordering Wadi A r
Rma
D u r i c r u s t , r e m a i n i n g as r e s i s t a n t
cap r o c k

II

16
16
17
18

Close-up o f d u r i c r u s t , showing
spongy, honeycomb s t r u c t u r e

18

Al-Mestwey p l a i n , i t s s o u t h e r n
part

19

xix.

Plate x x i
Plate x x i i
Plate x x i i i
Plate xxiv
P l a t e xxv
Plate xxvi
Plate x x v i i
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate

xxviii
xxix
xxx
xxxi
xxxii
xxxiii
xxxiv

P l a t e xxxv
Plate xxxvi
Plate xxxvii

Al-Mestwey p l a i n , f u r t h e r n o r t h
The complex topography o f As
Suairah p l a i n
Same as x x i i
The "broad s i l t "belt o f t h e bed
o f Wadi" Ar Rmah

A f t e r page 19

Aunayzah's M e t e o r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n
The f i r s t f l o w i n g a r t e s i a n b o r e hole
The high-head o f t h e f l o w i n g
a r t e s i a n w a t e r o f t h e Sag. a q u i f e r
Combination o f Ghadha, Nitum, and
Rimth shrubs
Art

shrubs grown on t h e sand dunes

A r f a j shrubs on a d e s e r t p l a i n
A l o a d o f o r g a n i c manure
A s t o r a g e p i t o f o r g a n i c manure
Furrow method o f i r r i g a t i o n
White surface c r u s t o f h i g h s o i l
salinity
The common e a r t h e n s t o r a g e t a n k s
The common wide e a r t h e n d i t c h e s
leading water t o the f i e l d s
The b a s i n method o f c u l t i v a t i o n

P l a t e x x x v i i i Mixed and c l o s e l y p l a n t e d f r u i t
trees
The f u r r o w method o f c u l t i v a t i o n
Plate xxxix
Plate x l
Plate
Plate
Plate

xli
xlii
xliii

Plate x l i v

"

ir

20

it

20

if

21

11

2k

32
38
II

k7

II

>7

II

k8

II

tt
II

ti
II

II

ti

79
79
117
117
118
118
120

II

120

if

122

One o f t h e v e g e t a b l e g r o w i n g
s p e c i a l i z e d farms
One o f t h e new c i t r u s g r o w i n g
f a r m s , s o u t h o f Aunayzah
One o f t h e new f r u i t g r o w i n g
f a r m s , a t Ad Dughmaniyyat area

124

A t h l t r e e s as a permanent f e n c e o f
farms

125

An example o f t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
farm service

145

123

^2k

XX

List
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
T a b l e 10
T a b l e 11

T a b l e 12
T a b l e 13
T a b l e 14

o f Tables

The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Qassim

Page No.
vi

S o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n order
S o i l associations' series
Response v a l u e s o f a l f a l f a and tomatoes

45
55
83

Response v a l u e o f wheat
Response v a l u e o f b a r l e y
B a r l e y y i e l d kg/450m
Q u a n t i t i e s o f o r g a n i c manure
t r a d i t i o n a l l y applied f o r trees
Adopted f r e q u e n c y o f i r r i g a t i o n
water a p p l i c a t i o n
Summary o f necessary c u l t i v a t i o n
p r a c t i c e s f o r female p a l m - t r e e s
E s t i m a t e s o f y i e l d s , costs, and p r i c e s
o f f i v e major crops and groups i n
the r e g i o n
R u r a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Qassim

84

Peak f r e q u e n c y o f i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e
Qassim
A n i m a l diseases i n t h e Qassim

85
85
116

119
121

136
146
158
161

PART I
THE LAND

2.

Chapter 1

1.1

The G e o l o g i c a l S e t t i n g

S t r u c t u r a l Geology

Three s t r u c t u r a l provinces are recognized as the main

s t r u c t u r a l "bases of Saudi A r a b i a ( F i g . 3 ) . These a r e the
Arabian S h i e l d , the A r a b i a n S h e l f , and the I n t e r i o r P l a t f o r m .
The Arabian S h i e l d occupies the western p a r t of the country,
and forms a v a s t complex of igneous and metamorphic r o c k s .
At the contact point w i t h the next s t r u c t u r a l u n i t , the
Arabian S h e l f , i t forms a sharp, sigmoidal-shaped contact
zone f r i n g i n g the south western edge of the Qassim l a n d s *
The Arabian S h e l f i s the second broad d i v i s i o n w i t h i n the
s t a b l e r e g i o n of A r a b i a , and the c e n t r a l , the e a s t e r n and
most of the western p a r t s of the Qassim l i e w i t h i n i t . I t
i s composed of sedimentary rocks ranging i n age from the
P a l e o z o i c e r a to the Cenozoic. Limestone i s the most s t r i k i n g
rock type, but sandstones and s h a l e s are present i n l a r g e
amounts and are concentrated l a r g e l y i n the P a l e o z o i c r o c k s .
A l l u n i t s maintain l i t h o l o g i c uniformity over l a r g e a r e a s ,
and where s h i f t s i n f a c i e s do occur they a r e u s u a l l y g r a d u a l .
The I n t e r i o r Platform occupies the e a s t e r n p a r t of Saudi
A r a b i a . I t forms a broad expanse of r e l a t i v e l y low t e r r a i n
formed c h i e f l y by Miocene-Pliocence r o c k s . B u r i e d deeply
i n the J u r a s s i c and Cretaceous s t r a t a are the r i c h o i l
r e s e r v e s of Saudi A r a b i a .
The b a s i c s t r u c t u r e of the Qassim i s a g e n t l y eastward
dipping homocline which r e s t s on the s t a b l e pre-Cambrian core
of the Arabian S h i e l d . Sediments have been deposited along
the margin of the S h i e l d i n an arcuate p a t t e r n concave to
the west and roughly c o n c e n t r i c to i t .

STRUCTURAL

GEOLOGIC

PROVINCES

OF

SAUDI

t&S6<S5<i rf

IOO

200

ARAB/A

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THC

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THE

SHIELD

A RAH AN

SHELF
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400
J

MILES

THE

REGION

OF

AL-QASS/M

FIGURE

3.

G e n t l e e p e i r o n g e n i c movements have "been c o n c e n t r a t e d

i n an east-west

r i d g e , c a l l e d t h e H u f u f Hose, a t L a t i t u d e

which roughly b i s e c t s the S h i e l d .

2kN.,

P a l e o z o i c t i m e t h i s zone was

During e a r l y

a p o s i t i v e . r i d g e i n t h e basement.

A f t e r i t s e l e v a t i o n , sediments were removed t o p e r m i t

d e p o s i t i o n o f K h u f f l i m e s t o n e d i r e c t l y on t h e pre-Cambrian
o f t h e Nose d u r i n g t h e widespread

i n v a s i o n o f Permian seas.

The p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r a l l y . h i g h p o s i t i o n o f t h e Nose i s t h e
r e s u l t o f a g r a d u a l a r c h i n g , now

evidenced by the s l i g h t l y

s t e e p e r d i p s o f t h e h o m o c l i n a l beds i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e
nose.
F u r t h e r n o r t h , t h e area around H a i y l town ( a t r o u g h l y 2 7
3 0 ' N ) has a s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s u p e r f i c i a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h e
H u f u f Nose.

It

i s known as H a i y l Nose.

T h i s Nose was

a p p a r e n t l y caused by t h e a b r u p t south-west curves o f t h e

pre-Cambrian c o n t a c t , w h i c h e x t e n d r o u g h l y n o r t h west f o r
5 0 0 km.

above t h e H u f u f Nose, around

o f t h e A j j a mountains,
t o have extended

at H a i y l .

southward

the p r e c i p i t o u s

headland

A b r o a d empayment i s known

i n the r e g i o n o f H a i y l during the

Paleozoic era.
The

o v e r l y i n g P a l e o z o i c sediments, w h i c h have a c o n s i s t e n t

r e g i o n a l r i s e o f 4N. 5W. f r o m Qusaiba ( a t 26 50'N) n o r t h

west o f Braydah t o Baqaa ( a t 2 7 50'.N.) n o r t h east o f H a i y l
swing g r a d u a l l y west i n c o n f o r m i t y t o t h e t r e n d o f t h e underl y i n g basement.

I n t h e 2 5 0 km. between Braydah and H a i y l

there i s a gradual r e g i o n a l r i s e i n e l e v a t i o n o f 200

metres.

S t r u c t u r a l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h i s area are l i m i t e d t o m i l d
tensional
1.2

adjustment.

Surface

Outcrop

The s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequences exposed i n t h e Qassim i n c l u d e

f o r m a t i o n s r a n g i n g f r o m t h e pre-Cambrian basement complex t o
t h e Cenozoic sedimentary d e p o s i t s ( F i g u r e k).

The

surface

o u t c r o p p i n g o f t h e g e o l o g i c f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Qassim i s o f a

1*

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3.

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4

s t r i k i n g gradual h o r i z o n t a l occurrence i n a N.W.-S.E.

d i r e c t i o n . The oldest f o r m a t i o n (pre-Cambrian) outcrops i n
the westernmost p a r t o f the r e g i o n . To the east and g r a d u a l l y ,
younger formations outcrop, w h i l s t a t the easternmost p a r t o f
the r e g i o n the youngest f o r m a t i o n o f the Upper T e r i a s s i c i s
found (Figure 5 ) . The c r u s t a l formation o f the Qassim i s a
p a r t of the huge p l a t f o r m of c r y s t a l l i n e rocks forming the
Afro-Arabian S h i e l d . I t i s a complex o f igneous and metamorphic
rocks, dominated "by s c h i s t s and igneous i n t r u s i o n s . There i s
a major unconformity "between the Basement Complex and t h e
Paleozoic Saq sandstone i n the Qassim, and low ridges and
shallow v a l l e y s are preserved along the contact l i n e . An
example o f these are seen t o the n o r t h o f Jabal ar Raha (1*2
50*E. 26 15'N), east t o the Qassim where a narrow r i d g e o f
the g r a n i t e extends eastward i n t o the o v e r l y i n g Saq sandstone.
The Saq sandstone i s the most p e r s i s t e n t and widespread member
of the Ayoun Group o f the Cambro-Ordovician system. I t
outcrops i n a N.W.-S.E. d i r e c t i o n i n the western p a r t o f the
Qassim extending n o r t h n e a r l y t o the l a t i t u d e (28 05'N.)
and south t o (21+ 20'N).
Prom i t s f i r s t appearance; .underneath the Khuff
unconformity the formation widens g r a d u a l l y over the 175 kma.
t o Aunayzah where i t i s approximately h5 kms. wide. From
Aunayzah the outcrop extends N3 5W f o r 325 kms. t o the
southern edge o f the Great Nufud, n o r t h o f al-Qassim. North
of Wadi Ar Rmah i t forms a rough, hummocky p l a i n and r i s e s
i m p e r c e p t i b l y toward the basement. The p l a i n i s covered w i t h
e r r a t i c , wind scraped basins and wind sculptured j e b a l ,
u s u a l l y low and o f rugged, i r r e g u l a r p a t t e r n . Westward
toward the basement the outcrop f r e q u e n t l y forms a l e v e l
surface covered w i t h a t a l u s residue o f black, q u a r t z i t i c
slabs.

SURFACE

OUTCROP

43

43 OO

OF THE

GEOLOGIC

FORMATIONS

OF

THE

AL

OASSIM

30
-

3 7 OO*

26 JO

a :

26 0 0

i
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TAB UK

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FORMATION

SAO
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MHFS

FIGURE

5.

V a r i a t i o n s i n l i t h o l o g y w i t h i n the Saq f o r m a t i o n are

l a r g e l y of colour which may vary l o c a l l y t o mustard yellow
or a pale "brick r e d . A few t h i n p a r t i n g s of p u r p l i s h s e r i t i c
s i l t s t o n e are present. The f o r m a t i o n i s of a w e l l rounded,
coarse t o medium grained, white sandstone. S o r t i n g i s o f t e n
poor and t h i n hands of f i n e quartz pebbles are common.
Sandstone adjacent t o g r a n i t e s are pre-eminently quartz w i t h
no f e l d s p a r s or dark m i n e r a l s .
The Tabuk f o r m a t i o n o f Ordovician age o v e r l i e s Saq
sandstone and i s composed o f t h r e e prominent shale l a y e r s
separated by two t h i c k l a y e r s of sandstone, and represents
the Middle and Upper Ayoun f o r m a t i o n . I t outcrops i n t e r m i t t e n t l y along a 300 km. s t r i p from the Great Nufud (N)
t o the town o f Aunayzah; along the n o r t h e r n two t h i r d s o f
t h i s hand (N. of Jabal Hanadir) i t i s 35 km. wide. South
of t h i s p o i n t the western basal contact i s covered by g r a v e l
and sand dunes. The surface of the outcrop i s i n p a r t cut
by an i n t r i c a t e system of minor drainage channels and no
major wadis are present. On the other hand, the d u r i c r u s t
cover which obscures the o r i g i n a l topography makes the
outcrops appear only i n a discontinuous chain o f basins where
l o c a l i n t e r i o r drainage has breached t h i s T e r t i a r y cover.
The Hanadir shale member i s a t the base of the f o r m a t i o n
and has a t h i n zone immediately above the Saq sandstone which
i s a very p a l e , blue-grey, s l i g h t l y marly shale ( P l a t e i i i ) .
Above t h i s the shale becomes greenish-grey, w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
i n t e r c a l a t i o n s of extremely t h i n bedded s e r c i t i c sandstone
toward the top o f the member. The Ar Ra'an shale member
l i e s over the separative l a y e r of sandstone which o v e r l i e s
the Hanadir shale. I t i s speckled w i t h dark minerals up t o
2 cm. i n diameter and contains i n c r e a s i n g amounts of t h i n
bedded sandstone toward the top of the member. The ftusaiba
shale member i s L very f i n e grained w e l l bedded, grey t o

Plate No.iii.
Hanadir s c a r p a t i t s point
of i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h J a o a l Saq.
Marl
at the foot of v e r t i c a l c l i f f i n d i c a t e s
l o c a t i o n o f Lower O r d o r i c i a n G r a p t o l i t e
horizon.

grey-green, shale w i t h small layers of h e m a t i t i c s i l k s t o n e .

L i k e the other two shale zones i t grades upward i n t o f i n e
grained, w e l l "bedded sandstone.
The Khuff f o r m a t i o n of the Permian age i s known t o extend
i n Najd over a band 900 km. l o n g and roughly 20 km. wide.
Prom the type l o c a l i t y a t a p o i n t 5.3 km. 8 W. of A i n Khuff
at (2k 55*N. kk 1+2'E.) south t o al-Qassim, the continuous
exposures o f the Khuff f o r m a t i o n f o r 200 km. o r i e n t e d N2
5 W., throughout the Qassim r e g i o n are "broken only "by the
channel o f Wadi Ar Rma. T h i r t y kms. n o r t h o f Ar Rma channel
the outcrop "becomes g r a d u a l l y obscured "by the d u r i c r u s t
"blanket o f the Northern Qassim. No complete outcrops of Khuff
r e c u r N.W. o f t h i s p o i n t . I n the d u r i c r u s t area two "basins
breaching the d u r i c r u s t expose p a r t i a l Khuff s e c t i o n s .
Apart from these, a l l exposures of Khuff are small outcrops
o f extremely weathered limestone which occur i n windows
through the d u r i c r u s t .
I n water w e l l s t h a t penetrate the Khuff f o r m a t i o n i n the
Qassim, the l i t h o l o g y mainly c o n s i s t s o f an upper evaporite
and shale s e c t i o n which shows a gradual increase i n thickness
down d i p , and a lower carbonate s e c t i o n i n t e r c a l a t e d w i t h a
shale, dolomite s e c t i o n a t the t o p . This calcaremite s e c t i o n
makes an e x c e l l e n t marker f o r c o r r e l a t i o n i n the Qassim area.
I n the v i l l a g e o f Qusaiba ( P i g . 2 ) , a deep w e l l a t the n o r t h e r n
edge o f the r e g i o n , a t h i n bed o f carbonate was encountered a t
t h e top of the e v a p o r i t e . Lenses o f sandstone were observed
through the main carbonate s e c t i o n . F o s s i l wood was
encountered a t the lower Khuff t r a n s i t i o n zone ( P l a t e s i v ,
v and v i . )
Rocks of T r i a s s i c age are represented by the As S i r r
f o r m a t i o n . This i s known t o l i e immediately beneath the
surface throughout the Qassim and outcrops i n 53E. d i r e c t i o n
on a long s t r i p v a r y i n g i n w i d t h from 2 km. t o 13 km. wide
n o r t h o f Braidah town.

P l a t e N o . i v . F o s s i l wood from Lower K h u f f t r a n s i t i o n

zone. T h i s wood w e a t h e r s o u t from s o f t , r e d
shale a t the foot of the Khuff scarp.

P l a t e No.v

F o s s i l wood, same h o r i z o n

a s above.

P l a t e N o . v i . Log of p e t r i f i e d wood i n
s m a l l " P e t r i f i e d F o r e s t " a t the base
of K h u f f f o r m a t i o n n e a r t h e n o r t h e r n
p a r t o f t h e v i l l a g e o f Ash Sheqqai..

7.

The lower member o f the As S i r r ( S u d a i r ) i s covered by

Nufud A t T r e f i y a h and i s p a r t i a l l y exposed a t Abraq Muddarraj
n o r t h t o al-Qassim.in a patchy s e r i e s o f benches and e r o s i o n a l
remnants. The Sudair member i s a dark red massive shale-with
occasional greenish w h i t e l a y e r s , many of which are s i l t y .
A pale greenish-white u n i t several -metres t h i c k i n which
calcareous s i l t s t o n e and s i l t y impure limestone are
predominant occurs 50 m. above the base. The lower p a r t
includes a number o f t h i n beds o f s o f t f i n e limestone.
The middle member o f As S i r r f o r m a t i o n (:Jilh) along
most o f i t s outcrop forms 10 t o 15 km. ledges s h i n g l e d w i t h
p a r a l l e l benches and banded w i t h interbench khabrat. The
only prominent i n t e r r u p t i o n o f the outcrop band i s caused,
by the channel o f Wadi Ar Rma. A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f
the J i l h i s l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n along t h e s t r i k e . I n t h e
Qassim area the J i l h consists o f an interbedded s e r i e s o f
hard, grey t o t a n , m i c r o c r y s t a l l i h e limestone, s o f t mustard
to greenish yellow shales and marls and sandstone ranging
from sugary cross-bedded medium grained sandstones t o f i n e
s i l t y sandstones.
The Upper As S i r r f o r m a t i o n member ( M i n j u r Sandstone)
i s t y p i c a l l y exposed i n a l Mestewy p l a i n (Pig.6) between
the J i l h escarpment and Nufud A t h Thuwairat i n the l a t i t u d e
of the town o f Aunayzah. This member i s composed o f s e r i e s
of well-bedded conglomerates, sandstone, laminated sandstone
and variegated shales ( P l a t e N o . v i i ) . The normal colours o f
the sandstones range from white t o variegated or l i g h t brown,
and i n some places the weathering process a l t e r s the w h i t e coloured sandstone t o j e t black q u a r t z i t i c masses.
The Genozoic system i s represented by the s u r f i c i a l and
basal deposits o f the Quaternary and the T e r t i a r y ages. I t s
general l i t h o l o g i c d e s c r i p t i o n i s summarised as a combination

Plate No.vii.
As S i r r

C r o s s laminated, s a n d s t o n e ,
formation.

Upper

o f g r a v e l p l a i n s , sand dunes, and s i l t f l a t s , i n the extreme

western p a r t of the r e g i o n .

Ohapter 2

Qeomorphic Features

2.1

The a r i d cycle o f erosion

T e r r a i n development i n the Qassim i s c o n t r o l l e d "by .a
t r u e a r i d environment r e s u l t i n g i n land forms o f a waterless
desert nature. I n a r e g i o n such as al-Qassim, o f diverse
rocks exposed t o the a c t i o n of wind, g r a v i t y , wide temperature
changes and occasional v i o l e n t t o r r e n t i a l f l o o d s prominent
morphologic features o f the a r i d c y c l e are presented. The
a r i d c y c l e of e r o s i o n has been evolved "by e a r l i e r w o r k e r s ^ ^
and i s summarised as f o l l o w s : 1 Rock d i s i n t e g r a t i o n predominant over decomposition.
2. The accumulation o f sand i n t o dunes and sand sheets by
the wind.
3. Basins w i t h o u t surface drainage t o the sea may c o n t a i n
playa lakes which exert a "base-level c o n t r o l .
k. The l o c a l base l e v e l r i s e s as the b a s i n f i l l s w i t h
d e b r i s , r e s u l t i n g i n a rock f l o o r convex upward.
5. The c e n t r i p e t a l drainage l i n e s i n t o the basins are
occupied by i n t e r m i t t e n t streams s h o r t e r than t h e i r
slopes.
6. Pediments or carved p l a i n s are developed which r i s e on
slopes o f 0.5 t o 7 per- cent from the c e n t r a l d e b r i s t o
the base o f desert mountains, c u t t i n g across d i f f e r e n t
s t r u c t u r e s and rock types.
7. As the r e g i o n becomes more mature the spreading basins
c o j o i n , r e s u l t i n g i n coalescence o f base l e v e l s and
i n t e g r a t i o n of drainage.

( ^ D a v i s , W. M. 1905, 1933.
Cotton, C. A. 191*2

8.

I n m a t u r i t y , wind a c t i o n i s more e f f e c t i v e as f l u v i a l
power decreases, but i f the deserts are i n a r a i n
shadow and the erosive processes lower the mountain
f r i n g e , r a i n f a l l may increase and the cycle s h i f t i n t o
more humid form.
Davis (1905, 1933) has p o i n t e d out t h a t the e v o l u t i o n o f
the desert cycle i s l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by the i n i t i a l r e l i e f ,
which may be o f coarse p a t t e r n as i n A r a b i a , or o f a f i n e
p a t t e r n as i n the Basin and Range Province o f North America.
I f the r e g i o n i s o f g e n t l y dipping sedimentary rocks as the
Qassim, the c y c l e would begin i n a manner s i m i l a r t o the
i d e a l humid c y c l e operating on an u p l i f t e d peneplain formed
e i t h e r by former f l u v i a l o r marine p l a n a t i o n or as a desert
peneplain f o l l o w i n g long p e r i o d of c l i f f r e t r e a t . Once
again the harder beds would form cuestas, o f which many are
present i n the Qassim, representing the most s t r i k i n g and
prominent land forms i n the r e g i o n . There would be no
s u b s t a n t i a l p e r i o d o f bahada accumulation but the wind
would keep pace w i t h the g u l l y i n g o f promontories and t h e
sediment would extend t o near the c l i f f base by " d i r e c t
replacement o f one already well-planned r o c k f l o o r by
another a t the l e v e l " (Davis 1933). The desert cycle i n
such sediments has been elsewhere described i n A u s t r a l i a ,
i n the Libyan desert, the K a l a h a r i , and Mongolia.
2.2 General Land Porms i n the Qassim
The t e r r a i n i n the Qassim seems t o have been formed
under conditions o f extreme d e s e r t i c c o n d i t i o n s and p o s s i b l y
f o r a time i n the Pleistocene t o have been sculptured under
semi-arid c o n d i t i o n s . The r e g i o n may be d i v i d e d i n t o four
major types o f t e r r a i n which form p a r a l l e l b e l t s . The only
exception t o t h i s arcuate monocline s t r u c t u r e o f the r e g i o n
i s the wadi Ar Rma.
The major r e l i e f u n i t s are the west
f a c i n g escarpments, Nufud, g r a v e l p l a i n s , and Wadi Ar Rma
(Pig. 6 ) .

MAIN

GEOMORPHIC

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11.

2.3

West Facing Escarpments

The escarpments o f the Qassim comprise three p a r a l l e l
scarps which s t r i k e from north-west t o south-east. They
are separated from each other by i n t e r v e n i n g low l y i n g areas
of g r a v e l , s i l t , and sand dunes. Moving from east t o west
the successive scarps crossed are the J i l h , the Khurtum, and
the Khuff escarpment.
The J i l h extends f o r n e a r l y 550 km., throughout the
n o r t h e r n p a r t of Najd, from the southern edge of I r q
al-Madhhur 100 km. n o r t h of Wadi ar Kma t o Wadi Berk, 23N.
2+5 E., south t o al-Qassim.
W i t h i n the Qassim the scarp has a r e g i o n a l s t r i k e o f N3
OW.
I t r i s e s from a s e r i e s of rugged, sand d r i f t e d benches
i n the southernmost p a r t t o a b a l d scarp whose s t e p l i k e
outer p r o f i l e reaches a r e l i e f of 100 metres a t Ad Duwaihirrah,
( F i g . 2 ) . The lower p a r t of the J i l h i s covered by sand dunes
of the Nufud As S i r r from Khashm a l J e a i r , east t o al-Amar t o
Ad Duwaihirrah ( F i g . 2 ) . However, along most o f i t s outcrop
i n the Qassim, the J i l h forms a 10-15 ledge s h i n g l e d w i t h
p a r a l l e l s e r i e s of low, rough benches, the upper p a r t being
most prominent w i t h kO metres r e l i e f . Between benches occur
long narrow s i l t f l a t s w i t h smooth surfaces, where the
a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements o f Ar Rubay'eiyah and Ash Shemassiyah
area c l u s t e r .
At Ar Rubay'eiyah v i l l a g e ( F i g . 2 ) the scarp i s i n t e r r u p t e d
by the sand choked v a l l e y o f wadi Ar Rma. North of the wadi
i t i s continuous as a less p r e c i p i t o u s , o f t e n sand d r i f t e d
scarp, known l o c a l l y as Safra al-Asyah. W i t h an e l e v a t i o n
of 1+0 metres adjacent t o Nufud Ath Thuwairat, i t becomes
lower and more i r r e g u l a r t o the n o r t h east and f i n a l l y
disappears under I r q a l Madhhur. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t are
1

12.

the gypsum deposits found south of A i n ibn F h a i d v i l l a g e

i n a l As Syah ( F i g . 2 ) . Here, on a strong dip slope i n the
upper J i l h a rocked topography has developed i n s h a l e s and
rubbly m a r l s . Shallow b a s i n s , containing s m a l l r e s i d u a l
mesas and discontinuous benches, have developed i n a broad
lowland w i t h i n the upper J i l h . Beds of gypsum, s e v e r a l
metres t h i c k , are i n t e r c a l a t e d w i t h rubbly marls and s h a l e s .
The Khurtum escarpment l i e s to the west of the J i l h
s c a r p and almost p a r a l l e l to i t . The scarp forms a prominent
b l u f f from Khashm Khurtum south of wadi Ar Rma, w i t h a r e l i e f
of about 30-ij.O metres f o r a d i s t a n c e o f about 65 km. ( P l a t e
v i i i ) . South of the Khashm the same limestone beds continue
to As S i r r i n a low scarp seldom more than 5 metres h i g h .
Northward the cap rock i s a s e r i e s of thinebedded to
massive limestones which a r e u n d e r l a i n by s o f t s h a l e s , marls,
and gypsiferous or s a l i f e r o u s s h a l e s ( P l a t e i x ) . At the
base of the scarp f o r most of i t s length a r e low-floored
b a s i n s or Khabrat. i n which are l o c a t e d most of the date
garden v i l l a g e s from al-Amaar v i l l a g e a t the southernmost
edge to the town of Braydah i n the middle of the r e g i o n .
The s c a r p from the town of Aunayzah t o wadi Ar Rma i s capped
by remnants of an o l d e r o s i o n s u r f a c e w i t h a s s o c i a t e d g r a v e l s
and alluvium, which may represent p a r t of a l a t e T e r t i a r y or
P l e i s t o c e n e peneplain. North of wadi Ar Rma channel the
scarp appears as J a l wetaa, east t o the v i l l a g e of a l Wetaa
( F i g . 2 ) , which i s a minor scarp but p r e s e r v i n g the same
general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The Khuff escarpment i s a long and p e r s i s t e n t l i m e s t o n e capped s c a r p 20-30 metres high, extending from Sha'ieb Hadr,
south to al-Qassim to wadi Ar Rma a t the town of Aunayzah,
p a r a l l e l to the east of the Khurtum with a r e g i o n a l s t r i k e
of N2 1W. I t re-appears n o r t h of the wadi, N.W. of the town
of Braydah, f o r a d i s t a n c e of 25-30 kms. before disappearing

Plate No.viii.
Khashm Khurtum l o o k i n g w e s t t o al-Midhua"b
settlements.
P l a t e N o . i x . Cap r o c k o f Khurtum escarpment n o r t h o f t h e Khashm
s e r i e s o f t h i n "bedded t o m a s s i v e l i m e s t o n e u n d e r l a i n by s o f t s h a l e s ,
m a r l s and g y p s i f e r o u s o r s a l i f e r o u s s h a l e s .

mm

P l a t e No.x.

Another v i e w o f Khurtum escarpment.

13

under the e r o s i o n s u r f a c e or peneplain a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the

As S a ' i r a h p l a i n . T h i s gives i t a length of some 1+50 km.
For most of i t s length w i t h i n the region of al-Qassim, the
scarp i s a sandstone or s h a l e "bluff, capped by hard r e s i s t a n t
limestones of the b a s a l Khuff formation ( P l a t e x i ) .
The
back slope plunges to the N.E. or E . under the lower As S i r r
formation as an upland s u r f a c e eroded i n t o a s e r i e s of
s h i n g l e - l i k e benches ( p l a t e x i i ) .
I n the northernmost p a r t f al-Qassim three prominent
scarps l i e p a r a l l e l i n the Hanadir a r e a , forming the b a s i c
topographic e x p r e s s i o n i n the a r e a . The s c a r p s appear only
i n a discontinuous c h a i n of b a s i n s where l o c a l i n t e r i o r
drainage has breached the T e r t i a r y d u r i c r u s t cover.
The
three scarps are, from e a s t to west, A l Ayr, Ar Ra'an, Hanadir.
The A l Ayr i s a sandstone capped r i d g e , which extends
south-east from the great Efufud for 70 km.
Here i t i s b r i e f l y
overlapped by d u r i c r u s t , and reappears a t Abraq a l A s f a r .
South-east of A l A s f a r i t i s completely covered f o r 100 km.
by a broad d u r i c r u s t p l a i n , As S a l * r a h , and reappears only
b r i e f l y as the steep scarp on the west s i d e of Qusaiba b a s i n .
Ar Ra'an Scarp i s the c e n t r a l and l e a s t continuous of
the s c a r p s . At Khashm Ar Ra'an 25 50*11. k3 20'E, i t forms
a v e r t i c a l b l u f f 15 km. long w i t h a maximum r e l i e f of over
50 metres. Khashm Thalatha, i s a southward c o n t i n u a t i o n of
the same scarp, and extends as f a r as the v i l l a g e of A l Auyoun.
The Hanadir scarp i s the most p e r s i s t e n t scarp of the
group, t r a c e a b l e north-west f o r 200 km., continuous except
f o r a 50 km. s t r e t c h n o r t h of J a b a l Hanadir, where i t i s
overlapped by Keogene g r a v e l . I t v a r i e s i n height from 1+0
metres i n the southern area to a low, b a r e l y t r a c e a b l e
bench a t i t s northern end. An almost continuous b e l t of
mud f l a t s marks the sharp l i t h o l o g i c break between the Saq
sandstone and Hanadir s h a l e a t the foot of t h i s s c a r p .

P l a t e N o . x i . Shale " b l u f f capped toy h a r d r e s i s t a n t l i m e s t o n e o f

t h e "basal K h u f f f o r m a t i o n , a common f e a t u r e o f t h e
K h u f f escarpment.
Plate No.xii.

A s e r i e s o f s h i n g l e - l i k e benches o f t h e hack

P l a t e N o . x i i i . A remnant o f t h e r e t r e a t e d c l i f f o f
K h u f f escarpment, 3 km. a p p r o x i m a t e l y n o r t h west o f al-Midhaah v i l l a g e .

1U.
2 .k

Nufud
There are a number of l a r g e semi-permanent sand bodies
c r o s s i n g Najd from north-west to south-vest which are l o c a l l y
c a l l e d Nufud.'-- A gufud i s a l a r g e continuous body of sand
which i s formed of sand s h e e t s , dunes, or groups of dunes,
deposited by the a c t i o n of winds. D e p o s i t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y
upon a mature or peneplained s u r f a c e . The form of a nufud
i s c o n t r o l l e d by the s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n of wind, the
source and amount of sand, the r e l i e f o f the s u r f a c e on
which i t l i e s , and the annual r a i n f a l l . Dune form i s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r each nufud, dependent upon the e n v i r o n mental f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d .
The nufud i n the Qassim are elongated, g e n e r a l l y rugged
and have h i g h r e l i e f . The dominant dune form i s the " t u r ' t l e back." U s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Nufud a r e sand bodies, which
are s m a l l e r than nufud and form l o c a l f e a t u r e s . These are
often long and a r e known l o c a l l y as Auruq. However, the
sand boundaries are i r r e g u l a r and i n t r i c a t e l y s c a l l o p e d w i t h
numerous long s t r i n g e r s of sand extending out from the main
sand bodies adjacent to each other. S i x major areas of Hufud
can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n the Qassim.
The Auruq al-Mudhhur i s the easternmost sand body i n the
Qassim. T h i s body of sand covers an area UO km. wide and 250
km. long, extending south-east from the Great Nufud n o r t h of
al-passim (28 N. kk E . ) t o a point a t (25 50'N. Uk U0E.),
where i t i n t e r c a l a t e s w i t h Nufud Ath Thuwairat which l i e s
west t o i t . At t h i s point the mass of sand has begun to
accumulate i n a broad band, bordered on the e a s t by the
Auruma escarpment of S u d a i r r e g i o n . Al-Madhhur i s g e n e r a l l y
composed of roughly p a r a l l e l s t r i n g e r s of sand s e v e r a l kms.
wide, separated by l e v e l interdune areas of g r a v e l , weathered
limestone, and f l a t interdune hollows ( p l a t e x i v ) . Sometimes

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these Aurug are g e n t l y r o l l i n g sand p l a i n s which a t other

times take t h e form of p r e c i p i t o u s dune r i d g e s w i t h steep
scarps f a c i n g north e a s t . The sand i n the northern p a r t
of al-Madhhur i s r e l a t i v e l y low; however, towards the
southern end the Auruq c o a l e s c e . They form a knot of high,
a c t i v e dunes and sand peaks which choke up the.channel o f
wadi Ar Rma. The nufud i s u n d e r l a i n "by a peneplained
s u r f a c e p a r t l y g r a v e l p l a i n and p a r t l y t r u n c a t e d l a t e
P a l e o z o i c o r Mesozoic "beds. The wind d i r e c t i o n i s predomin a n t l y from the north-east and strong and f a i r l y constant,
w i t h the r e s u l t that dune form i s g e n e r a l l y that o f an
attenuated r i d g e .
The Nufud Ath Thuwairat i s a long tongue o f rugged sand
dunes which p r o j e c t s south eastward from the broad sand mass
at the southern end of Aruq a l Madhhur. The t o t a l l e n g t h of
t h i s sand body i s i n excess o f 200 km. The south e a s t e r n .
p a r t (65 km. long) i s known as nufud B a l a d i n , and the
northern two-thirds, 11+0-150 km. long, i s known a s nufud
Thuwairat
Nufud Ath Thuwairat has an average width of about 10 km.
and nufud B a l a d i n i s s l i g h t l y l e s s , but more v a r i a b l e ,
ranging from 5-12 km. The lowest pass a t Rumhain where the
width i s about 2 km. r e p r e s e n t s the s e p a r a t i o n point between
the two nufuds a s recognized l o c a l l y . One o f the sand peaks
a t Rumhain i s 60 metres above the s i l t f l a t a t i t s base.
Elsewhere, the a c t i v e dunes a r e estimated t o have a r e l i e f
of 100 metres. Many of these h i g h dunes a r e composed of
a c t i v e sand, w i t h l i t t l e o r no v e g e t a t i o n cover, and steep
slopes a r e common.
The Nufud At T r e f i y a h i s a s m a l l tongue o f sand extending
north from wadi Ar Rma f o r 1+0 km. I t i s g e n e r a l l y only a
few km. wide and composed o f low, elongated dunes, e a s i l y
t r a v e r s a b l e a t any p o i n t . Towards i t s northern end the

16

grades change i m p e r c e p t i b l y i n t o a l e v e l dikaka p l a i n a t

the foot of J i l h s c a r p ( p l a t e x v ) .
The Nufud As S i r r i s an elongated body of sand dunes
270 km. long extending II 3 Off from Khashm Dalyan 23 30* N
1+5 10' ., t o wadi Ar Bma. The northern end i s q u i t e
narrow and r e f e r r e d t o as Nufud As S a f i q . T h i s narrow p a r t
l i e s between wadi Ar Rma and I r q a l - M u s h a t t i t a t a l
Awsajiyah v i l l a g e ( F i g . 2 ) . The width of As S i r r ranges from
20-25 km. while Nufud As S a f i q i s l e s s than h a l f t h i s width.
The J i l h escarpment borders the Nufud on i t s n o r t h - e a s t
margin. From Khasm a l J u ' a i r to Ad Duwaihirrah the Nufud
encroaches upon the s c a r p , burying the lower benches under
i t s dunes. Near l a t i t u d e 25 30' N., a tongue of sand
climbs the escarpment and c r o s s e s i t to connect w i t h Nufud
a l Malha. T h i s i s known as I r q a l Muwasil. The I r q i s
8-10 km. long w i t h a t o t a l width of 5-6 km., and i s s p l i t
i n the middle by outcrops of the J i l h sand p a s s i n g to e i t h e r
s i d e and forming rows of high a c t i v e dunes.
The s o u t h w e s t boundary of the Nufud forms an e s c a l l o p e d
l i n e . Many Khabrat l i e w i t h i n t h i s i n d e n t a t i o n , separated by
patches of low sand h i l l s , dikaka, and obscure outcrops.
Near the v i l l a g e of a l Muraba a ( F i g . 2 ) , dunes on the margin
a l t e r n a t e w i t h l a r g e s i l t or r o c k - f l o o r e d b a s i n s , some of
which are interconnected, making a sinuous v a l l e y p a t t e r n
which can be followed deep i n t o the Nufud. and now the scene
of n o t i c e a b l e a c t i v i t y f o r new a g r i c u l t u r a l expansion as the
deep d r i l l i n g w e l l s are undertaken.
f

Nufud As S i r r i s made up of l a r g e i r r e g u l a r dunes of

sand, roughly e l l i p t i c a l i n o u t l i n e , separated by deep
marginal hollows. T h i s combination of dome and hollow
w i t h a r a d i a l r i d g e on sand peak appears to be a form of
dunes of p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r ( p l a t e x v i ) .

4*3*

P l a t e No.xv
Cw wo m pa~r a t i v. e- ly^ l
a v ~e~r s a b l e
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e l o n g a t e d dunes o f A t T a r a f y y a h sand dunes

P l a t e H o . x v i . R a d i a l r i d g e s on sand peak, Nufud

As S i r r , near Ruhmain.

17.

The Nufud Ash Shqayqah extends south-eastward from

the town of Aunayzah f o r about 70 ferns, and l i e s p a r a l l e l
to the Khuff escarpment. I t s width i s estimated a t 20 to
30 km. The Nufud narrows s h a r p l y a t the south-east end and
i s widest on the southern bank of wadi Ar Rma, t h e r e f o r e i t s
o u t l i n e i s l i k e an acute t r i a n g l e w i t h the apex p o i n t i n g
south. R e l i e f i s comparatively medium and much l e s s
pronounced than i n Nufud Ath Thuwairat or As S i r r .
The Nufud and Auruq, of the Wadi form i r r e g u l a r groups
of sand dunes which have accumulated i n the low a r e a s of
Wadi Ar Rma.
The area i s known l o c a l l y as a p a r t of Nufud
Ghmays. The Nufud of Braydah i s a p a r t of t h i s system and
i s composed of a number of smooth s u r f a c e d , elongated whalebacked r i d g e dunes, which do, however, have steep s l i p slopes
on the l e e s i d e ( p l a t e x v i i ) . Migration of these dunes has
been r e t a r d e d during the l a s t s e v e r a l hundred years by the
l o c a l p r a c t i c e of p l a n t i n g the dune slopes w i t h a v a r i e t y
of tamarisks ( A t h l ) , which serve the dual purpose of holding
the sand and p r o v i d i n g a source of wood f o r b u i l d i n g and
f e n c i n g . Nufud Ghmays which f i l l s much of the wadi west of
the town of Braydah and north-west of the town of Aunayzah,
i s not c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from Nufud Ash Shqayqah which
l i e s south of i t , except that the channel through which water
flows down the wadi may be r e f e r r e d to as a p o s s i b l e boundary.
2.5 The Grave1 P l a i n s
The g r a v e l p l a i n s represent an e x t e n s i v e area, which i s
bounded on the west by the mountains of the basement complex,
on the n o r t h and north-east by the Great Nufud and i r q
al-Madhhur, and on the e a s t by Nufud Athuwairat. The
southern boundary i s an i n d e f i n i t e zone a t the southern end
of the d u r i c r u s t 30 km. north-west of the town of Braydah.
The term " d u r i c r u s t , " used to d e s c r i b e a widespread, hardened

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18

s u r f a c e i n A u s t r a l i a , has now "become the common terminology

for the "Sununan" i n e a s t e r n A r a b i a along the e a s t s i d e of
Nofud Ad Dahna. I t a p p l i e s to a secondary limestone o r
c a l i c h e deposit which v a r i e s from a dense grey secondary
limestone or c a l i c h e to s u r f a c e d e t r i a l m a t e r i a l f i r m l y
cemented by calcium carbonate. By general usage d u r i c r u s t
has become the accepted term f o r Arabian occurrences of
such secondary calcareous s u r f a c e , and forms extensive
p l a i n s i n the northern and e a s t e r n p a r t s of the Qassim.
The p r e c i s e chemical conditions which produce this
deposit a r e unknown so f a r . Where the underlying formations
are c a l c a r e o u s , d u r i c r u s t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y hard and r e s i s t a n t
and forms a cap rock which p r o t e c t s scarps as high as 50
metres, as i t i s a t the .Qusaiba v i l l a g e , N.E. of Braydah.
Where the underlying rocks a r e sandstones, the d u r i c r u s t i s
a grey gypsiferous, earthy deposit and much l e s s r e s i s t a n t
to e r o s i o n , as i n al-Mestewey p l a i n e a s t of the J i l h scarp
(Fig6).
The b a s i c f a c t c o n t r o l l i n g the topographic expressions
over t h i s broad area of g r a v e l p l a i n s , i n the e a s t and n o r t h
of the Qassim region, i s the extensive post-Eocene penep l a n a t i o n during which a blanket of d u r i c r u s t and g r a v e l
developed over much o f the area ( p l a t e s x v i i i and x i x ) .
The tops of even the highest J e b a l i n the area f a l l beneath
the p r o j e c t e d s u r f a c e o f these p e n e p l a i n s . They a r e broad,
v e r y g e n t l y r o l l i n g p l a i n s u n d e r l a i n by P a l a e o z o i c sandstone
and s h a l e s . The topography i s a l t e r e d and obscured by a
blanket of d u r i c r u s t which a c t s as a cap rock f o r a s e r i e s
of sinuous, p a t t e r n l e s s benches and s c a r p s . At i n t e r m i t t e n t
i n t e r v a l s along the north-western trend of s h a l e zones,
canoe-shaped b a s i n s breach the p l a i n s w i t h hollows o f
i n t e r i o r drainage ranging from 1 0 to 50 metres i n depth.

P l a t e N o . x v i i i . D u r i c r u s t . T h i s C a l i c h e - l i k e secondary
deposit preserves a g e n t l y r o l l i n g , peneplain surface
t h r o u g h o u t t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e Qassim, N. Wadi Ar
Rma.
Here i t i s breached by a s h a l l o w b a s i n o f i n t e r i o r
d r a i n a g e , the d u r i c r u s t r e m a i n i n g as a r e s i s t a n t cap r o c k .

P l a t e N o . x i x . Close-up o f d u r i c r u a t showing spongy,

honeycomb s t r u c t u r e . T h i s ledge i s s l i g h t l y l e s s
t h a n 1 metre t h i c k .

19

Commonly, the west f a c i n g scarp of such a breach i s capped

by limestone or sandstone and the opposing scarp i s capped
by a heavy ledge of d u r i c r u s t .
Two e s p e c i a l l y prominent g r a v e l p l a i n s occur w i t h i n the
confines of the Qassim r e g i o n - the Al-Mestwey P l a i n and the
As-Su'airah P l a i n .
The Al-Mestwey P l a i n i s 100 km. long by 10 km. wide
o r i e n t e d N3 OW between Nufud al-Madhhur and Ath Thuwairat
on the e a s t and Wadi Ar Rma and the J i l h s c a r p on the west
( p l a t e s xx and x x i ) . The f l a t , q u a r t z i t i c g r a v e l p l a i n i s
broken by low g r a v e l benches and a few g e n t l y s l o p i n g ,
b l a c k weathered J e b a l which commonly have the p r o f i l e s of
low v o l c a n i c cover. Toward the northern end r e l i e f i s more
pronounced, J e b a l Rakhman and Bruna, a t the l a t i t u d e 26 18*
N. and longitude L\k 25* E., r e a c h i n g a height o f 30 metres.
At t h e extreme northern end of the p l a i n , where g r a v e l s a r e
removed by r u n o f f i n t o Wadi Ar Rma i s the rough area known
as Burqa'a a l - K h u w a i b i l a .
At the northern end o f al-Mestwey p l a i n occurs a narrow
neck of sand f i l l i n g Wadi Ar Rma channel. Beyond t h i s p o i n t
i t outcrops a s a broad s a b k h a - f i l l e d trough whose e a s t e r n
f r i n g e i s l i n e d w i t h low J e b a l and haphazard benches. T h i s
a r e a i s known as a l - a s y a h , and from i t s 8 km. width north of
Wadi A r Rma, al-Asyah i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y narrowed by encroaching sands of I r q al-Madhhur and f i n a l l y completely overlapped
by the I r q .
The As S u ' a i r a h P l a i n i s a g e n t l y r o l l i n g p l a i n 30 km.
wide extending along the south western s i d e o f I r q
al-Madhhur. The d u r i c r u s t here, developed from the underl y i n g limestone of the Khuff formation, i s extremely
r e s i s t a n t and unbreached by drainage c h a n n e l s . S l i g h t
undulations i n the s u r f a c e of the p l a i n a r e sometimes present

.-*

P l a t e No.xx. A view o f t h e f l a t g r a v e l p l a i n o f t h e s o u t h e r n
p a r t o f al-Mestwey p l a i n .
P l a t e N o . x x i . Another view ( f u r t h e r n o r t h ) o f t h e al-Mestwey
p l a i n w i t h a more prominent g r a v e l l y c h a r a c t e r .

20.

along i t s p r o j e c t i o n , extending toward Jebal Salma, n o r t h e a s t

to a l Qassim, i n the g r a n i t e s . I t i s f l o o r e d w i t h a f i n e
g r a v e l outwash from the basement.
The broad band o f cross-bedded sandstone a t the margin
of the basement forms a rough surface o f s c a t t e r e d , hummocky
Jebal, and wind scooped basins w i t h occasional h i g h , c o n i c a l
Jebal, such as Sag.
Between these two b e l t s , the d u r i c r u s t on the east and
the sandstone on the west, l i e s a complex topography o f
basins and i n t e r v e n i n g p l a i n s ( p l a t e s x x i i and x x i i i ) .
W i t h i n t h i s area the trends o f three scarps can be-followed
from b a s i n t o b a s i n but the c o n t i n u i t y o f these scarps i s
through l i t h o l o g i c r a t h e r than topographic expression. The
basins along which they are exposed o f t e n appear w i t h s t r i k i n g
suddenness w h i l e t r a v e r s i n g over the smooth surface o f t h e
p l a i n . They are u s u a l l y shale f l o o r e d hollows w i t h r i m rock
of d u r i c r u s t , or less commonly sandstone, and one or two
drainage channels leading t o a c e n t r a l sabkha or khabra.
A l l the small and scarce p l a n t a t i o n v i l l a g e s are examples
of these basins, a l A3-far, a l Ehafa and Qusaiba e t c .
The southern edge o f the peneplain n o r t h o f the town o f
Braydah has an e l e v a t i o n o f 556 metres, whereas i t i s 700
metres a t a distance o f 150 km. n o r t h , so the f a l l i n t h i s
component d i r e c t i o n (south-east) i s about 1 metre per km.
The southern edge has been dissected by headward erosion o f
t r i b u t a r i e s t o Wadi A r Rma, forming some minor bad lands.
The peneplain also cuts across the t r u n c a t e d edges o f scarps
from the Lower Paleozoic onto Upper T r i a s s i c .
North-west o f Wadi Ar Rma and east o f the basement
complex there i s a broad band o f rough sandstone, i r r e g u l a r
p l a i n s and escarpments. The basal Paleozoic sandstone
designated the Saq sandstone member o f the Auyon f o r m a t i o n
outcrops i n a broad band 50 t o 60 km. wide and roughly

Plate No.xxii.
The complex topography o f b a s i n s and i n t e r v e n i n g
p l a i n s . An example o f t h e A s Su a i r a h p l a i n zone n o r t h o f
Braydah.
Plate

No.xxiii.

Same a r e a a s above.

M M

21.

150 km. long. On the Saq sandstone i t s e l f , wind erosion

has "been dominant* The more f r i a b l e p o r t i o n s are r e a d i l y
weathered and loose g r a i n s removed by wind a c t i o n . The
harder p a r t s remain as o u t l i e r s and some of them are
prominent landmarks, such as Jabal Saq, which i s a roughly
c o n i c a l b u t t e made up o f hard, almost q u a r t z i t i c sandstone
the surface o f which has developed a t h i c k black coat o f
v a r n i s h . I t r i s e s 150 metres above the surrounding p l a i n
and i n times o f good v i s i b i l i t y can be recognized f o r a
distance o f kO km. There are other smaller o u t l i e r s and
several prominent b l a c k sandstone r i d g e s . There are also
i r r e g u l a r bands o f wind-scooped basins which are i n d i s t i n g uishable one from another. Small sand dunes are associated
w i t h those basins, u s u a l l y on the ridges bordering them.
North-east o f As Sheqqah v i l l a g e , there are several
prominent sandstone scarps. These are somewhat discontinuous*
owing t o i r r e g u l a r exposures o f the Auyon sandstone and also
because o f the overlap o f d u r i c r u s t on the n o r t h . Between
J a l Wetat and Ash Sheqqa v i l l a g e some 20 km. west o f Braydan,
the surface i s mainly a limestone d i p slope except f o r a
s l i g h t overlap by the d u r i c r u s t . Several low scarps l i e
p a r a l l e l t o the main scarps.
2.6 Wadi Ar Rma
Wadi Ar Rma i s the dominant drainage channel i n the
whole of Saudi Arabia. From i t s headwaters a t Harrat
Khaibar i n the mountains o f western Najd i t s course can be
t r a c e d 900 km. t o i t s mouth south-west of the town o f a l
Basra i n I r a q . Along the lower i+00 km. o f the wadi channel
i t i s named a l - B a t i n .
W i t h i n the Qassim the wadi i s a 6 t o 10 km. b e l t o f
s i l t whose course i s o f t e n obscured by sand dunes ( p l a t e
x x i v ) . At the town o f Braydah, on the n o r t h e r n bank, and
Aunayzah, on the southern bank the wadi i s confined by low

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22

limestone ridges of the J i l h , Khurtum, and Khuff scarps

and i t s channel can he traced north-east along a series
of s i l t f l a t s and Sabkhat. o f t e n scattered w i t h barkham
dunes.
F i f t y km. north-east of the town of Braydah the channel
becomes completely dammed up, p a r t l y as a r e s u l t of a r i s i n g
base l e v e l t o the north-east and p a r t l y as a r e s u l t of the
encroachment by the Nufud At T r e f i y a h . Although obviously
a major channel during less a r i d periods of Arabian h i s t o r y ,
Wadi Ar Rma has not been known t o f l o w through i t s whole
l e n g t h i n recent times. However, w i t h i n the r e s t r i c t e d area
of al-Qassim the wadi g e n e r a l l y flows once, or r a r e l y twice,
during a w i n t e r , l e a v i n g s c a t t e r i n g s of shallow puddles
along i t s course f o r several days f o l l o w i n g the f l o w .
The wadi i s the core of al-Qassim indeed and contains
the important towns i n the r e g i o n , w i t h Aunayzah on the
southern bank at 26 05' kU and Braydah on the northern
bank at 26 20' kk. Numerous v i l l a g e s are c l u s t e r e d on
e i t h e r side p a r t i c u l a r l y the lowland area west of Aunayzah
and Braydah.
t

Many smaller wadis are s c a t t e r e d throughout the r e g i o n

w i t h much less l e n g t h and importance p a r t i c u l a r l y along the
cuestas of the south and the scarps and basins of the n o r t h .
A l l these small wadis have one s t r i k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , , , they
are channels of i n t e r n a l drainage i n the s c a t t e r e d basins
and Khabrat, w h i l s t a few of them die out i n ffufud.
This review o f geomorphic features of the r e g i o n has
l e d t o a v i t a l conclusion from the p o i n t of view of arable
lands. C a l c u l a t i o n of the arable land would lead n e c e s s a r i l y
t o the e l i m i n a t i o n of the huge areas i n the r e g i o n occupied
by sand dunes, escarpments, and the vast d u r i c r u s t cover on
the northern p a r t of the region and east of the J i l h . This

23

leaves the small shale peneplain "between J i l h and Khartum,

the t i n y s t r i p between J i l h and Nufud Ath Thuwairat where
the Ar Bay'iyah and Ash Shmassiyah area, the wadi b a s i n ,
the north-eastern shallow v a l l e y of a l Asyah, and the small
scattered basins throughout the n o r t h e r n d u r i c r u s t area.
Even these small p o r t i o n s are subject t o severe s o i l ,
drainage, and topography l i m i t a t i o n s and d e f i c i e n c i e s .

References

A recent K a r s t i c phenomenon i n
the limestone country o f North
Central Na.id. Saudi Arabia
B u l l e t i n de l a Societe de
Geographie D'Egypte, Cairo
Tome XXXVTII, 1965.
Geology o f Wadi At.i. Buraidah.
Hail,area. North C e n t r a l Najd.
Saudi Arabia
Geologic r e p o r t s : No.29
Adh Dhahran.
Geologic Map o f the Wadi Ar Rmah
Quadrangle. Kingdom o f Saudi
Arabia
Map. No: 1-206A prepared by the
U.S. Geologic Survey and the
ARAMCO f o r the M i n i s t r y o f
Petroleum and Mineral Resources,
Saudi Arabia, 1 9 6 0 .
Geographic Map o f the Wadi Ar Rmah
Quadrangle. Kingdom o f Saudi
Arabia
Map No: 1-206B prepared by the
U.S. Geologic Survey and the
ARAMCO f o r the M i n i s t r y o f
Petroleum and Mineral Resources,
Saudi Arabia, 1960.
Geologic Map. Buraidah. Province
of Na.jd. Saudi Arabia
Map No: GP-1389-A Adh Dhahran.
Geologic Map. Midhnab. Province
of Na.id. Saudi Arabia
Map No: GF-1U16-A
Adh Dhahran

7.

ARAMCO

Geologic Map. Sag. Province o f

Na.jd. Saudi Arabia
Btap. No: GF-U+37-A
Adh Dhahran

8..

Bagnold, R. A.

The Movement o f desert sand

The Geographical J o u r n a l ,
Vol.LXXXV, 1935.

9.

Bagnold, R. A.

The t r a n s p o r t o f sand by wind

. The Geographic. J o u r n a l ,
Vol.LXXXG, (Pages 2+09^38), 1937.

10.

Gotten, C. A.

C l i m a t i c accidents i n landscapemaking
(p-P.3-126) New Zealand, 1 9*4-2.

11.

Davis, W. A.

The Geographical Cycle i n an A r i d

Climate
Journal o f Geology, July-August,
1905 V o l . X I I I (pages 381-J+07).

1 2 . Mytton, J. W.

Geological reconnaissance o f the

western p a r t o f the Wadi Ar Rma
Quadrangle
(Unpublished mimeo).
M i n i s t r y of Petroleum and
Mineral Resources, Saudi Arabia.
Ar Riyadh, 1965.

13.

Sedimentary Geology o f Saudi

Arabia
(unpublished mimeo).
M i n i s t r y o f Petroleum and
Mineral Resources, Saudi Arabia.
Ar Riyadh, 1963.

Powers, Ramirez and

others

PART I I
THE CLIMATE AMD WATER

24

Chapter 3

C l i m a t i c Conditions and Surface

Hydrology

Lying w i t h i n the dry zone o f the t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e the

Qassim i s , g e n e r a l l y , a r e g i o n o f intense dryness and heat.
According t o the Koppen c l a s s i f i c a t i o n \he Qassim c l i m a t e
could he c l a s s i f i e d as BSb' type of c l i m a t e . The c o n t r o l of
the intense dryness i s the h i g h pressure c e l l over C e n t r a l
Asia w i t h the co-operation of the low pressure c e l l over
the E q u a t o r i a l areas. These two d i f f e r e n t pressure systems
have determined the p r e v a i l i n g wind t o he o f a c o n t i n e n t a l
type hearing no water. The sole departure from complete
dryness i s the c y c l o n i c depression which annually migrates
eastward i n w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g by i t s usual path over
the F e r t i l e Crescent from the Mediterranean. I t creates a
wind a t t r a c t i o n c e l l s k i r t i n g the most n o r t h e r n p a r t of Najd.
This c e l l drags water hearing winds, which reach Najd on
t h e i r way t o the depression path over the F e r t i l e Crescent,
j u s t a f t e r crossing vast water surfaces i n south-east,
south and west o f the Arabian peninsula.
The a v a i l a b l e c l i m a t i c data are of very short p e r i o d due
t o the f a c t t h a t i t was only i n August, 1964 t h a t the f i r s t
meteorological s t a t i o n was put i n o p e r a t i o n i n the r e g i o n a t
the o u t s k i r t s of the town of Aunayzah by the M i n i s t r y o f
A g r i c u l t u r e ( p l a t e x x v ) . Another s t a t i o n was i n s t a l l e d i n
1965 by the C i v i l A v i a t i o n Department at the c e n t r a l a i r p o r t .
However, the data from t h i s s t a t i o n up t o the time o f w r i t i n g
t h i s t h e s i s was u n a v a i l a b l e f o r a n a l y s i s .
The a v a i l a b l e data of the Aunayzah s t a t i o n comprise
^ ^Koppen c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as modified by G. T. Trewarth i n
h i s book "An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o c l i m a t e " New York, 1954.

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25.

f i g u r e s on r a i n f a l l , temperature, h u m i d i t y , pan evaporation,

r a d i a t i o n , and r u n - o f f up t o September, 1966. (Appendix B,
Tables 1 and 2 ) .
3.1
Temperature
The annual range o f temperature i n the Qassim i s very
l a r g e . The mean temperature i s 130. i n January and 33G.
i n J u l y , r e s u l t i n g i n an annual range o f 20C. ( F i g . 7 ) .
During the high-sun p e r i o d , scorching, d e s s i c a t i n g heat
p r e v a i l s . The mean temperatures f o r the h o t t e s t months
range between 28G. and 33C. However, d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d
the comparatively low n i g h t temperatures are a d i s t i n c t
r e l i e f i n c o n t r a s t t o the days. The absolute maximum msan
during t h e summer ranges between kQSG and kL\..kC.
During the p e r i o d o f low-sun t h e days are s t i l l warm
w i t h an absolute d a i l y maximum around 30C. Nights are
d i s t i n c t l y c h i l l y i n t h i s season w i t h the average o f
absolute minima ranging between 0.1 C. and 3 . 3 C , and
the absolute maximum mean ranging between 27.2C. and
23.9C. These f i g u r e s show t h e immense d i f f e r e n c e between
the d i u r n a l and t h e n o c t u r n a l averages. However, t h e
average monthly temperature during t h e w i n t e r ranges between
11C. and 15C ( P i g . 8 ) .
3.2, R e l a t i v e Humidity
R e l a t i v e humidity i s low i n t h e Qassim w i t h 3$ t o 21%
being usual f o r t h e mid-day hours. The annual average o f
humidity i s 29.8%, and the maximum y e a r l y average i s 5 2 . i $
w h i l e t h e minimum annual average i s 18.6%. Seasonal
averages o f humidity percentage i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e g i o n
enjoys a more humid atmosphere during winter.and s p r i n g .
Summer has an average o f 16.2% w h i l s t w i n t e r has an
average o f 49.6% ( F i g . 7 ) , t h e maximum averages being 22.1%
during summer and 63.3% i n the w i n t e r . The average o f
minimum percentage i s 10.3% f o r summer and 28% f o r w i n t e r .

MONTHLY

AVERAGES

OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY

AND

TEMPERATURE

50-_.
40302010 0

1T
F

Relative

r-r

Humidity Percentage

" Temperatures C

FIGURE

TEMPERATURE AVERAGES

50
40
30
20
10
i

10
F

A-Absolutes of Maximum and of Minimum

8" Means of Maximum and Minimum

- - Maximum
Minimum

FIGURE 8

26

Figures show t h a t humidity percentages during s p r i n g and

autumn are not f a r "below w i n t e r ' s , h u t f a r above summer's
( F i g . 9 ) . Occasionally t h e r e g i o n gains t h e f u l l humidity
percentage as i n January and February, 1965, when 100% was
recorded as the absolute maximum o f humidity d u r i n g these
two months.
3.3

Wind and R a i n f a l l
I n w i n t e r the h i g h pressure o f C e n t r a l Asia makes
al-Qassim, together w i t h the whole o f Arabia, subject t o
n o r t h p r e v a i l i n g winds. These northern winds are f a i r l y
f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r r u p t e d by the passage o f c y c l o n i c depressions
over the F e r t i l e Crescent which b r i n g south-east and west
winds which r e s u l t s i n cloudy skies and r a i n , and temperatures
are u s u a l l y above normal. I n summer, p r e v a i l i n g winds are
s t i l l n o r t h e r n , blowing t o the low-pressure system over
E q u a t o r i a l areas. Uninterrupted by cyclones they are
remarkably constant.
The annual average o f extreme knots l i e s somewhere
(1 )
between 27.3 and* ' 3 3 . 1 . Summer averages are 36.9 maximum
and 6 . 0 minimum. The surplus o f summer extreme knots i s
apparently due t o the r a p i d summer daytime heating o f lower
a i r over the r e g i o n and surrounding sand area's, t o s t r o n g
convectional o v e r t u r n i n g , t h i s interchange o f lower and
upper a i r tending t o accelerate t h e h o r i z o n t a l surface
current d u r i n g warm hours. Generally, n i g h t s are much
calmer, which i s a p a r t i a l explanation o f the r a p i d n o c t u r n a l
c o o l i n g o f surface a i r i n the r e g i o n .
R a i n f a l l i n t h e Qassim i s always meagre and i t i s also
extremely v a r i a b l e from year t o year. I t i s a general r u l e
t h a t d e p e n d a b i l i t y o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n u s u a l l y decreases w i t h

A l l wind f i g u r e s are quoted from the records o f t h e

towns o f H a i l and Ar Riyadh.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY P E R C E N T A G E
100
\

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
%

-1

J
F M A M J J A S O N D
Monthly Absolute, Maximum and Absolute Minimum

\ Maximum
Minimum

F M A M J J
A S O N
Monthly Mean of Maximum and Minimum

FIGURE 9

27.

the decreasing amount o f r a i n . Although no exact amount

of r a i n f a l l can be expected as d e f i n i n g the humid margin
of the region, t h e f i g u r e u s u a l l y l i e s somewhere between
38 and 70 mm. (Appendix B Table 1 ) . A n a l y s i s o f t h e longer
continuous records a t H a i l and Ar Riyadh suggest the annual
c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n i s over 50%. However, w i t h such
a short and broken record i t i s almost impossible t o speak
of t y p i c a l average r a i n f a l l curve f o r t h e r e g i o n .
Moreover, downpours i n t h e area are l o c a l l y concentrated.
General widespread r a i n s are almost unknown over the r e g i o n ,
most o f the p r e c i p i t a t i o n coming i n v i o l e n t convectional
showers which do not cover a very extensive area. A f t e r one
of these occasional f l o o d i n g r a i n s the wadi may become a
t o r r e n t o f muddy water f i l l e d w i t h d e b r i s . Settlements
s u f f e r , roads may be damaged and i r r i g a t i o n systems are o f t e n
clogged w i t h d e b r i s .
R a i n f a l l i n the region i s e x c l u s i v e l y derived from
w i n t e r c o l d f r o n t s t h a t normally move from west t o east
d u r i n g e a r l y and l a t e w i n t e r . These are o f t e n preceded by
s c a t t e r e d thunderstorms w i t h i n t e n s i t i e s . No summer r a i n f a l l
has been recorded i n the r e g i o n which i s t o o f a r n o r t h f o r
the e f f e c t s o f t h e i n t e r t r o p i c a l zone t o be f e l t ( P i g . 1 0 ) .
A f i f t e e n years record a t Ar Riyadh proved t h a t May, June,
J u l y , and August are r a i n l e s s months. I n August there i s ,
however, a s l i g h t increase i n r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y b u t
i n s u f f i c i e n t t o cause the development o f convective type
summer r a i n f a l l .
3 .*f Evaporation
P o t e n t i a l open water evaporation and p o t e n t i a l
e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n have been c a l c u l a t e d f o r the M i n i s t r y o f
A g r i c u l t u r e by Raikes and Partners o f Rome who adopted a
modified form o f Penman's approximation o f the energy budget
and other e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Therefore, a l l t h e

MONTHLY

AVERAGES

OF EVAPORATION

AND R A I N F A L L

525
500
475

77,

Pan E v a p o r a t i o n
Open Water Eva p.

Rainfall

450
425
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225

200
175

50
125
100

75 50
25

mm

FIGURE

IO

28.

f i g u r e s concerning e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , recharge and water

balance included here are quoted from t h e Raikes work o f
August, 1966.
Raikes have used t e n day means o f the a v a i l a b l e data
t o compute evaporation. They consider t h a t t h e use o f 10
days means i n s t e a d o f monthly means i s e s s e n t i a l f o r water
budget studies as i t provides a s t a t i s t i c a l l y acceptable
p r o p o r t i o n over a year and enables short term weather
e f f e c t s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . However, the d a i l y means are
shown i n Appendix B t a b l e 3 and t h e annual t o t a l s f o r
1964/65 are as f o l l o w s
1700 mm.
Open water evaporation
Pan evaporation
3951 mm.
Potential evapotranspiration
1226 mm.
The i n d i c a t e d evaporation pan f a c t o r i s t h e r e f o r e 0.14-5
as computed w i t h the more usual value o f 0.7* However, i n
a very a r i d environment t h i s i s t o be expected and s i m i l a r
pan f a c t o r s have been observed i n the eastern desert p a r t
of Jordan. The most s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t a r i s i n g from t h i s
analysis i s t h a t evaporation appears t o be greatest i n the
s p r i n g and tends e i t h e r t c remain a t constant l e v e l i n the
summer months i n s p i t e o f i n c r e a s i n g temperature and
decreasing humidity. This t e n t a t i v e conclusion i s c o n t r a r y
to accepted understanding o f evaporation. However, t h e
reasons f o r t h i s apparent paradox may be explained i n
considering the e f f e c t s of humidity on the r a d i a t i o n balance
and e f f i c i e n c y o f conversion o f heat i n t o vapour. I n
a d d i t i o n , the e f f i c i e n c y a t which heat i s converted i n t o
vapours, expressed i n terms o f slope o f the s a t u r a t i o n
vapour pressure curve a t heat a i r temperatures, i s u s u a l l y
approximately constant up t o mean a i r temperatures o f 2 5 30C. b u t sharply decreases a t higher temperatures. The
net e f f e c t o f very h i g h mean a i r temperatures of 30C. and

29.

over and very low r e l a t i v e humidity o f l e s s than 15$

appears, t h e r e f o r e , t o have the e f f e c t o f keeping evaporat i o n a t a f a i r l y constant l e v e l i n such c o n d i t i o n s .
The c o r r e l a r y t o t h i s t e n t a t i v e 'conclusion i s t h a t
p o t e n t i a l e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n from s o i l and v e g e t a t i o n would
also remain a t a constant l e v e l d u r i n g the hot summer
months. W h i l s t t h i s may he so i n the case o f an open desert
i t i s not expected t h a t t h i s c o n d i t i o n would p r e v a i l i n
i r r i g a t e d areas i n the Qassim. That i s due t o the f a c t
t h a t the r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s smaller, the temperatures
of the a i r near the ground and the ground i t s e l f are lower
and the humidity i s h i g h e r . The net e f f e c t o f these would
he t o reduce long wave emission from the surface and thus
make a greater p r o p o r t i o n o f the r a d i a t i o n balance a v a i l a b l e
f o r evaporation. However, the a p p l i c a t i o n o f normal
evaporation computing methods f o r i r r i g a t e d areas would be
l a r g e l y i n v a l i d a t e d and might be underestimated the water
requirements o f i r r i g a t e d crops.
3.5 Run o f f and recharge
The wadis i n the r e g i o n are l i a b l e t o f l o o d on r a r e
occasions. The l a s t known time o f wadi Ar Rma being
flooded was i n January, 1965. From water l e v e l s p o i n t e d
out a t the gauge s i t e near Aunayzah and a survey o f the
cross s e c t i o n and slope on s i t e i t i s estimated t h a t some
eight m i l l i o n eubic metres were discharged through the
Aunayzah-Braydah Gap over a p e r i o d o f eight days. The
channel i n t h i s area i s small and w i t h a very f l a t gradient
and consequently low v e l o c i t y f l o w i s released slowly from
storage on the wide f l o o d p l a i n between Aunayzah and Ar
Rass. Because o f the low g r a d i e n t and v e l o c i t y and because
i t i s l o c a l l y comparatively s i l t f r e e , a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n
of t h i s discharge i s thought t o have gone t o recharge the
wadi a l l u v i u m downstream.

30.

Recharges from l o c a l r u n - o f f t o the s u p e r f i c i a l

deposits of the Qassim area i s l i k e l y t o he i n f r e q u e n t ,
hut a n a l y s i s o f r a i n f a l l and p o t e n t i a l evaporation data
i n d i c a t e t h a t a t l e a s t recharge t o s o i l moisture would
take place. By considering "both a c t u a l r a i n f a l l and the
energy a v a i l a b l e f o r i t s removal by evaporation an
i n d i c a t i o n of a c t u a l as against p o t e n t i a l l o s s , i s obtained.
Aunayzah record shows t h a t on t h r e e occasions i n 16 months
there occurred a surplus o f water f o r d i r e c t i n f i l t r a t i o n
or f o r r u n - o f f . The 34 mm. surplus o c c u r r i n g i n January,
1965 (Appendix B t a b l e 3) i s made up p a r t l y o f r u n - o f f
which i s known t o have occurred and p a r t l y o f s o i l moisture.
No f i g u r e s of the exact p r o p o r t i o n s of each are a v a i l a b l e .
Reviewing the c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n of the Qassim one may
reach a conclusion which asserts t h a t the c l i m a t e i n the
Qassim i s conducting a major and severe r o l e among the
p h y s i c a l phenomena of the Qassim s environment. I t i s
obvious t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e cannot be p r a c t i s e d on t h i s meagre
amount o f r a i n alone, so t h a t dry farming can never e x i s t
as a permanent a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n i n the area. This f a c t
severely r e s t r i c t s the area which can be brought under
c u l t i v a t i o n ; a g r i c u l t u r e i n the area has t o be confined t o
places where the underground water found i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r
i r r i g a t i o n . As a c o n t r a s t temperature values provide no
close season f o r p l a n t a t i o n .
The e f f e c t o f c l i m a t e on s o i l s i n the r e g i o n i s a
prominent handicap i n weathering s o l i d rocks. I t i s a f a c t
t h a t weathering of s o l i d rocks i s a slower process i n a dry
climate than wet ones, so t h a t the r e s i d u a l r e g o l i t h cover
must be t h i n . The h i g h values o f evaporation i s the reason
behind the h i g h s a l i n i t y nature of the s o i l classes i n the
area. As a r e s u l t of meagre r a i n f a l l the process o f s o i l
1

leaching i s slow and "because o f t h i s s o i l s are r i c h i n

mineral contents.

32.

Chapter U

Ground Water Hydrology

U.A H i s t o r i c a l Background
Throughout the centuries ground water discharge has
been confined t o the shallow r u n - o f f rechargeable unconfined
( P h r e a t i c ) a q u i f e r s . The discharge was from some o f 800
hand dug w e l l s scattered throughout the region w i t h an
average depth o f 20 m. w i t h animal power as the only means
o f water d r a f t i n g . A dramatic t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h i s p a t t e r n
of water u t i l i z a t i o n emerged i n J u l y , 1953 when the a r t e s i a n
water o f the deeper a q u i f e r s was encountered. This occurred
when Mr. S. a l - E h r i y f was deepening h i s o l d hand dug w e l l
on h i s farm a t Az Zarqa suburb of the town of Braydah ( p l a t e
z x v i ) . When the d r i l l i n g reached 100 m. depth the a r t e s i a n
water of the Tabuk was encountered and b u r s t i t s way out t o
flow onto the surface and marked the f i r s t appearance of the
f l o w i n g a r t e s i a n water i n the h i s t o r y of the r e g i o n . Soon
intense deepening o f the adjacent w e l l s was s t a r t e d b u t
mainly by inexperienced d r i l l e r s using i n c o r r e c t casing
which r e s u l t e d i n an intense seepage of the f l o w i n g water
through the boreholes. This s i t u a t i o n l e d t o a r i s e of
water t a b l e i n the Braydah area. I n a few years the r i s e
of the water l e v e l reached a very dangerous p o i n t r e s u l t i n g
i n a c o l l e c t i v e collapse of many houses i n the town, pools
of stagnant water i n the hollows round and i n s i d e the town
and crop f a i l u r e s . This c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n urged the M i n i s t r y
o f A g r i c u l t u r e and Water t o launch i n t e n s i v e research w i t h
a view t o t e r m i n a t i n g the dangerous r i s e of the water l e v e l
y

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33.

and e l i m i n a t i n g i t , and secondly, t o a p p r a i s i n g the q u a n t i t y

and the q u a l i t y of the new source o f t h i s very v i t a l economic
asset t o the r e g i o n .
The Wells I n v e n t o r y and H y d r o l o g i c a l Survey was i n i t i a t e d
i n August, 1965 and continued through t o September, 1967.
D e t a i l e d data were obtained on a l l w e l l s i n the r e g i o n
(1,722 wells)(Appendix\$ t a b l e 1 ) . kS.7% of the t o t a l were
hand dug type, 313% were dug d r i l l e d type and 22% were
d r i l l e d . A summary of the i n v e n t o r y oh the source of water,
type of w e l l s , use o f water, and method of producing water
i s given i n f i g u r e 1 1 . A s e l e c t i o n of chemical analysis i s
recorded and t a b u l a t e d i n Appendix C. 11.7% of the t o t a l
w e l l s i n the Qassim are f l o w i n g . Generally i n the Braydah
area, w e l l s tapping or p e n e t r a t i n g the Tabuk f o r m a t i o n have
a moderate f l o w of water. North of Braydah such w e l l s do
not f l o w except where the land surface i s t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y
low. Wells p e n e t r a t i n g the Saq sandstone f l o w i n the area
east of a l i n e running from Aunayzah t o Qusaiba v i l l a g e and
n o r t h from Wadi Ar Rma t o the n o r t h end o f Ad Dughmanyah
area. I n al-Asyah (N.E.) w e l l s a t the v i l l a g e of Hunaidhel,
at Tunnumah, and al-Je'a'ala are screened i n the Saq sandstone a t a depth below 1I4.50 m. The heads i n t h i s area extend
t o 100 m. and more above land surface and w i t h discharge
value of 150-2^0 LPS.
U.2 Surface A q u i f e r s
Recent f i l l deposits and the upper p o r t i o n s o f the
older geologic formations are included i n t h i s unconfined
a q u i f e r . Shallow hand dug w e l l s e x t r a c t t h e i r water from
t h i s zone and y i e l d low t o moderate q u a n t i t i e s adequate only
f o r a l i m i t e d scale o f i r r i g a t i o n which brought about palm
gardens p r a c t i c e i n most of the topographic depressions o f
the Qassim. Wells are f r e q u e n t l y so c l o s e l y spaced t h a t

SUMMARY

OF WELLS INVENTORY
OF

A-SOURCE

OF

OF

IRRIGATION

D-METHOD

PUMPING

NON-FLOWING
ARTESIAN

PHREATIC

DUG-DRILLED

DRILLED

WELLS

HAND-DUG

C-USE

QASSIM

WATER

FLOWING ARTESIAN

B-TTPE

IN THE

WATER

IRRIGA.t
DOMESTIC

DOMESTIC

OF PRODUCING

FLOWING

UNUSED

ABANDONED

WATER

HAND BUCKET

UNUSED

FIGURE

II

34.

mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e i s enough t o l i m i t d a i l y pumping hours.

P e r m e a b i l i t i e s vary from low f o r f i n e - g r a i n e d cemented
sediments t o very h i g h f o r coarse granular m a t e r i a l s .
Long-term y i e l d s from t h i s zone are dependant on r e p l e n i s h ment from r a i n f a l l , from surface r u n - o f f , l o c a l l y from
lower a q u i f e r s by leakage where small f a u l t s e x i s t or the
shale 3.ayer i s not a b s o l u t e l y impermeable, and from r e t u r n
flow from i r r i g a t i o n .
Water w i t h i n t h i s zone e x h i b i t s great v a r i a t i o n s i n
q u a l i t y . The v a r i a t i o n s are r e l a t e d t o the presence o f
evaporites i n s u r f i c i a l a l l u v i u m and p h r e a t i c zones o f
deeperiaquifers and the l o c a l i z e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s a l t s
t h a t accumulate i n topographic depressions.
Water w i t h i n s u r f i c i a l a l l u v i u m and p h r e a t i c zones o f
the J i l h , Khuff, Tabuk and Saq formations commonly c o n t a i n
t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s a l t s (TDS) t h a t range i n concentration
from 1000 t o over 6000 ppm ( F i g . 1 3 ) . Waters are dominantly
sodium c h l o r i d e i n character although sodium-sulphate waters
are not uncommon. Calcium occurs as a secondary c a t i o n ,
u s u a l l y i n concentrations l e s s than 50% o f sodium concentrat i o n s ; magnesium occurs as a minor c o n s t i t u e n t and r a r e l y
exceeds 40 ppm except i n the more s a l i n e waters. (Table %
Appendix S ) .
Bicarbonate occurs as a minor anion i n concentrations
t h a t range from 100 t o 200 ppm but always as a small p o r t i o n
of the. t o t a l anions. I n t h i s respect Phreatic waters are
s i m i l a r t o t h e deeper a r t e s i a n waters which also contain .
bicarbonate i o n w i t h i n t h i s range. N i t r a t e (NO^) ions are
common, b u t u s u a l l y i n concentration less than 40 ppm.
Some l o c a l changes i n the chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
phreat^c waters have undoubtedly occurred since the i n i t i a l

10,000

8
'6

o jr
o'
Jo
r

1000
B
6

Si
/ 't

/
100
IO0
ELECTRICAL

4
CONDUCTIVITY

1,000

MICROMHOS/CM

4
6

(ECxIO )

10,000

AT. 2 5 C

TOTAL DISSOLVED SALTS IN GROUNDWATER OF THE

QASSIM AS RELATED TO ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

FIGURE I 3

35

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f deep w e l l s and t h e i r use f o r i r r i g a t i o n

began. Unfortunately, the p r i o r chemical character o f
water i s unrecorded. Local residents commonly r e p o r t t h a t
changes, u s u a l l y s a l i n i t y increases, have occurred i n many
o f the shallow dug w e l l s , hut such r e p o r t s are l a r g e l y
c o n j e c t u r a l . They do not d i s t i n g u i s h between n a t u r a l
seasonal changes and those r e s u l t i n g from any c o n s t a n t l y
i n c r e a s i n g concentration o f s a l t s from i r r i g a t i o n waters.
However, i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t occasional f l o o d flows
from Wadi Ar Rma may a f f e c t p h r e a t i c water q u a l i t y i n the
reach o f the Wadi between the v i l l a g e o f Riyadh al-Khabra
on the west and the town o f Braydah. Flood f l o w from other
smaller wadis probably could also a f f e c t water q u a l i t y
seasonally, but such e f f e c t s would be l o c a l i z e d and o f
l i t t l e consequence.
h.3 Deep a q u i f e r s
Future development and expansion o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n the
Qassim i s e n t i r e l y dependant on these deep water a q u i f e r s .
This i s due t o t h e i r f a r l a r g e r c a p a c i t y of b e t t e r q u a l i t y
water. I n f a c t i t i s the discovery o f these a q u i f e r s which
makes the Q a s s i m the most promising region f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
expansion and development i n the whole o f Saudi A r a b i a . A
l a r g e area o f v i r g i n lands could be brought under c u l t i v a t i o n
on c o r r e c t and modern bases o f i r r i g a t i o n and c u l t i v a t i o n
p r a c t i c e s . Experiences are provided from d i f f i c u l t i e s which .
have r e s u l t e d i n a severe s o i l water logging and s a l i n i t y ,
a s i t u a t i o n which needs a great e f f o r t f o r s o i l a m e l i o r a t i o n
practices.
However, d r i l l i n g t e s t s through the whole o f the
sedimentary formation t o the basement complex have proved
t h a t the sedimentary s e c t i o n o f the Qassim*s geologic
formations contain f o u r i d e n t i c a l and separate water a q u i f e r s .

36.

They are J i l h , Khuff, Tabuk, and Saq aqsuifers ( F i g . 1 2 ) .

W i t h i n the Tabuk sector three separate sub-aquifers were
encountered and c l a s s i f i e d as Upper Tabuk, Middle Tabuk,
and Lower Tabuk.
k.k J i l h A q u i f e r
I n the Qassim t h i s T r i a s s i c f o r m a t i o n (Pig.12) i s
exposed only i n the north-east sector and has a few known
d r i l l e d w e l l s . No a q u i f e r t e s t s were conducted on w e l l s
s u b t r a c t i n g the J i l h ' s water.
E l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y measurements o f the a q u i f e r ' s
water i n d i c a t e t h a t the p h r e a t i c zone o f t h e J i l h contains
h i g h l y m i n e r a l i z e d water. This high s a l i n i t y i s r e l a t e d t o
the occurrence o f subordinate evaporites o f the limestone
components w i t h i n the t h i n shale u n i t s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e
the f o r m a t i o n , and i s probably t y p i c a l o f waters confined
within?deeper permeable zones o f t h e f o r m a t i o n t h a t extend
eastward beneath younger sediments. I n any case, the J i l h
i s not considered a; productive a q u i f e r because o f t h e low
permeability o f i t s formations. I t s significance i s that i t
contains poor q u a l i t y water which could degrade other waters
i f i n t e r c o u n t e r e d w i t h deeper a q u i f e r s by improper w e l l
construction.
4.5 Khuff a q u i f e r
Shallow d r i l l e d w e l l s ( l e s s than several hundred metres
i n depth) and many dug w e l l s i n t h e area n o r t h o f the town
of Braydah derive water from t h i s a q u i f e r . The Snuff
a q u i f e r ' s f o r m a t i o n i s predominantly a limestone f o r m a t i o n
w i t h gypsum and gypsiferous beds which would contain a
h i g h l y mineralized water. Nevertheless two w e l l s t e s t e d i n
Braydah proved the water t o be much f r e s h e r than i t was
a n t i c i p a t e d , and i t i s suggested t h a t t h e Khuff may n o t
c o n t r i b u t e any p a r t o f t h e y i e l d o f these w e l l s a t t h e time

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37.

when t e s t s took p l a c e . Upward i n f i l t r a t i o n o f the Tahuk '

or even the Saq fcy minor f a u l t or by seepage from i n c o r r e c t
c a r r y i n g o f the adjacent w e l l s could present t h i s unusual
water freshness f o r such f o r m a t i o n .
Although t h e Khuff f o r m a t i o n i n t h e Qassim area i s
dominantly dolomite, limestone, and e v a p o r i t e s , p h y s i c a l
and chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f groundwater from the
confined permeable zones are i n many respects s i m i l a r t o
those o f the J i l h . Waters are h i g h l y m i n e r a l i z e d associated
w i t h methane gas, and g e n e r a l l y u n s u i t a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
use. These waters degrade other waters i f not i s o l a t e d d u r i n g
w e l l c o n s t r u c t i o n . The chemical a n a l y s i s and e l e c t r i c a l
c o n d u c t i v i t y measurements which are a v a i l a b l e i n d i c a t e t h a t
the Khuff a q u i f e r ' s water contains from 2000 t o over 5000
ppm TDS. Sodium cations and c h l o r i d e anions are g e n e r a l l y
dominant and secondary calcium-sulphate i o n s . (Table %
Appendix C ) .
it.6 Tabuk a q u i f e r
As shown on t h e geologic i l l u s t r a t i o n s the Tabuk outcrop
i s a r e a l l y extensive and the f o r m a t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y t h i c k .
There are three f a i r l y defined water-bearing beds i n the
Tabuk ( P i g . 1 2 ) . Pumping t e s t s conducted on t h e w e l l s d e r i v e
the Tabuk water show t h a t the c o e f f i c i e n t o f t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y
ranging from about 12 mVdm t o 1350 m^/drn. The lower extreme
was obtained from the middle a q u i f e r . Thus t h i s a q u i f e r i s
e x c e p t i o n a l l y t i g h t , and would n o t be a s a t i s f a c t o r y a q u i f e r
except f o r small domestic and stock use. The higher extreme
was obtained from t h e lower a q u i f e r . However, the average
c o e f f i c i e n t o f t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y f o r e i g h t t e s t s was found t o
be 185-m^/cln. The o n l y value o f the c o e f f i c i e n t o f storage
obtained was 2 . 5 x 10~^ which i s b e l i e v e d t o be t o o h i g h f o r
the f o r m a t i o n .

38

Water q u a l i t y and p r e s s u r e were s i m i l a r t o what had

been expected f o r the Saq sandstone a q u i f e r . T h i s suggests
that during geologic times there has "been leakage between
the lower Tabuk a q u i f e r and the upper Saq a q u i f e r , thus the
two producing zones may a c t a s a s i n g l e u n i t .
However, i t has not t e e n p o s s i b l e to recognize
s i g n i f i c a n t q u a l i t y v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n any of t h e t h r e e suba q u i f e r s a s i n d i c a t e d from the a v a i l a b l e chemical a n a l y s i s
d a t a . The Tabuk waters contain p r i m a r i l y sodium-chloride
water although some w e l l s p e n e t r a t i n g the Tabuk formation
o c c a s i o n a l l y y i e l d sodium or calcium sulphate w a t e r s . The
mineral content v a r i e s from 500 t o over 2000 ppm TDS;
however, the higher m i n e r a l i z e d water samples analyzed a r e
probably i n d i c a t i v e of improper w e l l c o n s t r u c t i o n which has
permitted the mixing of h i g h l y m i n e r a l i z e d waters from t h e
o v e r l y i n g Khuff a q u i f e r . TDS contained i n Tabuk a q u i f e r s
water e a s t of the outcrop area i n the c e n t r a l p a r t of the
Qassim probably do not exceed 1200 ppm, ( T a b l e ) . Appendix C ) .
Although water w i t h i n Tabuk a q u i f e r s i n the c e n t r a l p a r t
of the*region may be g e n e r a l l y c l a s s i f i e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
use, l i t t l e q u a n t i t a t i v e water q u a l i t y information i s
a v a i l a b l e on Tabuk's water elsewhere i n t h e r e g i o n . Water
s t u d i e s on other deep a q u i f e r s a t A r Riyadh c i t y g e n e r a l l y
i n d i c a t e d p r o g r e s s i v e s a l i n i t y i n c r e a s e s as groundwater
migrates toward a discharge a r e a . A s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n
probably e x i s t s i n the Tabuk*s water.
k.7 Saq a q u i f e r
The Saq i s the most e x t e n s i v e a q u i f e r underlying t h e
whole of the Qassim. I t i s probably the most p r o l i f i c
a q u i f e r ( p l a t e x x v i i ) and, i n p l a c e s contains t h e best
q u a l i t y water. I f the high head on t h i s a q u i f e r i s not
d i s s i p a t e d by e x c e s s i v e waste o f water from flowing w e l l s ,
i t should be of importance f o r generations t o come.

P l a t e N o . x x v i i . The h i g h - h e a d o f t h e f l o w i n g
a r t e s i a n w a t e r o f Saq. a q u i f e r , t h e deep
w e l l o f At Tannumah v i l l a g e i n a l - A s y a h .

39.

Most of the w e l l s which penetrate

the Sag i n the

are a l s o open through a t l e a s t p a r t of the Tabuk.

region

Four w e l l

t e s t s gave an average c o e f f i c i e n t of t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y of
500 w^/dm w i t h a s i n g l e value of storage
x 10~\

One

2.5

c o e f f i c i e n t of

t e s t gave a value of "T" of about 2 5 0 0 , which

i s e x c e p t i o n a l and probably too l a r g e .

The w e l l has a high

s p e c i f i c c a p a c i t y and may show a high degree of response to

barometric change.
A flow t e s t of the f u l l t h i c k n e s s of the Saq i n the
Qassim i n d i c a t e s that i t i s a very good a q u i f e r w i t h "T"
1^30 m^/dm. However, the w e l l s i n the r e g i o n have an
average of about 1000 m^/dm* ( P i g l 4 ) .
Saq's waters c o n t a i n p r i m a r i l y sodium-chloride water
although some w e l l s p e n e t r a t i n g

the Saq o c c a s i o n a l l y y i e l d

sodium or calcium sulphate w a t e r s .

Waters appear to be

somewhat l e s s m i n e r a l i z e d and more uniform i n chemical

c h a r a c t e r than those i n Tabuk a q u i f e r s (Table Appendix C ) .
TDS g e n e r a l l y range from 600 to 900 ppm i n the v i c i n i t y
the town of Braydah, however, sample concentrations
1000 ppm
k.8

of

exceeding

are not uncommon.

Aquifer

characteristics

Water i n an a q u i f e r moves from the recharge to the

discharge

a r e a , but at a r a t e that i s v e r y slow compared

to s u r f a c e water v e l o c i t i e s .

The d i r e c t i o n of the water

movement i n the Saq sandstone i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t of the

Qassim i s normal ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r ) to the p i e z o m e t r i c s u r f a c e
i n d i c a t i n g a discharge

area, probably d i r e c t discharge

of

the Saqi which d i r e c t l y u n d e r l i e s the wadi on i t s western p a r t

(Fig.15).

However, no underground water movement from west

to east has been proved due

to d i f f e r e n c e s i n e l e v a t i o n i n

the e a s t e r n p a r t and the western p a r t as f a r as the a q u i f e r s

are concerned.

, E F F E C T S OF WITHDRAWAL
OF WATER
SAO SANDSTONE - QASSIM REGION
0

UI4

UJ
UJR

O8

lOMeters.

100
Km.
Distance from centre of discharge

10

100

T = 1,000 m / d m
S = 2.5 x I0"
4

Q = 63,ILPS.(I,000GPM)

FIGURE 14

SURFACE
41

OUTCROP OF THE GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF THE AL OASS/M

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44

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ko

Changes i n the q u a n t i t y of water s t o r e d i n the a q u i f e r s

of the Qassim are r e f l e c t e d i n the changes i n piezometric
head and seasonal trends are c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d . Many w e l l
owners i n Braydah area t o l d of decreasing y i e l d s and
d e c l i n i n g heads. Most of the d r i l l e d w e l l s i n Braydah a r e a
tap the upper or middle a q u i f e r s of the Tabuk; some tap the
lowermost sandstone. Some w e l l s i n t h i s area produce Saq
water.
A n a l y s i s of the meagre a v a i l a b l e data i n d i c a t e s t h a t
the Tabuk piezometric s u r f a c e w i l l continue to d e c l i n e f o r
some time a t a r a t e of two metres per year, but decreasing
s l i g h t l y i n f u t u r e y e a r s . Data f o r a r t e s i a n w e l l s penet r a t i n g the Khuff and J i l h formations are very sparse,
p r i n c i p a l l y because these formations do not g e n e r a l l y y i e l d
i r r i g a t i o n s u p p l i e s nor do they occur at an e x t e n s i v e a r e a
of the., r e g i o n .
Records of water l e v e l changes i n the Saq sandstone are
not a v a i l a b l e . Although more than 20 w e l l s have been d r i l l e d
during the past ten years i n t o the Saq i n Ad Dughmaniyat area,
and a number of Saq w e l l s d r i l l e d i n Braydah a r e a , there are
no e a r l y records of shut i n heads. Records of the M i n i s t r y
of A g r i c u l t u r e and Water's new high-head w e l l s i n al-Asyah
a r e a are too short to permit e x t r a p o l a t i o n of p r e s s u r e i n t o
the f u t u r e , based only on the p e r i o d i c observations.
The Saq u n d e r l i e s some of 2 0 , 0 0 0 sq.km. of the Qassim
a r e a between the v i l l a g e of Qusaiba on the north and the
v i l l a g e of al-Murabba'a on the south, and between the
western edge of the outcrop b e l t to the l i n e of high pressure
w e l l s on the east (al-Asyah a r e a ) .
P r e l i m i n a r y computations show that the quantity of water
stored i n the Saq a q u i f e r would be s u f f i c i e n t to flood the
l a n d above i t to an average depth of 50 m. S i m i l a r computa-

41.

t i o n s f o r the Tabuk formation which o v e r l i e s the Sag. show

q u a n t i t i e s i n the same order of magnitude s t o r e d i n t h a t
formation. Most of the Saq sandstone i s confined. Thus
w i t h i n t h i s area the amount t h a t may "be obtained from
storage i s the product of the average d e c l i n e i n head, the
a r e a over which t h i s average d e c l i n e takes p l a c e , and the
c o e f f i c i e n t of s t o r a g e . Assuming then t h a t the average
p e r m i s s i b l e d e c l i n e i n head i s about 50 m., the amount t h a t
can be developed from the a r t e s i a n p a r t o f the Saq w i l l be
about 1.75 x 10 cubic metres. S i m i l a r q u a n t i t i e s w i l l be
a v a i l a b l e as leakage from the interbedded f i n e r - g r a i n e d
beds and from the l e s s permeable c o n f i n i n g beds.
k.9 Water U t i l i z a t i o n
The shallow groundwater of the Qassim has been u t i l i z e d
throughout h i s t o r i c times f o r r u r a l and nomadic purposes, and
i t was the presence of such shallow groundwater which brought
about the a n c i e n t Palm Gardens as the t y p i c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l
p a t t e r n i n the r e g i o n f o r many c e n t u r i e s . I n i t i a l l y there
have been s c a t t e r e d s p r i n g s , e.g. al-Asyah Ash Sehmassiyah,
but the simple development was by i n f i l t r a t i o n g a l l e r i e s
(Dubul) and by hand dug w e l l s from which water was l i f t e d by
animal power and these s u f f i c e d to d r y up such weak s p r i n g s .
With the incoming of d i e s e l motors and c e n t r i f u g a l pumps
the p i c t u r e s t a r t e d to change. The amount of water which
could r e a d i l y be e x t r a c t e d exceeded the c a p a c i t y of the open
w e l l s and the amount s t o r e d i n the p h r e a t i c zone. More
groundwater was sought, mainly by d r i l l i n g i n the bottom of
e x i s t i n g hand dug w e l l s . These bores tapped confined
groundwater i n the Tabuk formation. I n some a r e a s , i t was
under s u f f i c i e n t head to flow up the bore and i n t o the dug
w e l l from which i t was e x t r a c t e d , w i t h the shallow groundwater.
I n other areas the Tabuk water flowed d i r e c t l y onto the
s u r f a c e ; i n such cases the o r i g i n a l shallow groundwater was

42

l e f t i n the w e l l . I n t h i s way, a g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d amount

of groundwater was brought i n t o the a r e a , but no steps were
taken to keep i t under c o n t r o l .
I n c r e a s e d pumping made i t p o s s i b l e to i r r i g a t e more land,
but the e x i s t i n g dug w e l l s ( s i t e d a t low e l e v a t i o n ) d i d not
u s u a l l y command s u f f i c i e n t a d d i t i o n a l n o n - s a l i n e l a n d . As a
consequence e x c e s s i v e i n f i l t r a t i o n below the root zone
i n c r e a s e d and l e d to a r i s i n g water t a b l e . The s i z e of water
l e v e l has a l s o been contributed to by more water poured i n t o
unlined i r r i g a t i o n canals and pools on porous s o i l s which
i n f i l t r a t e d r a p i d l y and by the a d d i t i o n of confined water
which f i l l e d dug w e l l s and which has l e t the dug w e l l s a c t
as a recharge point for the shallow groundwater zone.
Too
often, however, the deep bores were l o c a t e d a t or near the
s i t e s of the o r i g i n a l open dug w e l l s and the intermediate
medium depth boreholes. So, i n t o these l i m i t e d areas w i t h
l i t t l e or no n a t u r a l drainage or mechanism f o r s a l t d i s p o s a l ,
a d d i t i o n a l water wa6 brought to make a bad s i t u a t i o n s t i l l
worse.
The r i s e of groundwater l e v e l a l s o i n t e n s i f i e d the bad
e f f e c t s on s u r f a c e r u n - o f f .
I n the p a s t , there was space i n
the shallow a q u i f e r s to s t o r e as much s u r f a c e r u n - o f f as
could i n f i l t r a t e , so that the e f f e c t s of floods became more
n o t i c e a b l e a t the time of the c r i s i s , and pools of s u r f a c e
water began to accumulate i n areas where before they r e a d i l y
infiltrated.
The ma3or f a c t o r of c r e a t i n g the r i s i n g of water l e v e l
a t the time of c r i s i s was undoubtedly the u n c o n t r o l l e d
flowing w e l l s as most of t h i s type of w e l l were without
v a l v e s to c l o s e the bore when water was not needed. Hon
flowing a r t e s i a n boreholes present a much l e s s e r danger i n
t h i s r e s p e c t , s i n c e the pumping c o s t s r e s t r i c t pumping to

43

the range needed. However, e x t r a c t i o n from a q u i f e r s i s

c e r t a i n to decrease the p r e s s u r e of the water i n the a q u i f e r s .
I n the f u t u r e , a l l w e l l s i n Qassim w i l l probably have to be
pumped. At that time the drought of water from the deeper
a q u i f e r s would be questionable from the standpoint of c o s t .
However, the M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and Water has
managed so f a r w i t h the help of many c o n s u l t a n t s , to reduce
the water l e v e l below the danger l i n e . T h i s was achieved
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the Braydah area by v a r i o u s methods, the
more c o s t l y one was k i l l i n g the w e l l s which had been
suspected of having leakages and d e f e c t s throughout i t s
boreholes. However, i t i s i n the w r i t e r ' s opinion t h a t the
M i n i s t r y should e s t a b l i s h a sound water p o l i c y , which would
be more s u c c e s s f u l i f the new p o l i c y was based on the
f o l l o w i n g s t e p s . F i r s t l y , a complete r e v i s i o n of i t s water
d i v i s i o n s t a f f i n g and management and designation of broad
s c a l e p l a n to meet e f f i c i e n t l y i t s t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l
requirements and equipment, and, secondly, i s s u i n g the
proposed n a t i o n a l code f o r water conservation, which
n e c e s s a r i l y must c o n t a i n the s p e c i f i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r
d r i l l i n g and w e l l c o n s t r u c t i o n . A design which should cover
every p a r t i c u l a r case based on the geologic, h y d r o l o g i c a l ,
economic and s o c i a l f i n d i n g s and c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , which must
be c a r e f u l l y and c o r r e c t l y geared to each other i n order to
avoid c o n t r a d i c t i o n s which might emerge when the code i s
a p p l i e d or put i n t o p r a c t i c e i n an i n d i v i d u a l case i n a
p a r t i c u l a r area or r e g i o n throughout the kingdom. I f such
steps were taken, then the Qassim would be one of the most
b e n e f i t e d regions i n Saudi Arabia from such a p o l i c y and
g a i n the complete reward from t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t source of
w e a l t h and p r o s p e r i t y .
I t i s evident t h a t the deeper a q u i f e r s p a r t i c u l a r l y the
Tabuk and Saq should maintain t h e i r r o l e of r e l i a b l e water

sources to the maximum a g r i c u l t u r a l land c a p a c i t y for

generations to come. T h i s might he a f f e c t e d only "by
pumping cost a f t e r flowing ceased, so i t i s v i t a l f o r any
long-term a g r i c u l t u r a l development p l a n t h a t a d e t a i l e d
pumping cost study on the deeper a q u i f e r s should he designed
and worked out as soon as p o s s i b l e . Another a l t e r n a t i v e
f o r covering pumping cost could be found i n p u t t i n g up the
product p r i c e , but t h i s i s u n r e l i a b l e and l a r g e l y governed
by marketing c o n d i t i o n s .

References
1

Abul-Haggag, Y.

Remarks on the A r t e s i a n Water o f

Na.jd. Saudi A r a b i a
B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e de
Geographie D'Egypte, C a i r o
Tome XXXVII, 1 9 6 4 .

2.

ARAMGO

Water P o s s i b i l i t i e s a t Anasrzah
and Buraidah
Unpublished mimeograph submitted
to t h e M i n i s t r y of Water and
A g r i c u l t u r e i n May, 1 9 5 8 .

ARAMGO

P r o p e r t i e s and C r i t e r i a of Arabian
Ground Water
Unpublished mimeograph t r a n s " mitted t o the M i n i s t r y of
A g r i c u l t u r e i n August, 1 9 6 1
under the number: SAG 4 1 - 6 1 .

4.

D r o u l i n , G.

Future prospects f o r HydroA g r i c u l t u r a l Development. Saudi

Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA report
No. 1 6 3 8 .
F.A.O. Rome, 1 9 6 3 .

5.

Burdon, D. J ,

Water Development i n Saudi Arabia

Typed p u b l i c a t i o n .
F.A.O.- Rome, 1 9 6 3 .

6.

Burdon, D. J .

Groundwater P o l i c y f o r Saudi
Arabia; A Suggested O u t l i n e
Unpublished mimeograph,
Department of Water Resources
Development, M i n i s t r y of Water
and A g r i c u l t u r e , A r Riyadh, 1 9 6 0 .

7.

Burmingham, C. W.

L a n d and Water R e s o u r c e s . S a u d i
Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n ,
F.A.O. Rome, 1 9 5 2 .

8.

P.A.O.

H y d r o - A g r i c u l t u r a l Development
Progress. Saudi Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n ,
Rome 1 9 6 7 .

9.

Hydrology S t a f f

B u l l e t i n of Hydrological
Information^ Saudi Arabia
S e r i e s No: 1-11, 1966-67,
M i n i s t r y o f Water and A g r i c u l t u r e
(ARABIC)

10.

K h a t i b , A...

Water R e s o u r c e s and A g r i c u l t u r a l
Development P l a n n i n g
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , F T r e p o r t
No: Sau/FT/2
F.A.O. Rome 1 9 6 5 .

11.

Noory,

A t r i p t o t h e Q a s s i m (N.W. and W.)

o f B r a y d a h . and A s S i r r a r e a f o r
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of Wells S i t e s and
general study of water conditions
U n p u b l i s h e d mimeograph,
Department o f W a t e r R e s o u r c e s
Development, M i n i s t r y o f W a t e r
and A g r i c u l t u r e , A r R i y a d h ,
1963 (ARABIC)

12.

Noory, M.

A t r i p t o t h e Q a s s i m ( A s y a h and
v i c i n i t y areas; for investigations
o f w e l l s s i t e s and g e n e r a l s t u d y
of water c o n d i t i o n s
U n p u b l i s h e d mimeograph,
Department o f Water R e s o u r c e s
Development, M i n i s t r y o f Water
and A g r i c u l t u r e , A r R i y a d h ,
1962 ( A R A B I C )

13.

Ozkam, A. and
A l - B a d o r i , M.

Water problem i n Braydah. the

.Qassim
Unpublished mimeograph,
Department of Water Resources
Development, M i n i s t r y of Water
and A g r i c u l t u r e , Ar Riyadh,
1964 (ARABIC).

14.

Raiks & Partners

Intermediate' report on s u r f a c e
hydrology of Qassim. Jawf.
Sakakah. and Wadi Sirham. Saudi
Arabia
P a r s o n s - B a s i l Consultants,
M i n i s t r y of Water and A g r i c u l t u r e ,
Ar Riyadh, August, 1966.

15.

Parsons-Basil

An emergency area report f o r the

Qassim. Wadi As Sirham. a l Jawf
and Sakakah
Water and A g r i c u l t u r a l Development S t u d i e s , M i n i s t r y of Water
and A g r i c u l t u r e , Ar Riyadh,
September, 1966.

16.

Trewartha, G. T.

An i n t r o d u c t i o n to c l i m a t e
Pages 2 3 3 - 6 and 381-3.
New York, 1954.

17.

T w i t c h e l l , K. S

Water Resources of Saudi Arabia

The American Geographical
Review, 1 9 4 4 , Vol .XXXIV.

PART I I I

THE SOILS

k6.

Chapter $

N a t u r a l Vegetation and
S o i l Formation

5,-1

N a t u r a l Vegetation
I n the Qassim, the d i f f e r e n c e s i n e l e v a t i o n are not
s i g n i f i c a n t , the exposure does not seem t o he important,
and annual r a i n f a l l r a r e l y exceeds 50 mm. T h i s l e a v e s the
s o i l formations as the major primary e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r that
a f f e c t s the amount, kind, and vigour o f the v e g e t a t i o n cover.
The wadis and deep sands provide the best v e g e t a t i o n coyer
due l a r g e l y t o accumulated moisture allowed by the
s t r u c t u r a l nature o f the two. The g r a v e l formations,
d u r i c r u s t , rock areas and s a l i n e s o i l s a r e g e n e r a l l y l e a s t
productive. At the present time there i s a g e n e r a l r a p i d
d e p l e t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n cover i n t h i s
g r a z i n g , d e s t r u c t i v e c u t t i n g and root
gatherers and attempts a t d r y farming
most p o t e n t i a l v e g e t a t i o n .
A complete s y s t e m a t i c c o l l e c t i o n
(a
x

r e g i o n , due to over
c o l l e c t i n g by f u e l
on those s i t e s w i t h
o f p l a n t s has been

)
1

made by Standing
f o r the M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e during
the p e r i o d 1 s t January to e a r l y A p r i l , 1967 (Appendix D ) .
F i f t y - t h r e e v e g e t a t i v e s p e c i e s were recognized and i d e n t i f i e d
i n the region, f i v e s p e c i e s o f g r a s s e s and eight shrubs of
decreaser types, 7 s p e c i e s o f g r a s s e s and twenty-five shrub
s p e c i e s a r e of i n c r e a s e r type. There a r e 10 d i f f e r e n t
s p e c i e s of invading p e r e n n i a l s and, of the prominent annuals
8 g r a s s B p e c i e s and 10 forb s p e c i e s . The v e g e t a t i o n i n the
region can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o three c a t e g o r i e s i n terms of
Arnold R. Standing, American range s p e c i a l i s t , coauthor of "Range p l a n t handbook" and many o t h e r s .

47.

d e n s i t y and q u a l i t y ; the wadi a r e a s , deep sand dune a r e a s ,

and the d e s e r t p l a i n and limestone outcrop a r e a s .
The wadis a r e the most favourable v e g e t a t i v e h a b i t a t s
w i t h r u n - o f f water b r i n g i n g s i l t and n u t r i e n t s along w i t h
the a d d i t i o n a l moisture. The shrubs and g r a s s e s form more
v e g e t a t i v e cover than on surrounding uplands. I n the wadi
Ar Rma, f o r example, the major forage p l a n t s were s p e c i e s
of Salazoh, A r t e m i s i a . A r t i p l e x and many other d e c r e a s e r s .
I n the wadis, annuals are abundant i n the wet season.
Some o f the wadis are s a l t y ( p l a t e x x v i i i ) i n which case
Haloxylon a r t i e u l a t u m (Nitum), Haloxylon perisum (Ghadha)
and Haloxylon s a i l c o m i c u r n (Rimth) ( i n c r e a s e r s ) are the
most common s p e c i e s . They a l s o r e c u r on s a l t y s i t e s i n the
sandy areas and normally a r e not e x t e n s i v e l y grazed.
Concentration of forage s u p p l i e s i n the wadis as a
r e s u l t of r u n - o f f water, o f f e r many o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r range
improvement. The major forage i s from shrubs which w i l l
maintain forage through the dry season. S o i l moisture i n
the wadis i s favourable and re-seeding may be s u c c e s s f u l
i f c a r e i s taken to seed on wet s o i l and to give the s e e d l i n g s
a chance o f s u r v i v a l by p r o t e c t i n g them from g r a z i n g f o r a t
l e a s t a y e a r . However, t r i a l s should be taken to determine
the f e a s i b i l i t y of seeding the b e s t areas i n the wadis.
Suggested i n t r o d u c t o r y s p e c i e s i n c l u d e C i l a r i a . E r a g r o s t i s .
Suporba. and K o c h i s i n d i c a s p e c i e s . S e v e r a l o f the n a t i v e
shrubs l i k e A t r i p l e x and Salsoba s p e c i e s should be t r i e d .
The p r i n c i p a l v e g e t a t i o n o f areas of deep sand i s
Panicum turgidum (Thamam) a decreaser grass Following t h e
r a i n s , v a s t green carpets of annual g r a s s e s and herbs cover
the sands. The common shrubs a r e Callignum (Ant) ( p l a t e
x x i x ) , A r t e m i s i a ( A d h i r ) ( I n c r e a s e r t y p e s ) and others which
are a l l grazed e x t e n s i v e l y . The sands have an extremely
h i g h i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y and a very low water-holding
c a p a c i t y . As much o f the r a i n comes i n h i g h i n t e n s i t y

If
Plate No.xxviii.
A s a l t y s i d e o f Wadi al-Midhuab
where a c o m b i n a t i o n o f G-hadha, Nitum and
Rimth a r e grown c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e n a t u r a l
vegetation of the s i t e .

P l a t e No.xxix. A view o f t h e A r t s h r u b s grown

on t h e sand dunes s o u t h o f t h e town o f
Braydah.

1+8.

storms, these two s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s prevent run-off

and promote deep p e n e t r a t i o n of water. Thus the sand
supports more vegetation than i s normally expected w i t h
such low average r a i n f a l l .
Desert p l a i n s and outcrops of limestones have p l a n t s
s c a t t e r e d i n the pockets where s o i l has accumulated. I f a
sand l a y e r covers the limestone, Rhantherium epapposum
( A r f a j ) ( p l a t e x x x ) , an i n c r e a s e r s p e c i e s , forms a dominant
cover and S t i p a t o r t i l l s (As Samma), a prominent annual
s p e c i e s i s a common a s s o c i a t e along w i t h many other annuals.
T h i s type i s found p r i n c i p a l l y i n most p a r t s of the r e g i o n
where escarpments and g r a v e l p l a i n s are found.
A s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e of the v e g e t a t i v e cover i n the region
i s the comparative abundance of p l a n t s 30 km. d i s t a n c e s from
the a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements i n the r e g i o n hut the s o i l i s
bare near them. T h i s i s due apparently to the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of l i v e s t o c k round these settlements where water i s a v a i l a b l e
f o r animals during dry p e r i o d s . T h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e s u l t s
i n f a r too much overgrazing, a c o n d i t i o n which, i f continued,
would deprive the surrounding v i l l a g e s of v e g e t a t i o n cover.
More w e l l s away from the settlements w i l l spread the l i v e s t o c k more evenly and help to r e l i e v e l o c a l overgrazing.
However, i t i s evident t h a t a downward trend of p l a n t
s u c c e s s i o n i s i n r a p i d progress i n the region because
i n c r e a s e r s are r e p l a c i n g d e c r e a s e r s . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y
evident i n areas of l i v e s t o c k c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Unless d r a s t i c
steps are taken immediately to give v e g e t a t i o n s u b s t a n t i a l
r e l i e f from the heavy, unmanaged g r a z i n g the present
d e t e r i o r a t i o n would a c c e l e r a t e due to the f a c t t h a t as the
amount of p l a n t cover d e c l i n e s , the use of the r e s i d u a l
p l a n t s correspondingly i n c r e a s e s .
The e f f e c t of the v e g e t a t i o n s c a r c i t y i n the r e g i o n oh
the s o i l , i s v i t a l i n two r e s p e c t s ; i t determines the organic

P l a t e No.xxx. A v i e w o f A r f a j s h r u b s on a
d e s e r t p l a i n 1 km. a p p r o x i m a t e l y s o u t h
e a s t o f a l Mrabha a s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e
southern part of the region.

49.

matter d e f i c i e n c y which i s v e r y low indeed l y i n g i n the

range of 0.0\% - 0.08$ and i t f a c i l i t a t e s the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
of the s o i l "by e r o s i o n which r e s u l t s i n complete bareness
and rocky s u r f a c e s i n some a r e a s .
The d e t e r i o r a t i o n of the v e g e t a t i v e cover has a l s o made
an immense impact on the a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s as i t has
n e c e s s i t a t e d the occupation of comparatively l a r g e a r e a s of
the u n d e r - c u l t i v a t e d lands f o r a l f a l f a and other fodder crops
s p e c i a l l y f o r those "based on the v i l l a g e s and/or near the
villages
Strong management measures and competent s t a f f to c a r r y
them out would l e a d to the improvement of the s o i l i n terms
of p o t e n t i a l and c a p a b i l i t y and would d i m i n i s h the l a r g e
s i z e of a l f a l f a p r a c t i c e s as a p r o f i t a b l e crop f o r more
sound and economic p r a c t i c e i n long term a g r i c u l t u r a l
development.
5.2

The f a c t o r s of s o i l formation

S o i l formation and s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n any g i v e n

e c o l o g i c zone a r e the production of the i n t e r a c t i o n of f i v e
g e n e t i c f a c t o r s ; c l i m a t e , parent m a t e r i a l , r e l i e f , v e g e t a t i o n , and time.
I n the Qassim, the c l i m a t i c f a c t o r p l a y s a major r o l e
i n s o i l formation. The sharp c o n t r a s t of the d a i l y and
s e a s o n a l temperature d i f f e r e n c e s and the s c a r c i t y of r a i n f a l l have provoked the mechanical weathering process and,
on the c o n t r a r y , r a t h e r r e t a r d e d the chemical decomposition
of the parent m a t e r i a l and consequently caused a delay i n
the development of mature s o i l p r o f i l e s i n the r e g i o n a s a
whoTs. I n a d d i t i o n , these two elements of the c l i m a t i c
f a c t o r have determined the s c a r c i t y of the organic matter
content i n a l l s o i l s e r i e s i n the r e g i o n as a whole.
Moreover, the combination of s c a r c i t y , i r r e g u l a r i t y , and
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the r a i n f a l l have r e s u l t e d i n a r a t h e r

50

hazardous c l i m a t i c element from the s o i l b i o l o g i c a l p o i n t

of view. T h i s combination r u l e d out the f a c t t h a t the
s o i l remains moist f o r only a very short p a r t of the year
and, hence, i t s b i o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n each year' i s consequently
very l i m i t e d and short l i v e d .
The e f f e c t of parent m a t e r i a l on s o i l formation i s
r e f l e c t e d i n terms of t e x t u r e , m i n e r a l o g i c a l composition
and degree of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . These p r o p e r t i e s e x e r c i s e a
strong i n f l u e n c e on s o i l p r o f i l e development i n the r e g i o n .
Where the parent rock i s coarse grained with l a r g e quartz
c r y s t a l s (sandstone and g r a n i t e ) the weathered m a t e r i a l i s
g e n e r a l l y of sandy texture and where the weathered m a t e r i a l
i s derived from a f i n e grained rock (limestone and s h a l e )
a very compact dense s o i l develops. I t i s noted that where
the weathered m a t e r i a l s have been s u b j e c t e d to t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
by wadis floods or wind a c t i o n the s o i l develops a more
permeable s t r u c t u r e . T h i s i s apparently due to the f a c t
t h a t a mixing process of d i f f e r e n t types of weathered
m a t e r i a l i s involved. I t i s a f a c t t h a t s o i l - w a t e r c o r r e l a t i o n i s determined by the type of s o i l t e x t u r e . Small
v a r i a t i o n s i n texture w i t h i n the range of moderately f i n e /
f i n e have a sharp e f f e c t on farm drainage c a p a b i l i t y and
land s u r f a c e hydrology.
R e l i e f i n the Qassim i s of a simple p a t t e r n w i t h most
of the land i n a f l a t s u r f a c e d i s s e c t e d by the numerous
wadis, low r i d g e s , and c u e s t a s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of the
wadis i n the Qassim from the s o i l standpoint i s i n t h e i r
r o l e as a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n agent of. the s o i l cover round t h e i r
sources and along t h e i r f l o o d i n g l i m i t s where water e r o s i o n
i s a t i t s maximum. T h i s p r o c e s s r e t a r d s the development of
the s o i l p r o f i l e i n both l o c a l i t i e s . The huge sand dune
bodies surrounding and p e n e t r a t i n g the r e g i o n form an
a c t i v e topographic element to s o i l development i n the r e g i o n .

T h i s i s because the a e o l i o n e r o s i o n i s an a c t i v e phenomenon

and a s a r e s u l t some of the a r a b l e s o i l s a r e being reduced
i n extent under the creeping sand cover. T h i s cover i n
few cases develops t o dunes where encroachment i s on a
l a r g e s c a l e . Mostly, however, the cover i n t e r a c t s w i t h
the s o i l l a y e r s and forms a sandy l a y e r or l a y e r s i n the
profile.
Vegetative cover i n the Qassim, on the whole, i s not
a very r e l i a b l e guide t o s o i l changes throughout the r e g i o n .
That i s determined by the a r i d i t y conditions which p r e v a i l
throughout the r e g i o n and consequently l i m i t the scope of
the v e g e t a t i o n community t o s m a l l shrubs and some p e r e n n i a l
short g r a s s e s . However, the sparseness of the v e g e t a t i v e
cover has deepened the e f f e c t of water and a e l i o n erosions
i n the r e g i o n and enhanced sand dune movement. The e f f e c t
of the sparse and poor v e g e t a t i v e cover on s o i l development
i n the r e g i o n i s r e f l e c t e d i n the v e r y t h i n and r a t h e r s h o r t
root systems w i t h i n the s o i l p r o f i l e s . T h i s case, i n f a c t ,
does not exert a good and a m e l i o r a t i v e i n f l u e n c e on t h e
p r o f i l e development and root systems a r e considered one of
the important elements i n s o i l development. Moreover, t h i s
poor v e g e t a t i v e cover does not produce enough m a t e r i a l f o r
an e f f e c t i v e organic decomposition and consequently the
organic content i s l i m i t e d f a r below the u s u a l requirements
for s o i l maturity development.
Man's a c t i v i t i e s a r e the only source of non-genetic
i n f l u e n c e on s o i l formation.
The i n f l u e n c e of man's
a c t i v i t i e s on s o i l development i n the Qassim i s demonstrated
i n two c o n t r a s t i n g ways; the f i r s t i s a c o n s t r u c t e d way
achieved by employing a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s i n the. lands
which have been brought under c u l t i v a t i o n . These p r a c t i c e s
have modified the n a t u r a l order of the s o i l p r o f i l e i n a way

52

which has hastened s o i l improvement p r o c e s s e s , notably on

the b i o l o g i c a l s i d e where organic content and n i t r o g e n
f i x i n g process are i n d i c a t i n g a sharp improvement w i t h i n
the a g r i c u l t u r a l s o i l s of the r e g i o n . The second way i s
a d e s t r u c t i v e one of e x e r c i s i n g u n c o n t r o l l e d g r a z i n g and
shrub c o l l e c t i n g f o r f u e l i n g by the nomads who roam a l l
over the region. These p r a c t i c e s always were and are the
most hazardous f a c t o r s from the s o i l development standpoint
as they deprive such a r i d land from i t s most p r e c i o u s and
only cover and i n most cases l i m i t n a t u r a l regrowth of
the v e g e t a t i v e cover. T h i s l e a v e s the s u r f a c e s o i l uncovered
and exposed to the e r o s i o n agencies which i n f a c t i s the
most hazardous f a c t o r r e t a r d i n g s o i l development i n the
Qassim.

53

Chapter 6

Soil Classification

The s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Qassim i n d i c a t e t h a t ,

i n g e n e r a l , the s o i l s belong to the l i g h t coloured s o i l
group (Sierozem) of the a r i d zone. According t o the Kubiena
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , the Qassim s o i l s could be p l a c e d and
included i n the Yarma c l a s s of the T e r r e s t r i a l d i v i s i o n ( C ) .
The sierozem i n the Qassim i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h salonchak
i n the a l l u v i a l a r e a , and tends to be paraslerozem elsewhere.
G e n e r a l l y , the s o i l s a r e of a v a r i e d t e x t u r e but the s i l t y
or sandy p r o f i l e s a r e the order throughout the r e g i o n . T h i s
i s apparently due t o the slow weathering process of the
primary m i n e r a l s , a c a s e which i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c mechanical
phenomenon o f the s o i l s of some a r i d a r e a s . Within t h e
a l l u v i a l areas the lower h o r i z o n tends to be more c l a y e y
i n p r o f i l e . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e , however, has been explained by
many p e d o l o g i s t s a s a r e s u l t of more prolonged humidity i n
the deeper horizons and consequently t h e c l a y formation
would tend t o be q u i c k e r and more a c t i v e .
The system o f s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n adopted i n t h i s
t h e s i s i s based on p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e i r g e n e s i s .
Thus the d e c i s i v e f a c t o r s of t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e t h e
grouping o f r e g i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s and t h e i r s e r i e s d e f i n i t i o n s i based on the t e x t u r a l nature of the parent m a t e r i a l ,
on depth, and on d e t a i l s of s u r f a c e morphology.
Following these l i n e s , the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the s o i l s
of al-Qassim i s suggested and o u t l i n e d as a t e n t a t i v e order
i n the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e ;

5k.

Table 2.

S o i l G l a a s i f i c a t i o n Order

Category

Soils

Order

Zonal s o i l s
) .
Azonal s o i l s ) Sierozem

Sub-order

L i g h t coloured s o i l s

Zonal

(a)

- rough broken lands ( d u r i c r u s t

c o v e r ) and sand dune complex.

(b)

- S i l t y sand of a e o l i a n - a l l u v i a l
origin.

( c ) - Sandy, g r a v e l l y loam, sandy s i l t ,

and c l a y e y s i l t of a l l u v i a l colluvial origin.
( B a s i n and d e p r e s s i o n a s s o c i a t i o n )
(Qa'a)
( d ) - Weakly developed a e o l i a n - I n
s i t u formed loamy s i l t and
d e t r i t a l sandy loam and loamy
sand.
(Sahl a s s o c i a t i o n ) .
Azonal

(a)

- A l l u v i a l s o i l s of the v a l l e y s .
(Wadi a s s o c i a t i o n ) .

Because of the inadequate a v a i l a b l e information

n e c e s s a r y f o r a complete d i s c u s s i o n of the s o i l types i n
the Qassim, the d i s c u s s i o n w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be concentrated
on the t h r e e prominent s o i l groupings; the Wadi, the Qa a
( b a s i n s ) , and the S a h l a s s o c i a t i o n s as o u t l i n e d i n the
following t a b l e : -

55

Table 3.

S o i l Associations

Association
I . The Wadi A s s o c i a t i o n

I I . The Qa'a ( b a s i n )
Association

I I I . The S a h l ( d e s e r t
plain) Association

6.1

Series

Series
-

Wadi
Wadi
Wadi
Wadi
Wadi
Wadi
Wadi

sandy loam s e r i e s
s i l t loam s e r i e s
s i l t c l a y loam s e r i e s
loamy sand s e r i e s
s i l t clay series
sandy c l a y s e r i e s
sand s e r i e s

- Qa'a sandy loam s e r i e s

-Qa'a
sandy c l a y loam
series
- Qa'a s i l t y c l a y loam
series
- Qa'a loamy sand s e r i e s
-Qa'a
s i l t y clay series
- Qa'a s i l t loam s e r i e s
-

Sahl
Sahl
Sahl
Sahl

loamy sand s e r i e s
sandy loam s e r i e s
s i l t loam s e r i e s
sand s e r i e s

I . - The Y/adi A s s o c i a t i o n

The wadi a s s o c i a t i o n occupies a l l the v a l l e y s o f

al-Qassim ( F i g . 1 6 ) , and l a r g e l y the huge wadi of Ar Rma,
where adequate run-off can cause movement, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,
and d e p o s i t i o n of d i s i n t e g r a t e d m a t e r i a l s from the
surrounding highlands. Thus, the s o i l s of t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n
develop from a l l u v i a l parent m a t e r i a l s and they tend to be
of s t r a t i f i e d p r o f i l e s l i k e most water deposited parent
m a t e r i a l . T h i s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
outstanding d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p r o f i l e s
t e x t u r e and depth.
The a s s o c i a t i o n comprises, f o r the most p a r t , f i n e
t e x t u r e d s o i l s , where s i l t y loam and s i l t y c l a y loam a r e
the dominant composition. Sandy loam of a c o a r s e r t e x t u r e

GEOGRAPHICAL
4

DISTRIBUTION

OF

THE SOIL

i oo

ASSOCIATIONS

44

THE

QASSIM

OO

< a 7 oo

I|

*23

16 1 0

16 O O

is

ED

WAOI

04 4

ASSOCIATION
M O LAND

SCAPSS,LOW

10*

ASSOCIATION

0IDCS,OUI>ICflUSr

ETC.
IO

SANL

ASSOCIATION

S/M> W W S

COPlCX

uu.es
FIGURE

IS

56

i s a l s o a widespread f e a t u r e throughout the a s s o c i a t i o n ,

but the c o a r s e r textured s o i l s are confined to channel
deposits and c o n s i s t of coarse sands i n the channel streams,
w i t h l a r g e pebbles and s m a l l stones. Small i r r e g u l a r a r e a s
of very shallow f i n e textured s o i l s over bed rock were
observed a t the upper s e c t i o n s of the wadis and on a few
s m a l l spots of the d u r i c r u s t cover i n the northern p a r t
of the r e g i o n . A t r a n s i t i o n a l zone between the f i n e a l l u v i a l
s o i l s and the sandier s o i l s of the d e s e r t p l a i n s of the
S a h l a s s o c i a t i o n was recognized i n forms of s i l t b e l t s
deposited l a r g e l y by water and, to some extent,by wind
a c t i o n and occupying s m a l l areas of the p l a i n s ,
(a) Wadi sandy loam a e r i e s
The wadi sandy loam s e r i e s i s of a l i g h t brown to brown
colour and i t i s , i n most p a r t s , c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
s i l t y loam. The s e r i e s has deep p r o f i l e s composed l a r g e l y
of f i n e and very f i n d sandy loam w i t h a small s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of s i l t and sand. The p r o f i l e s t r u c t u r e of t h i s
s e r i e s ranges from granular i n some p r o f i l e s to a p l a t y
and massive i n o t h e r s . D r a i n a b i l i t y of the s e r i e s ranges
from good i n t e r n a l drainage i n some p a r t s to moderate and
moderately poor i n o t h e r s . The general c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
the i n t e r n a l drainage of the s e r i e s might be d e s c r i b e d as
a moderate i n t e r n a l drainage.
T h i s s e r i e s , l i k e most of
the other wadi s e r i e s , s u f f e r s much from wind e r o s i o n to
a l e s s e r e f f e c t from water e r o s i o n .
However, v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n the s e r i e s are demonstrated
c l e a r l y by the number, depth, and t e x t u r e of the a s s o c i a t e d
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s of sand and s i l t . Lenses and s t r a t a of
t h i n c l e a r f i n e s to very f i n e sand were observed i n many
exposures examined w i t h i n the l o c a l i t i e s of the s e r i e s .
Nonetheless, i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d that the s o i l s of t h i s s e r i e s

57

are capable of producing good y i e l d s of a wide v a r i e t y

of c l i m a t i c a l l y adapted crops.
A dune phase of the a e r i e s was recognized i n a r a t h e r
s m a l l a r e a , e s p e c i a l l y round the e x t r e m i t i e s of some of the
wadis which d r a i n i n the sand dunes and round the town of
Braydah. The dunes of the phase are made up of f i n e and
very f i n e sands, and the s o i l i n between composed of the
t y p i c a l smooth-lying f i n e sandy loam p r o f i l e s . C u l t i v a t i o n
i s c a r r i e d out on t h i s type of s o i l between the dunes
e s p e c i a l l y around the town of Braydah f o r many hundreds of
y e a r s where the dunes a r e s t a b i l i z e d by the p l a n t i n g of
Tamerisks ( A t h l ) . Some of these c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s represent
the o l d e s t a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements i n the region..
Another phase of t h i s s e r i e s i s represented by the
d i s s e c t e d type of s u r f a c e whose m i c r o - r e l i e f has been
modified by wind and/or water agencies. However, these
d i s s e c t i o n s were marked enough to r e q u i r e s p e c i a l land
l e v e l l i n g and p r e p a r a t i o n p r a c t i c e s . I t i s expected t h a t
by overcoming the l e v e l l i n g problem the s o i l of t h i s phase
should have the same c a p a b i l i t y of the o r d i n a r y f i n e sandy
loam s o i l s of the wadi a s s o c i a t i o n of the r e g i o n ,
( b ) Wadi s i l t loam s e r i e s
Wadi s i l t loam s e r i e s occupies l e v e l , smooth s i d e s of
the a s s o c i a t i o n l i m i t s . I t c o n s i s t s of a deep p r o f i l e
v a r y i n g i n colour from very p a l e brown, yellow brown, to
brown; some p r o f i l e s were found w i t h r e d d i s h yellow ^colour
domination. Moat of the s e r i e s p r o f i l e s have a minor
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of f i n e and very f i n e sand. G e n e r a l l y , the
s t r u c t u r e of t h i s type of s o i l i s a p l a t y s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n
the upper l a y e r of the p r o f i l e s . With i n c r e a s i n g depth
the s t r u c t u r e becomes an angular blocky to massive s t r u c t u r e
w i t h a hard to s o f t hard c h a r a c t e r when the s o i l i s dry,

58

moderately firm to firm c h a r a c t e r when the s o i l i s moist,

and weakly s t i c k y to s t i c k y c h a r a c t e r when the s o i l i s wet.
Some p r o f i l e s were found to he made up almost e n t i r e l y of
s i l t loam w i t h no apparent change i n colour or s t r u c t u r e .
I n t e r n a l drainage o f the s e r i e s i s almost moderate, i n
some cases i t i s found to he of a moderately poor and i n
other few cases i t i s found w i t h a moderate i n t e r n a l
drainability.
W i t h i n the l i m i t of Wadi Ar Rma most of t h i s s o i l i s
under c u l t i v a t i o n where i t produces a v a r i e t y of adapted
crops w i t h good and a p p r e c i a b l e y i e l d . A phase of t h i s
s e r i e s was recognized as dune phase. The s o i l s of t h i s
phase are of a t y p i c a l smooth-lying s i l t loam surrounded
by low to moderately h i g h sand dunes. Most of the s i l t
loam s o i l s of the dune phase i s concentrated i n the wadi
of Ar Rma, where many s m a l l and medium sand dunes p e n e t r a t e
the wadi b a s i n . Most of the s o i l of t h i s phase has been
brought under c u l t i v a t i o n , notably i n the s e c t o r surrounding
the town of Braydah. There, i t i s noted s i g n i f i c a n t l y that
the a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s are of small s i z e s and odd shapes,
a c h a r a c t e r which i s imposed by the d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n
of the surrounding sand dunes. Thus, s o i l development
s t u d i e s regarding t h i s phase need, i n f a c t , a s p e c i a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n to i r r i g a t i o n schemes and systems as i t i s
proved t h a t i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e on t h i s type of s o i l i s of
a considerable nuisance to farmers. I t i s because of t h i s
and the need for sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s that the s o i l s
of t h i s phase are of a l i m i t e d and marginal c a p a b i l i t y as
f a r as a g r i c u l t u r a l development i s concerned.
As anywhere w i t h i n the Qassim s o i l a s s o c i a t i o n s , the
a c t i v e a e o l i o n erosion, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s l i g h t water e r o s i o n ,
has brought about m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n the m i c r o - r e l i e f which
r e p r e s e n t s d i s s e c t e d phases. The d i s s e c t e d phase o f the

59.

wadi s i l t loam s e r i e s i s marked enough to j u s t i f y and r a i s e

the need f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e land p r e p a r a t i o n scheme. T h i s
need i s sharpened by the f a c t t h a t i t i s only the i r r i g a t e d
farming which can s u r v i v e i n the r e g i o n and the need i s
c r i t i c a l f o r e f f i c i e n t a r t i f i c i a l watering systems throughout the farms on the s o i l s of the phase. However, u t i l i z a t i o n of the s o i l s of the dune phase i s , i n f a c t , almost
e n t i r e l y dependant on the degree and extent of s o i l s u r f a c e
d i s s e c t i o n . Nonetheless, a l l a r e a s concerned could be
r e c l a i m e d but w i t h varying degrees of l e v e l l i n g and then
become of a good farming q u a l i t y ,
( o ) Wadi s i l t c l a y loam s e r i e s
I n the wadi a s s o c i a t i o n i n the Qassim, t h i s s e r i e s
stands i n the t h i r d p o s i t i o n a f t e r the sandy loam and s i l t
loam s e r i e s as f a r as a r e a l extension i s concerned.
The
dominant colour of t h i s s e r i e s i s p a l e brown w i t h a very
few occurrences of p a l e y e l l o w i s h white i n the lower l a y e r s
of some p r o f i l e s . The s o i l s of the s e r i e s are of a v a r y i n g
s t r u c t u r e , but on the whole they tend to be p l a t y a t the
upper l a y e r s , and i n c r e a s i n g l y massive w i t h depth w i t h a
s o f t - h a r d c h a r a c t e r . I n t e r n a l drainage, on the whole, i s
moderate i n most l o c a l i t i e s . Due t o the f a c t t h a t t h i s
s e r i e s , as w e l l as. the c l a y e y s e r i e s of the wadi a s s o c i a t i o n ,
l i e s mostly w i t h i n the middle and lower p o r t i o n s of the
wadis, i t has a l e v e l slope of s i l t f l a t s where a f t e r one
of the o c c a s i o n a l wadi floods the water stands f o r days and
p e r c o l a t e s s l o w l y through the s o i l . T h i s process has
introduced a much longer moisture d u r a t i o n f o r the s o i l
l a y e r s and consequently a c c e l e r a t e d the process of c l a y
formation. P e r m e a b i l i t y i s moderate i n almost a l l l o c a l i t i e s
of the s e r i e s . The e v a l u a t i o n of the s o i l s of t h i s s e r i e s
from the a g r i c u l t u r a l standpoint, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s s o i l
i s of a promising productive c a p a c i t y .

60

I n a d d i t i o n t o the common dune and dissected phases

of the wadi a s s o c i a t i o n , a shallow s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
phase was recognized i n a few l o c a l i t i e s o f t h i s series
e s p e c i a l l y near the wadi channel sources w i t h a m i c r o - r e l i e f
varying from smooth t o s l i g h t l y hummocky. I n t h i s phase the
p r o f i l e s are characterised by a top l a y e r o f 80-120 cm. o f
s i l t c l a y loam o v e r l y i n g a deep sand l a y e r . The a g r i c u l t u r a l
value o f such a phase i s l a r g e l y dependant on the depth o f
the s i l t y c l a y loam l a y e r . However, i t must he r e a l i z e d
t h a t the presence o f a sand l a y e r forms a very l i m i t i n g
character as f a r as watering p r a c t i c e i s concerned. Such
sand layers accelerate water p e r c o l a t i o n t o an excessive
extent which consequently causes great losses o f water. The
loss o f water i s too severe t o s u s t a i n crops under the l i m i t e d
and valuable water supply f o r i r r i g a t i o n i n the Qassim.
( d ) Wadi loamy sand series
A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p r o f i l e o f the series has demonstrated
t h a t t h i s s e r i e s i s o f a t e x t u r e which tends t o increase i n
sand p a r t i c l e s and decrease i n s i l t and c l a y p a r t i c l e s w i t h
increase o f depth. I n a t y p i c a l p r o f i l e the sand p a r t i c l e
percentage s t a r t e d a t the top layer w i t h 36% and reached 86%
at the sector between 120H50 cm. However, t h i s f a c t has
c o n t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y t o the existence o f a good i n t e r n a l
drainage c o n d i t i o n , which seems t o be the order i n most
l o c a l i t i e s of the s e r i e s .
Lime content, i s found w i t h i n the range o f 7 t o 8 per
cent, which i s a low content. I n f a c t , t h i s low content o f
lime seems t o be a common f e a t u r e o f most o f the s o i l s o f
the wadi a s s o c i a t i o n . S o i l s t r u c t u r e i s p l a t y w i t h i n the
upper layers and w i t h depth i t becomes f i n e granular. The
dominant colour f o r the series i s observed t o be w i t h i n
the hue range o f l i g h t brown t o brown. Most o f the l o c a l i t i e s

are of a subnormal r e l i e f and o f a n e a r l y l e v e l t o g e n t l y

undulating surface w i t h the water t a b l e always under 200 cm.
This dry character of a l l p r o f i l e s has hardened the normal
c o n d i t i o n f o r o r d i n a r y organism a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n the root
zone of p r o f i l e s . This hardship has a severe e f f e c t on
the mechanical and chemical complexes as f a r as s o i l
improvement and p r o f i l e development are concerned and i t
i s such f a c t o r s which l i m i t the productive capacity of the
s e r i e s , notably f o r i t s d i s t i n c t sandy phase which l a r g e l y
occurs adjacent t o the wadi channels or t r i b u t a r i e s where
the f l o o d sheet has been s u f f i c i e n t l y dense t o cause
washout of f i n e m a t e r i a l s . The phase i s also found l y i n g
adjacent t o areas o f dune accumulations where sand has
crept over the s o i l surface. However, t h i s phase i s most
prominent w i t h i n the l i m i t o f Wadi Ar Rma w i t h a land
surface of hummocky f e a t u r e s and w i t h few areas subjected
t o d i s s e c t i o n of water a c t i o n ,
( e ) Wadi s i l t c l a y s e r i e s
The s e r i e s occupies smaller areas than the previous wadi
s e r i e s , and i t i s found w i t h i n the lower l i m i t s of the wadis.
.The s e r i e s i s of a f i n e t o medium p l a t y s t r u c t u r e w i t h s o f t
t o very s o f t character throughout. Very pale brown colour
i s the colour of the s e r i e s , and i n some cases the very pale
brown colour tends t o change t o y e l l o w i s h brown i n the lower
l a y e r s . The i n t e r n a l drainage i s o f a poor t o medium
c o n d i t i o n , due t o the compact composition o f the heavier
t e x t u r e of t h i s s o i l . An improvement o f t h i s aspect i s
needed i n order t o b r i n g about the optimum s o i l p r o d u c t i v e
capacity. However, due t o the n e a r l y l e v e l t o l e v e l surface
o f the lands occupied by t h i s s e r i e s the drainage problem
can be r e a d i l y overcome i n contrast t o the dune and dissected
phases o f the s e r i e s . The dissected phase o f t h i s s e r i e s i s
not as dissected as prominently as i n the other series due

62.

t o the f a c t t h a t the s e r i e s occupies mostly the lower

p o r t i o n s o f the wadis where water r u n - o f f v e l o c i t y i s a t
i t s minimum.
The a g r i c u l t u r a l capacity o f t h i s series i s , i n f a c t ,
enhanced "by the presence o f i t s higher percentage of c l a y
minerals. The heavier t e x t u r e o f the series maintains a
higher s o i l mineral content as a r e s u l t o f scarce r a i n f a l l
and low leaching r a t e s .
( f ) Wadi sandy c l a y series
The sandy c l a y s e r i e s i s pale brown to. brown i n c o l o u r ;
i n few cases a p i n k colour was found a t the upper layers and
a g r e y i s h brown colour a t the lower layers of the p r o f i l e s .
The s t r u c t u r e tends t o be granular w i t h small v a r i a t i o n s o f
p l a t y and s l i g h t l y massive e s p e c i a l l y i n the lower l a y e r s .
Due t o the f a c t t h a t the water t a b l e i s deeper than 2m.,
a l l p r o f i l e s examined were found t o be dry. I n f a c t ,
dryness i s the common, c o n d i t i o n o f a l l p r o f i l e s , of a l l
s e r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y during summer time. A combination o f
s l i g h t wind and water erosion i s the erosion agent which
a f f e c t s the s o i l o f the s e r i e s . Land reclamation and farm
establishment on the s o i l o f t h i s series w i l l , o f course,
cure such s l i g h t erosion.
Most o f the s o i l s of the sandy c l a y s e r i e s have been
under c u l t i v a t i o n f o r many years and a wide range o f
c l i m a t i c a l l y adapted crops were observed w i t h vigorous
q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y .
(g) Wadi sand series
This series represents t h e coarser t e x t u r a l materials
w i t h i n the Wadi Association and i s mostly found i n the main
channels or a e o l i o n deposits, or adjacent t o the main sand
bodies which penetrate the s o i l s o f the a s s o c i a t i o n . I n
some areas occupied by the s e r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n the
wadi channels, a t h i n s t r a t a of s i l t i s found. I n such

63

cases aeolion materials c o n t r i b u t e t o the "basic a l l u v i a l c o l l u v i a l s o i l parent m a t e r i a l . However, where the

a l l u v i a l m a t e r i a l s dominate, f i n e r s o i l textures are found.
But the dominant m a t e r i a l i s coarse sand. Small patches
of f i n e t e x t u r e d s o i l s are found i n the channels of the
l a r g e r wadis. However, the main s t r u c t u r e of a l l p r o f i l e s
of the series i s of granular, an i l l - d e f i n e d , and i l l
s o r t e d nature. Consequently i n t e r n a l drainage i s excessive
t o very excessive. I n the very few c u l t i v a t e d lands of
the series i t was observed that, the q u a n t i t y of water needed
f o r normal i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s exceeds the normal average
f o r the s o i l s o f other series o f the a s s o c i a t i o n . However,
only a few small areas of the series have been "brought under
c u l t i v a t i o n and the question of the s o i l e v a l u a t i o n f o r t h i s
series i s not of a great consequence as f a r as s o i l development i s concerned.
6.2
I I . The Qa'a (BaBin) A s s o c i a t i o n
The Qa'a a s s o c i a t i o n occupies the numerous s c a t t e r e d
"basins and depressions i n the Qassim ( F i g . 1 6 ) , w i t h s o i l s
mostly developed from a l l u v i a l materials deposited "by the
wadis which d r a i n i n t o the "basins, and from c o l l u v i a l
m a t e r i a l s o f the lower outcropping ridges and/or scarps
which surround them. An exception t o t h i s occurs i n some
wide and exposed depressions where aeolion a c t i o n and
d e p o s i t i o n are r e l a t i v e l y a c t i v e . I n a d d i t i o n , the l a c k
of under-surface water w i t h i n the l i m i t o f 20 m. i s a
serious l i m i t i n g f a c t o r . However, i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o
note t h a t a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l areas w i t h i n the Qusaiba zone
i n the n o r t h of a l Qassim, where most of the a s s o c i a t i o n
s o i l s l i e , are confined t o the s o i l s o f t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n .
Future u t i l i t y of the a s s o c i a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n the
Qusaiba and a l Ayon areas, faces complex problems notably

6k.

i n r e l a t i o n t o road f a c i l i t i e s , water,and manpower,

( a ) Qa'a sandy loam s e r i e s
I n most cases, the sandy loam series occupies the smooth
f l a t f l o o r s o f the basins and depression o f the Qassim. The
s t r u c t u r e o f the s o i l s o f the series tends t o vary from
granular t o p l a t y w i t h a hard consistency when dry and f i r m
when moist. Gravel l a y e r s are common characters o f some
p r o f i l e s examined; the g r a v e l layer i s o f a shallow depth
(20 cm.^4-0 cm.) i n the p r o f i l e w i t h a thickness o f about 20
cm. I n some p r o f i l e s the g r a v e l l a y e r was found a t deeper
depths (1^0 cm.) and was t h i c k enough t o c o n s t i t u t e the
parent m a t e r i a l o f the p r o f i l e . This g r a v e l l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
i s , i n f a c t , the r e s u l t o f incomplete weathering o f t h e
c o l l u v i a l parent m a t e r i a l . However, i n cases where no g r a v e l
l a y e r i s found, stoniness throughout the p r o f i l e i s w e l l
preserved. Such a character might indeed i n t e r f e r e w i t h
p l a n t r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n and r e t a r d p l a n t v i g o u r and growth.
I n a d d i t i o n , these g r a v e l l a y e r s accelerate i n t e r n a l drainage
and water p e r c o l a t i o n . Surface slope v a r i e s from l e v e l t o
nearly l e v e l f o r most l o c a l i t i e s , b u t i n a few areas i t
tends t o be g e n t l y u n d u l a t i n g ; t h i s u n d u l a t i o n i s not sharp
enough t o serve as a basis f o r a separate phase o f the s e r i e s .
Moreover, i t has been observed i n a few places t h a t the
accumulation o f sands round the few sparse low shrubs has
caused the f o r m a t i o n o f mounds on the surface o f the s o i l .
This undoubtedly would c o n t r i b u t e t o d i f f i c u l t y o f s o i l
reclamation o f t h i s s e r i e s .
Colour i s a diverse character o f the s e r i e s , b u t , i n
general, the surface and upper layers are o f pale brown t o
brown, and g r e y i s h c o l o u r , w h i l s t the middle and lower
layers are o f reddish brown, yellow brown, reddish yellow
and g r e y i s h w h i t e . This v a r i a t i o n demonstrates the v a r i e t y
of parent m a t e r i a l s involved i n the f o r m a t i o n o f the s o i l .

65.

( b ) Qa^a. sandy clay loam

The surface l a y e r s of the s e r i e s are of a v a r y i n g
c o l o u r ; y e l l o w i s h brown, g r e y i s h brown, very pale brown
and reddish p i n k . I n most cases the top l a y e r s change i n
colour w i t h depth t o w h i t i s h grey, reddish brown, y e l l o w i s h
brown and pale brown. These v a r i a t i o n s are c l e a r l y the
r e s u l t of the i n t e r a c t i o n of the various o r i g i n s of the
three t e x t u r a l components of the s e r i e s ; sand g r a i n s , c l a y
minerals and s i l t p a r t i c l e s . The s o i l s t r u c t u r e of the
series i s p l a t y t o massive blocky w i t h a hard character
i n l o c a l i t i e s where the heavier t e x t u r e i s dominant; i n
others, i t ranges from moderately f r i a b l e t o f r i a b l e where
t e x t u r e i s less heavy. Where s t r u c t u r e i s massive blocky,
i t i s associated w i t h poor i n t e r n a l drainage conditions and
there e x i s t s a strong tendency f o r s i l t i n g up and the
formation of a badly aerated s o i l .
I n a few l o c a l i t i e s , a t h i n l a y e r of g r a v e l l y sand on
the surface was encountered. Gravel l a y e r s , however, are
not common and are only found i n a very few shallow p r o f i l e s .
I n some l o c a l i t i e s white gypsum c r y s t a l s and lime were
encountered at depths of approximately 90 cm. or below.
I n t e r n a l drainage v a r i e s according t o the nature of the
dominant t e x t u r a l element. Where the heavier and compact
t e x t u r e p r e v a i l s , the i n t e r n a l drainage tends t o be i m p e r f e c t ,
w h i l e i t tends t o be moderately'well t o w e l l drained where
the p r o p o r t i o n of granular and loose t e x t u r e i s h i g h .
The series occupies the f l a t f l o o r s of the basins and
depressions w i t h a surface of l e v e l t o n e a r l y l e v e l
c o n f i g u r a t i o n . A g r i c u l t u r a l l y , the s o i l seems t o be one
of the most e x t e n s i v e l y e x p l o i t e d s i t e s of the Qa* a associat i o n , notably round Qusaiba and a l Ayon settlements.
The
range of crops i s confined t o dates, cereals, a l f a l f a , and

66.
a l i m i t e d v a r i e t y o f vegetables. This i s because o f the
l a c k o f large enough markets nearby t o absorb a diverse
v a r i e t y o f crops, and the l a c k o f e f f i c i e n t accesses t o the
l a r g e r markets i n Braydah or Aunayzah.
( c ) Qa'a s i l t y clay loam series
This series has a deep s i l t y c l a y loam p r o f i l e w i t h
no gravel l a y e r s . S t r a t i f i c a t i o n s o f sandy clay were
observed i n some p r o f i l e s a t or below the depth o f 70 cm.
The s t r u c t u r e i s o f an angular blocky nature w i t h a hard,
s o f t hard, and moderately f r i a b l e character. This s t r u c t u r e
has r e s u l t e d i n poor s o i l a e r a t i o n and imperfect t o moderate
i n t e r n a l drainage capacity. Moreover, i n a few phases the
representative p r o f i l e contains r a t h e r t h i c k gypsum t r a c e s ,
but always a t a depth o f under 110 cm. A l l examined p r o f i l e s
were dry"and the water t a b l e i s c l e a r l y always below 2 m.
Future u t i l i t y o f t h i s s o i l depends l a r g e l y on s p e c i a l
considerations which should be paid t o the complex o f
problems, o f water, drainage improvement, and .road f a c i l i t i e s .
At the present time few s i t e s o f the series are under
cultivation.
( d ) Qa a loamy sand series
The dominant colour o f the series i s i n the range o f
brown; very pale brown and y e l l o w i s h brown colours were
o f t e n encountered a t the top l a y e r s , and these colours o f t e n
tend t o change w i t h depth t o dark brown colour.
S o i l s t r u c t u r e v a r i e s w i t h i n the range o f p l a t y i n the
top layers t o an angular type o f s t r u c t u r e w i t h a f r i a b l e
character. Gravel i s r a t h e r a dominant f e a t u r e o f t h e
p r o f i l e s ; i n some places sizeable gravel was found sorted
throughout the whole p r o f i l e , while i n others gravel was
confined t o the lower layers o f p r o f i l e s . T y p i c a l p r o f i l e s
of the series have shown i t s order on the f o l l o w i n g : 1

67.

0-90 cm.

Loamy sand
Loamy sand mixed w i t h abundant
90-120 cm.
gravel.
120-125 cm.
Loamy sand mixed w i t h heavy
traces and c r y s t a l s o f lime
Shale mixed w i t h g r a v e l .
125 cm.
Heavy gypsum l a y e r s were encountered i n a few p r o f i l e s , b u t
always a t or below the depth o f 110 cm.
A shallow phase o f the series was i d e n t i f i e d by
representative p r o f i l e s of a depth not exceeding 70 cm.
where t h e s o l i d rock marks the lower l i m i t o f the p r o f i l e s
examined. Loamy sand layers of t h i s phase were always i n
the range o f 50 cm. and o f t e n f o l l o w e d by a t h i n (20 cm.)
sandy c l a y l a y e r w i t h a blue c o l o u r . This shallow phase i s
confined t o the upper p a r t s o f t h e basins and depressions
w i t h a g e n t l y undulating surface and o f a sub-normal micror e l i e f ; hence, t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l value of such phase i s not
o f an economic importance.
Although i t has been observed t h a t some palm dates
gardening and p l a n t a t i o n occupy some o f the series l o c a l i t i e s ,
i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t f o r sound a g r i c u l t u r a l development
the series w i t h i t s sharp immaturity and dominant g r a v e l l y
character i s not o f a favourable c o n d i t i o n due t o i t s
excessive i n t e r n a l drainage and unfavourable c o n d i t i o n f o r
root penetration,
( e ) Qa a s i l t y c l a y series
This series occupies the middle, smooth f l a t f l o o r s o f
the basins and depressions w i t h deep p r o f i l e s o f mainly
clay texture of a l l u v i a l o r i g i n , w i t h a t h i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
(5-10 cm.) of sandy loam or loam i n t h e upper l a y e r s . The
s t r u c t u r e i s mainly p l a t y o massive blocky w i t h a very
hard, hard, s o f t hard, and moderately f r i a b l e character.
The nature of these s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s has consequently r e s u l t e d i n a poor i n t e r n a l drainage c o n d i t i o n f o r
;

68

almost a l l p r o f i l e s ; only a few p r o f i l e s were observed

w i t h moderate i n t e r n a l drainage. Moreover, i t i s a n t i c i ^
pated t h a t a p o o r l y aerated s o i l s t r u c t u r e i s a constant
character of t h i s type of s o i l . A t h i n mantle of sand on
the surface appears t o be a dominant morphological f e a t u r e
of the series i n most l o c a l i t i e s . Heavy t r a c e s , c r y s t a l s ,
and t h i n layers of gypsum were encountered i n many l o c a l i t i e s , but always a t or below 110 cm. Nonetheless the
presence of such gypsum layers i n such compact p r o f i l e s
w i l l aggravate the i n t e r n a l drainage d i f f i c u l t y of the
series.
Future u t i l i t y i s l a r g e l y dependant on the e f f o r t s t o
ameliorate i n t e r n a l a e r a t i o n and drainage. I f such measures
are successful t h i s s o i l i s capable of producing good crop
y i e l d s . This a n t i c i p a t i o n depends on the other favourable
p r o p e r t i e s and characters of the s o i l s of the s e r i e s , such
as the comparatively high c l a y mineral content, h i g h water
holding capacity, and the comparative richness i n the
various chemical n u t r i e n t s necessary f o r p l a n t growth,
( f ) Qa'a s i l t loam s e r i e s
The s e r i e s occupies smaller l o c a l i t i e s compared t o the
previous s e r i e s . I t i s a series of deep s o i l mainly
composed of s i l t loam w i t h a very t h i n stratum of f i n e sandy
loam (0--10 cm,), which o f t e n forms the upper p o r t i o n of
the s o i l p r o f i l e . This type of s o i l i s always found w i t h i n
the s i l t f l a t s of the d i f f e r e n t basins and depressions
throughout the Qassim. The l i g h t brown colour i s the
colour of the s e r i e s , and i n most cases t h i s colour tends
to change w i t h depth t o a more s t r o n g l y brown c o l o u r .
The s t r u c t u r e of the s e r i e s , i n general, i s p l a t y mostly
at the top l a y e r s and o f t e n tends t o become more angular
blocky t o massive compact a t the lower p o r t i o n o f the

69.

of the p r o f i l e , w i t h a s o f t hard character. No gypsum

traces or gravel v/ere reported. Hence, i t i s estimated
t h a t the i n t e r n a l drainage o f the s e r i e s , on the whole,
i s moderate t o good owing t o i t s favourable s t r u c t u r a l
and t e x t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Moreover, the a s s o c i a t i o n i s ,
as f a r as the a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e s , t h e only
a s s o c i a t i o n i n the Qassim which does not comprise a separate
i d e n t i f i a b l e sand s e r i e s , a f a c t which r e f l e c t s t h e e f f e c t
o f topographical p o s i t i o n , which r e t a r d s a e l i o n d e p o s i t i o n .
T h i n . s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f sandy loam or loam o f the order
of approximately 20 cm., occurs i n most p r o f i l e s . Shallow
phases on d u r i c r u s t or bed rock were encountered on a l a r g e
scale, a f a c t which r e f l e c t s immaturity o f the series i n
general.
Most l o c a l i t i e s o f the a s s o c i a t i o n .are v i r g i n due t o a
Complex o f f a c t o r s , the most prominent o f which i s the
d i f f i c u l t a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o such lands, i s o l a t e d i n t h e
scattered basins and separated by long distances o f rough
topography.
6.5
I I I . The Sahl (Desert P l a i n ) A s s o c i a t i o n
The Sahl a s s o c i a t i o n occupies the extensive areas o f
desert peneplains and f l a t t e r r a i n s o f the Qassim ( F i g . 1 6 ) .
The topography o f t h i s type o f land i s n e a r l y l e v e l t o l e v e l ,
w i t h some areas o f g e n t l y undulating t o undulating surface.
The m i c r o - r e l i e f i s , i n f a c t , the consequence o f the a c t i v e
wind a c t i o n and i t grades from areas w i t h r e l a t i v e l y few
and very small sand hummock on the surface t o r e l a t i v e l y
extensive areas o f sand dunes. Drainage, on the whole, i s
l a r g e l y i n t e r n a l w i t h a moderate r a p i d i t y . A complete
i n f i l t r a t i o n i n a r a t h e r short time by the s o i l a f t e r a
moderately intense r a i n f a l l has been observed i n the r e g i o n .
The Sahl a s s o c i a t i o n represents s o i l s developed from

70.

calcareous marls and sands o f i n - s i t u or aeolion o r i g i n .

P r o f i l e development i n t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n , i n general, i s
weak t o moderate w i t h a r a t h e r weak t r a n s i t i o n from one
horizon t o another,
( a ) Sahl loamy sand series
The loamy sand series occupies t h e l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n
of the Sahl a s s o c i a t i o n . I t l i e s w i t h i n smooth f l a t s o f
l e v e l t o n e a r l y l e v e l t e r r a i n . I n some l o c a l i t i e s these
smooth f l a t s are surrounded "by huge "bodies of sand dunes,
w h i l s t i n other l o c a l i t i e s the s o i l surface i s studded w i t h
small mounds of sand accumulation round the sparse shrubs.
The series i s o f a l i g h t brown t o brown colour w i t h a
tendency i n a few cases t o change i n t o grey brown i n the
lower horizons. The s t r u c t u r e o f the normal p r o f i l e o f
the series i s a dominant granular type w i t h t h i n l a y e r s o f
p l a t y s t r u c t u r e where sandy loam layers occur. However,
the s t r u c t u r e i n general i s found t o be loose when d r y ,
f r i a b l e when moist and s o f t s t i c k y when wet.
I n some l o c a l i t i e s gravel seems t o be a dominant
s t r u c t u r a l item of the p r o f i l e s ; i n such p r o f i l e s gravel
u s u a l l y i s found throughout the p r o f i l e and w i t h d e p t h the
size o f g r a v e l increases.
I n a few cases a t 105 cm. the
size o f g r a v e l was l a r g e enough t o prevent f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p r o f i l e s beyond t h a t l i m i t . Another shallow
phase of the series was recognized i n a few l o c a l i t i e s where
a compact t h i c k l a y e r o f limestone h a l t s digging a t 135 cm.
approximately. I n the g r a v e l l y s o i l s the d r a i n a b i l i t y i s
very excessive w h i l s t i n the normal p r o f i l e s t h e d r a i n a b i l i t y
i s observed t o be moderate t o good.
Although the loamy sand s o i l represents t h e most
extensive series o f the Sahl a s s o c i a t i o n , i t s a g r i c u l t u r a l
capacity i s i n f e r i o r t o some o f the other s e r i e s , such as

71.

the sandy loam. The presence o f the g r a v e l l y phase w i t h

i t s excessive d r a i n a b i l i t y i s the main reason, a f e a t u r e
which has c o n t r i b u t e d t o i n f e r i o r immaturity and consequently
a f f e c t e d i t s productive c a p a c i t y ,
(b) Sahl sandy loam series
The sandy loam series occupies smooth t o very gentle
undulating t e r r a i n w i t h a land surface o f small hummocks o f
a e o l i o n sand round sparse shrubs. Minor v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n
the series are d i s t i n c t i v e . Some l o c a l i t i e s have a surface
cover of 5-10 cm. o f l i g h t yellow t o brown a e o l i o n sand
o v e r l y i n g the pale brown "A" h o r i z o n . Other l o c a l i t i e s
have a shallow sand-gravel l a y e r a t the top o v e r l y i n g t h e
"A" horizon; i n other s i t e s white gypsiferous crustswere
observed on the surface. However, both surface and subsurface s o i l s are sandy loam w i t h a p r e v a i l i n g pale brown
colour. S o i l s t r u c t u r e i s normally p l a t y t o massive w i t h
a f i r m t o moderately f r i a b l e and s t i c k y character. I n a
few l o c a l i t i e s i t i s observed t h a t s o i l compaction increases
r a p i d l y a f t e r 15 cm. and a t about 60 cm. the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f
digging was almost impossible. A gypsum pan was encountered
i n many p r o f i l e s , b u t always a t or under 100 cm. Thin
g r a v e l l y layers (5 cm.) do occur b u t on a very l i m i t e d scale.
I n t e r n a l drainage o f the s o i l i s mostly moderate t o poor i n
very few areas. The hummocky phase o f the s e r i e s i s
d i s t i n c t i v e enough t o be considered where the topography i s
characterized by a m i c r o - r e l i e f c o n s i s t i n g o f numerous sand
hummocks of 15-60 cm. i n height and 90-150 cm. i n diameter
around the shrubs. The areas between the hummocks may have
the pale-brown surface "A" horizon exposed, or covered by
a t h i n mantle of yellow brown f i n e and coarse a e o l i o n sand.
However, the s o i l p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e phase are
those of t h e normal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the s e r i e s .

72

( c ) Sahl s i l t loam series

Sahl s i l t loam s e r i e s represents the lands of the
association most comparable t o the wadis, where wadi
floods reach the edge of the desert p l a i n s . , This a l l u v i a l
d e p o s i t i o n i s very extensive on both sides of the great
wadi of Ar Rma. The area occupied by the s e r i e s i s
r e l a t i v e l y small and i s confined t o the p a r t s of the p l a i n
which a wadi f l o o d u s u a l l y covers. A d i s t i n c t i v e character
of the series i s t h a t no g r a v e l l y layers or gypsum pans
were encountered w i t h i n the examined l i m i t s of p r o f i l e s
(1.5 and 2 m . ) . A t h i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of sandy loam,
loamy sand, and f i n e sand was found w i t h i n the deep f i n e
s i l t y loam p r o f i l e s of the s e r i e s . The series i s of a
dominant brown t o l i g h t brown colour. The s o i l s t r u c t u r e
of the series i s of a p l a t y nature and tends t o massives
w i t h depth; t h i n p l a t y massive s t r u c t u r e i s associated w i t h
s o f t hard character when the s o i l i s dry, w i t h f i r m
character when the s o i l i s moist, and w i t h a s t i c k y t o
p l a s t i c character when the s o i l i s wet.
I n t e r n a l drainage ranges i n c a p a b i l i t y between moderate
i n most cases and poor i n a few l o c a l i t i e s .
From the a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y p o i n t of view, the
s i l t y loam series w i t h i t s f a v o u r i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
p r o p e r t i e s i s the most productive s o i l w i t h i n the Sahl
a s s o c i a t i o n . Consequently, i t i s t h i s s e c t i o n of the
a s s o c i a t i o n which should receive a s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n
the future development p r a c t i c e s .
( d ) Sahl sand series
The sand series i s confined t o the undulating t o r o l l i n g
parts of the extensive p l a i n s of the a s s o c i a t i o n , where huge
bodies of sand dunes are bordering or p e n e t r a t i n g the p l a i n s .
However, much of the land surface of the series i s covered

73

w i t h sand hummocks up t o approximately 1 metre i n h e i g h t .

Some of these hummocks have developed and coalesced i n t o
low sand dunes. P r o f i l e development i s very weak or almost
i n d e f i n i t e i n most cases. Usually the p r o f i l e consists a t
the top layers o f f i n e t o medium l i g h t y e l l o w i s h "brown sand,
grading i n t o a y e l l o w i s h "brown loamy f i n e sand w i t h almost
n minor changes i n p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h depth.
However, due t o t h e sandy nature o f the surface s o i l and the
l i g h t t e x t u r e o f lower layers o f the p r o f i l e s , i t i s a n t i c i pated t h a t many problems would he associated w i t h t h e use
of the s e r i e s . Some o f these problems l i e i n the serious
consequences o f the a c t i v e a e o l i o n erosion on such a loose
type o f s o i l , the low moisture-holding capacity, low n u t r i e n t
status and mineral content o f the s o i l , and topographic
d e f i c i e n c i e s , a combination which would undoubtedly r e s u l t
i n a very narrow range o f crop a d a p t a b i l i t y .
6.It- I V . Other types o f s o i l s
( a ) Sand dune complexes
Sand dune complexes are huge sand bodies p e n e t r a t i n g
the Qassim: Ilufud As S i r r , Nufud Ghmays, Nufud A t T r e f i y a h ,
Nufud A t h Thwairat E., Ashe Sheqqah W. The bodies vary i n
height and d e n s i t y but they a l l f a l l i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
categories, r i d g e dunes, t u r t l e dunes, a c t i v e dunes and
loose dunes. I t i s observed t h a t there are small patches
of exposed s o i l surfaces between t h e dunes, but because o f
t h e i r very small sizes and very d i f f i c u l t a c c e s s i b i l i t y
they do not deserve a s p e c i a l e f f o r t f o r t h e study of t h e i r
characteristics.
( b ) Badlands
Badlands i n the r e g i o n are represented by g r a v e l and
e r r a t i c rock outcrops, i r r e g u l a r low outcrops o f crossbedded
sandstone, g r a v e l p l a i n s , low benches, and o l d erosion
surface o f cemented limestone and g r a v e l . Because o f t h e i r

71+.

low a g r i c u l t u r a l productive p o t e n t i a l i t y , they are

excluded from t h i s ^ s t u d y .
The f a c t t h a t the study of the s o i l s of the Qassim and
the establishment of t h e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s not based on
previous studies makes i t very d i f f i c u l t t o go beyond the
scope of e s t a b l i s h i n g the very basic f a c t s and i n f o r m a t i o n
which are s u f f i c i e n t only f o r a p r e l i m i n a r y study of the
s o i l s of the r e g i o n . Hence, i t must be stressed t h a t the
need f o r a f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n and d e t a i l e d studies on
the s o i l s of the region i s very c r i t i c a l and necessary t o
enable the establishment of v i t a l conclusions. Such
conclusions are necessary f o r presenting an accurate
r e f l e c t i o n and d e l i n e a t i o n of s p e c i f i c s o i l q u a l i t i e s and
t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the r e g i o n .
However, the s o i l s of the Wadi A s s o c i a t i o n seem t o be
the most promising types of s o i l , notably those l y i n g w i t h i n
the l i m i t of the great Wadi Ar Rma where a l a r g e p o r t i o n of
the a s s o c i a t i o n i s concentrated. V i r t u a l l y a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l
development f a c t o r s , p h y s i c a l and economic, are present
w i t h i n the Ar Rma l i m i t s i n the Qassim. I n f a c t , the only
need f o r s o i l improvement i s more i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o p o i n t
out where, how, and what necessary p r a c t i c e s should be
c a r r i e d out i n order t o e x p l o i t the favourable economic
complex i n the Ar Rma areas. I n the Ar Rma zone, only the
l a c k of s o i l i n f o r m a t i o n would r e t a r d any a g r i c u l t u r a l
development p r o j e c t as water i s abundant, markets are b i g
and e a s i l y approachable, roads e x c e l l e n t , and working
power i s available.. Such f o r t u n a t e economic conditions
do not recur i n other sectors of the r e g i o n , n o t a b l y
w i t h i n the Sahl a s s o c i a t i o n .

75.

Chapter 7

S o i l chemical pro e r t i e s and

Tty
soil fer

If!

7.1

Chemical p r o p e r t i e s
The a v a i l a b l e scarce data on t h i s aspect are given i n
Table 1 Appendix E. They are e s s e n t i a l l y f o r a l i m i t e d
number of selected p r o f i l e s representing the chemical
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o i l s i n the r e g i o n i n general, and
i t must be stressed t h a t they do not i n any way r e f l e c t a
complete p i c t u r e o f the s o i l chemistry. For instance, the
l i m i t e d time of t h i s research has prevented the w r i t e r from '
i n v e s t i g a t i n g the contents of a v a i l a b l e p l a n t n u t r i e n t s i n
the t r e a t e d samples. Thus, no c o r r e l a t i o n can be made
between f e r t i l i z e r response and methods of measuring soluble
n u t r i e n t s i n the s o i l , which i s i n f a c t a very valuable
assessment f o r s o i l development measures. The present study
i s p r e l i m i n a r y research aimed a t e s t a b l i s h i n g the basic
f a c t s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Qassim's s o i l s .
Organic matter content
The p l a n t n u t r i e n t content o f the s o i l s , the improvement
i n the p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the s o i l s , and the a c t i v i t y of
s o i l micro-organism are t o a great extent dependent on the
amount of organic matter of s o i l s . Nitrogen i s the most
e s s e n t i a l element f o r p l a n t growth and organic matter
contains almost a l l the n i t r o g e n normally present i n s o i l s .
As i n a l l p a r t s o f Saudi Arabia, the s o i l s of Al-Qassim
are of a very low organic matter content. The range of
from 0.012 per cent t o O.Qk per cent represents the percentage

76.

of the organic carbon i n selected p r o f i l e s of the various

s o i l associations of the region. This very low and l i m i t e d
range indicates the scarcity of organic matter i n the s o i l s
of al-Qassim, a fact which introduces the need of improving
the f e r t i l i t y status of the soils i n general. Such improvement can he achieved only by maintaining a higher l e v e l of
organic matter and consequently increasing the available
nitrogen. This i s , undoubtedly*, especially c r i t i c a l f o r
any future s o i l development projects i n the Qassim; thus
i t i s suggested that the use of legumes and green manure
crops would be very h e l p f u l i n t h i s respect.
Gypsum content
The gypsum content i n the s o i l i s a v i t a l element i n
balancing the need f o r calcium as a plant n u t r i e n t . I t s
application i s p r a c t i c a l and appreciable when the need f o r
calcium i s desired without any upset of the s o i l pH status.
A high t o moderate gypsum content also ameliorates the
adverse effects of s o i l a l k a l i n i t y . The available data on
gypsum content i n the s o i l s of al-Qassim r e f l e c t s the fact
that most of the s o i l p r o f i l e s of the various associations
contain appreciable traces of gypsum, w i t h figures of the
gypsum content l y i n g w i t h i n the range of moderate content
(5-30 meg/100 gm. s o i l ) . Only few p r o f i l e s are found w i t h
no gypsum traces whatsoever; such p r o f i l e s frequently occur
w i t h i n the Wadi and .Qa/a associations. The Sahl association
has a more constant content of gypsum. This steadiness
might be due to the small proportion of deposited material
i n the s o i l texture w i t h i n the Sahl association.
Free carbonate content
Data on calcium and magnesium indicate that there i s a
f a i r l y high concentration of calcium and magnesium carbonates
w i t h i n the s o i l p r o f i l e s . This concentration i s i n fact
associated w i t h the i n s u f f i c i e n t amount of r a i n f a l l i n the

77

region and consequently the incomplete and rather weak

leaching of the free carbonates from the s o i l . I n f a c t ,
i n s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n studies, the presence or absence of
Ca and Mg carbonates i s a h e l p f u l factor i n the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s o i l types. S o i l development and reclamation are
greatly enhanced by the presence of free carbonates. I n
the Qassim, most of the s o i l s of the various associations
are of a moderate-favourable lime content w i t h percentages
l y i n g w i t h i n the range of 2-22 per cent. A few areas,
especially w i t h i n the Wadi association, are of a low content
and t h i s apparently i s due to two reasons. F i r s t l y , most of
the s o i l parent materials of t h i s association are of an
a l l u v i a l o r i g i n which mostly originated from non-calcarious
rocks (e.g. sandstone). Secondly, the comparatively intense
s o i l leaching caused by the Wadi floods. Other areas,
notably w i t h i n the.Sahl association, are of a high content
of lime, i . e . 36 per cent. This can "be a t t r i b u t e d to the
fact that most of the s o i l s of the Sahl association are
developed on weathered i n s i t u materials which have largely
disintegrated from limestone rocks. However, f o r the s o i l s
of al-Qassim liming i s not a necessary practice as none of
the s o i l s i n the region suffer from s o i l a c i d i t y .
E.C. values
The concentration of soluble salts i s a marked property
of a r i d zone s o i l s , a fact which seriously retards plant
growth. Following the U.S. S a l i n i t y Laboratory d e f i n i t i o n
(1953), the c r i t e r i o n f o r evaluating" e l e c t r i c a l conductivity
values i s expressed i n a numerical values. The value k
millimhos i s the d i v i s i o n between saline soils with values
over k and non-saline s o i l s with values under 1+.
The range of E.C. values f o r the s o i l s of the Qassim
i s very large and the two extreme values are found to he
0.5 and 165 mmhos. Nevertheless, the majority of s o i l s i n
the various associations of the region are of a value above;

78

k and the moderately saline s o i l s are the order, as

expressed "by the sub-range of 5-20 millimhos. The e f f e c t
of such moderate s a l i n i t y on s o i l development under the
prevailing i r r i g a t e d c u l t i v a t i o n i s bound to be less harmful
on the crop production as a result of the leaching effect
of the applied i r r i g a t i o n water. This of course e n t i r e l y
depends on good i n t e r n a l drainage conditions.
PH values
pH value i s one of the most fundamental tests of s o i l s ,
as many important s o i l properties are correlated with i t .
The scale of pH i s divided i n t o d i f f e r e n t numerical values.
Value 7 indicates n e u t r a l i t y and values above 7 indicate
increasing degrees of free carbonates of calcium and
magnesium ( a l k a l i n i t y ) . Soils of pH values above 8.5 have
physical and chemical characteristics which are unfavourable
f o r plant growth as a result of increasing concentration of
sodium carbonates. I n the Qassim, none of the s o i l s i s of
a pH value below 7, thus a c i d i t y i s not a s o i l property i n
the region. This apparently i s a r e s u l t of the i n t e r a c t i o n
of various ecologic characters favoured by the prevailing
a r i d i t y condition. The a l k a l i n i t y values range between 7.2
and 9.1 w i t h the majority laying w i t h i n the sub range of
7.8 and 8 . 1 , a condition which would furnish very favourable
s o i l properties f o r the majority of crops. However, another
method of a l k a l i n i t y assessment was suggested i n order to
check the correctness of the available pH values, and s l i g h t
differences were discovered which tend to sum up that 20 per
cent of the pH values are questionable and are beneath the
actual value and r e f l e c t less a l k a l i n i t y than r e a l l y exists
w i t h i n the s o i l . The method was as follows:No. of exchangeable cations x 100
Cation exchange capacity

79.

Where the r e s u l t of t h i s equation i s under 15 per cent the

s o i l p r o f i l e i s c l a s s i f i e d as non alkaline, and over 15
per cent as a l k a l i n e ,
7-2 S o i l f e r t i l i t y and f e r t i l i z e r practice
The application of organic manure derived from animal
waste was and largely i s the accepted t r a d i t i o n a l method of
improving s o i l f e r t i l i t y and productivity i n the Qassim, as
anywhere i n the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The calculation
of the average amount needed per hectare f o r most of the
crops raised i n the region, based on f i e l d observations,
ranges from 35 to 80 tons per year per hectare. The
necessity f o r such large quantities i s apparently due to the
fact that the l o c a l manure usually contains variable proportions of sand and rubbish (plate x x x i ) , and under the
prevailing conditions of high insolation, high temperatures,
and severe a r i d i t y , i t s effects are not of f u l l capacity.
The ..sources of organic manure are twofold; the f i r s t
i s the townlets and v i l l a g e dwellings where most of the
households i n the region keep one or two cows or a few goats
for milking purposes f o r personal use. The animal waste i s
collected p e r i o d i c a l l y from the s t a l l s where the animals are
kept permanently, and i n most cases the rubbish of the
household i s added to such accumulated manure. That i s
because the manure's value i s , i n f a c t , scaled by i t s
accumulated size rather than by i t s p u r i t y . However, manure
merchants and dealers collect the manure from the houses
a f t e r agreement has been concluded, which i s usually based
on a truck-load basis. Such collected manure i s usually
preserved i n an open a i r yard and distributed to farms upon
request at an average value of 70 S.Rs ' per truck-load of
2.5 tons. The second source i s the watering points of
v

\)ne s t e r l i n g pound equals 10.8 Saudi Riyals.

P l a t e No.xxxi
A l o a d o f o r g a n i c manure
Note t h e
s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n s o f sand and r u b b i s h mixed
w i t h t h e manure

Plate No.xxxii.
A s t o r a g e p i t o f o r g a n i c manure
f o r t h e purpose o f w a s h i n g out t h e p o i s o n i n g
e l e m e n t s by i r r i g a t i n g t h e p i t r e g u l a r l y .

80

livestock, especially during summer time when the animals

hang on f o r a few weeks and thus a great deal of animal
waste i s accumulated during such concentration periods f o r
thousands of camels, sheep and goats at one time. At the
end of summer manure merchants t r a v e l t o such known points
and conclude a verbal contract, of a nominal price f o r the
waste. Many wealthy farmers who practice animal husbandry
on a r e l a t i v e l y large scale s a t i s f y t h e i r farm's requirements
from the waste of t h e i r own animals or through personal
contract with the nomads at some of the livestock concentrat i o n points. However, throughout the centuries the applicat i o n of organic manure was immediately a f t e r c o l l e c t i o n .
Such practice has been proved t o be, t o some extent, harmful
for plants as i t contains some poisonous elements which need
to be leached out. A method f o r adjusting such practice has
been recently demonstrated and taught to farmers by the
technical s t a f f of the E.P.S.Cs^ ^ i n the region. The method
i s simply keeping the manure f o r a period not less than two
months to s i x months i n a large p i t and i r r i g a t e d regularly
i n order to leach out the poisoning elements (plate xxxij).
Such a practice i s not a common and widespread practice as
most of the farmers, due t o t h e i r l i m i t e d f i n a n c i a l a b i l i t y ,
cannot afford to keep the manure unused f o r such a long time.
1

However, the increasing rate of expansion i n the

c u l t i v a t e d areas i n the region through the l a s t and the
present decades, as a result of the artesian water discovery,
had led correspondingly t o increasing demands f o r organic
manure and consequently increasing cost and scarcity of
organic manure throughout the region especially i n the new
development areas. This increasingly deteriorating s i t u a t i o n
has, i n f a c t , compelled farmers t o consider the use of

Extension Field Services Centres

81.

chemical f e r t i l i z e r s as an a l t e r n a t i v e .
Many types of chemical f e r t i l i z e r were introduced i n
the region and the complex 15: 15: 15^ ^ appears to he the
most popular f e r t i l i z e r mix. This complex was recommended
for general use i n Saudi Arabia by the a g r i c u l t u r a l research
department of the Arabian American O i l Company (ARAMCO) some
f i f t e e n years ago. Unfortunately, since then t h i s department
had made no attempt f o r further investigations on i t s
introduction t o discriminate between the individual effects
of the component nutrients on the various crops raised i n
the country. The Ministry of Agriculture has also not
carried out s u f f i c i e n t t r i a l s .
At the present time, i n the Qassim, chemical f e r t i l i z e r s
are being applied t o the land at unspecified rate per area
u n i t . Such a b l i n d approach to the proper use of nutrient
i s an i n e f f i c i e n t and expensive method of chemical f e r t i l i z e r
use.
I t i s common knowledge, however, that a r i d types of s o i l
generally require nitrogen and phosphate f e r t i l i z e r s at a
r e l a t i v e l y high rate f o r p r o f i t a b l e production. The foliage
on many c i t r u s trees i n the Qassim exhibit symptoms of
micronutrient deficiencies. The symptoms are t y p i c a l of
i r o n and zinc chlorosis. Due t o shortage of thorough and
complete investigations on t h i s aspect i t i s improper t o
conclude whether these elements are lacking i n the s o i l s or
not, as they may possibly be i n an unavailable condition due
to s a l i n i t y of the cultivated s i t e s . As a temporary
correction measure i t would be useful t o apply small amounts
of these elements either t o the s o i l or by spraying them i n
i r r i g a t i o n water. However, information on crop response t o
chemical f e r t i l i z e r application i s very sparse. Only a few
experiments have been conducted at the Aunayzah's and
1

) 15 nitrogen, 15 phosphate, 15 potash.

82

Braydah's experimental stations and those experiments were

started i n November, 1966. The number of f e r t i l i z e r s used
was r e s t r i c t e d to the three nutrients; urea, t r i p l e
superphosphate and potassium sulphate. The choice of urea
as the nitrogeneous source was suggested "by the fact that a
factory for producing urea i s about t o be completed i n Ad
Dammaaa City and i t i s anticipated that i t w i l l s t a r t
production "by the "beginning of 1969.
For purposes of comparison "between the obtained results
of the two stations and the attempt to establish basic facts
and c r i t e r i a applicable throughout the region the more
universal crops i n the Qassim, a l f a l f a , tomatoes, wheat and
"barley were chosen to be tested.
A l f a l f a and tomato experiments were of 3^ f a c t o r i a l
design i n which the effect of ( N ) , ( P ) , and (K) at 3
d i f f e r e n t levels were examined i n a l l combinations t o give
27 treatments (Fig.17). A l f a l f a was seeded at the rate of
6k kg/hect. and tomatoes were planted along the side of
furrows; plants were spaced 50 cm. apart along the rows,
and one metre between rows. Each experiment was replicated
3 times so that the experimental comprised t o t a l of 81
p l o t s . The application of f e r t i l i z e r s f o r the a l f a l f a
experiments were as follows:(a) One h a l f of the amount of phosphate and potash were
applied before sowing and the other h a l f approximately
two months l a t e r .
(b) The urea was s p l i t i n four equal dosages and was
applied at two weeks, two months, four months and
eight months respectively.
For the tomatoes applications were carried out i n the
following manner:(a) One h a l f of the amount of "P" and "K" was applied
before planting and the other h a l f one month a f t e r
planting.

LEVELS

OF

FERTILIZERS

APPLIED

EXPERIMENTS

A.

ALFALFA

AND

LEVEL

TOMATOES

UREA

IN

THE

CITED

KGJHECT.

EXPERIMENTS
TRIPLE SUPERPHOSPHATE

SULPHATE
POTASIUM

OF

200

400

BARLEY

AND WHEAT

EXPERIMENTS

100

75

200

ISO

FIGURE

17

83
(b) The urea was s p l i t into four equal doses and was
applied at two weeks, one month, two months and
three months respectively.
The result was, i n general, that the visual appearance t o
phosphate application was great, as i s indicated i n the
following scores recorded on 6th February, 1967; urea and
sulphate of potash exerted l i t t l e influence (Table 4 ) .
Table k. Response values of a l f a l f a and tomatoes.
Fertilizer
N

*A

R.V.

Fertilizer

R.V.

kk

28

50

5k

50

61

Fertilizer
K

R.V.

*l

1*6

51

R.V. s Response value, each value represents a t o t a l of 27

individual p l o t scores.
Source:,:, Progress report on response t o f e r t i l i z e r
- application.in Saudi Arabia by Dr.
E. W. Balle-Jones, FAO s o i l f e r t i l i t y expert,
June, 1967.
I t i s estimated, however, that some 50 per cent increase
i n a l f a l f a y i e l d was the response t o phosphate application.
I n the l i g h t of these results, i n the case of a l f a l f a , an
early response t o nitrogen was then replaced by the predominant
effect of phosphate. This had led to the suggestion that a
starter dose of nitrogen f e r t i l i z e r i s b e n e f i c i a l . On the
other hand, these observations r e f e r mainly t o the cooler
part of the year and i t i s possible that nitrogen f i x a t i o n
may diminish greatly i n hot summer months.
p

Cereals were grown i n experiments which had a basic 3

design i n which the effect of "N" and "P" at three levels

6k

i n a l l combinations were examined. This provided nine

treatments per r e p l i c a t i o n but i n addition three supplementary treatments at the middle potassium l e v e l were included
to judge the p o s s i b i l i t y of response to (K). (Fig.17).
The experiments were l a i d out i n 3 blocks, each containing a f u l l replicate of 12 plots t o provide a t o t a l of 36
plots f o r the whole experiment. A l l f e r t i l i z e r s were applied
on one occasion approximately one month a f t e r sowing. The
cereals were sown at a rate of 139.5 kg./hect. Throughout
the experiments wheat showed d e f i n i t e evidence of a response
to phosphate but none to urea, as demonstrated i n the obtained
scores (Table 5 ) .
Table 5.

Response values of wheat.

Fertilizer

R.V.

19

20

1 0
NK
2

20

Fertilizer

Fertilizer

R.V.

15

cft>
K

1 0
PK
2

R.V.

20

2k

2k

Each response value represents t o t a l of 9 p l o t scores.

Results recorded on 6th February, 1967..
Source of figures: The same as Table k

The visual effects of "N" on barley were outstanding and of

a remarkable uniformity as i t i s clear from the obtained
results Table 6.

05

Table 6. Response values of barley

Fertilizer

Fertilizer

R.V.

R.V.

10
P

21

1 0
NK
2

20

1 0
PK

27

R.V.

19

< f t >

Fertilizer

19

i i

20

Each response value represents a t o t a l of 3 plots sc ore.

Results recorded oh 5th February, 1967.
Source of figures: The same as Table k
Values of crop yields are available only f o r barley
(Table 7 ) . Values f o r wheat were not recorded f o r the c i t e d
experiment, neither f o r any other so f a r . Calculation of
barley y i e l d values showed that the yields of both grain
and straw could be m u l t i p l i e d more than four times by the
application of urea. The y i e l d grain given by the central
treatment "N.K.P." was of the order of 2.8 tons per hectare.
Table 7. Barley y i e l d kg/h.50m'
Straw

Grain
NQKQ

38

^KQ

120

NK

167

P K

PQKQ

1*0
2

108

'

Vfy

107

1kk

^KQ

190

P^Q

161

N K

22k

P K

152

Source: The same as Table km

However, the crops showed a visual difference due t o
f e r t i l i z e r treatment i n the f i r s t few months a f t e r sowing.
Scores were established, on the basis of vigour, colour, and
degree of establishment, i n the range of one t o four, one
being weak and poor and four being very vigorous.

I t must be pointed but, however, that the findings

quoted and represented here are of an interim nature; many
other experiments are i n progress i n the Qassim at the
present time and gore data are needed f o r further and more
accurate assessments. The available results are, however,
encouraging and confirm the b e l i e f that chemical f e r t i l i z e r
use w i l l improve s o i l f e r t i l i t y i n the region i n general.
A l l the available data t o date suggest that the main
requirements of improving s o i l f e r t i l i t y f o r the crops
examined were f o r nitrogen and phosphorus containing
f e r t i l i z e r s ; there was no d e f i n i t e i n d i c a t i o n of a need
f o r potassium. However, i t i s important to note that the
results were obtained using l o c a l methods of c u l t i v a t i o n ;
the only divergence from l o c a l practice was the s p l i t of
doses t o make more economic use of f e r t i l i z e r s . This was
adopted i n view of anticipating that the findings may be
almost d i r e c t l y applicable t o every farmer's farm as an
interim practice t o be confirmed or modified l a t e r on when
more results are available and analysed.

87.

Chapter 8

Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

8.1 Introduction
Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s the overall c r i t e r i o n f o r
establishing the boundaries, sizes, extent, position,
deficiencies, s u i t a b i l i t i e s , and locations of arable and
non-arable lands w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t ecologic areas i n a given
region. Land classes are established on the basis of
similar physical characteristics which determine i t s economic
value i n terms of productivity and repayment capacity w i t h i n
the safe marginality of economic production. The classes
are divided i n t o sub classes t o i d e n t i f y a p a r t i c u l a r
deficiency or combination of deficiencies w i t h i n one given
class. Land classes and sub classes i n an ecologic area
provide basic c r i t e r i a f o r determining proper land use,
i r r i g a t i o n systems and requirements, size of farm units,
benefits, costs and repayment capacity, land appraisal,
and land development problems.
The most important factors of land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n are:(a) Soils - physical, chemical, and b i o l o g i c a l
characteristics.
(b) Topographical p o s i t i o n of the land and the
surroundings.
( c ) Farm drainage conditions of the land.
The s o i l physical characteristics, colour, depth, structure,
texture, stoniness, permeability t o a i r and water, consistent
i n f i l t r a t i o n rate, d r a i n a b i l i t y and erodability, available

88.

moisture capacity are often i n t e r r e l a t e d . Most of these

characteristics are of a f l e x i b l e nature to modifications
by the various land reclamation practices and treatments
but the case f o r texture i s exceptional as i t i s proved t o
be a r e l a t i v e l y stable character of the s o i l . This f l e x i b i l i t y varies from place t o place according to various
ecological factors, such as parent material, climatic
condition, vegetative cover, and water q u a l i t y , which
establish the physical order of the d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e s i n a
given area. The s o i l chemical and b i o l o g i c a l characteristics,
i n h e r i t f e r t i l i t y , amount of organic matter, nitrogen-fixing,
s a l i n i t y , a l k a l i n i t y , , type of clay mineral, t o t a l carbonate,
lime, gypsum reaction, a v a i l a b i l i t y of essential trace
elements, etc. control the extent of productive capacity
as w e l l as crop adaptability. These characteristics i n fact
are c r i t i c a l and v i t a l c r i t e r i a f o r land s u i t a b i l i t y from
both agronomic and economic standpoints. The significance
of the topographical features l i e s i n the degree of slope,
r e l i e f , and p o s i t i o n of the land. These three features must
be given considerations i n order to correlate the topography
factor w i t h the type of land and i t s degree of s u i t a b i l i t y .
I t i s evident from a p r a c t i c a l point of view that the
topography f a c t o r r e f l e c t s t o a great extent how easy or
d i f f i c u l t i t i s to construct the i r r i g a t i o n and drainage
systems throughout the farm, considering the a c c e s s i b i l i t y
and movement of water to and from every single piece of unit
of the farm. I t also r e f l e c t s the need, the type and the
approximate cost of land reclamation and development and i s
related to the size, slope, and the cover o f the s i t e and
the nature of the development p r o j e c t .
Farm drainage i s a v i t a l c r i t e r i o n i n land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n due to i t s effect on the productive capacity of the
land and consequently on i t s repayment capacity. Where

89.

natural farm drainage i s inadequate t o prevent water logging

and i t s consequences w i t h i n the root zone, an a r t i f i c i a l
drainage system i s necessary and a farmer i s compelled t o
achieve i t by channels and underground t i l e drainage
construction. This involves extra costs which might upset
the balance of farm input and output.
Maps and information on the land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the
Qassim presented here have been quoted from the rough
information and maps available at the time when the f i e l d
work was conducted. These were obtained from the Headquarters,
i n Saudi Arabia, of Parsons Basil, the consultant t o the
Ministry of Agriculture. Haps were based on a e r i a l photo
stereo scale 1: 60,000 and traced on a e r i a l photo mosaic
scale 1: 50,000. F i e l d investigation and observation on
vegetative cover, slope, d r a i n a b i l i t y , positions, land use,
s a l i n i t y and a l k a l i n i t y , etc. were included and used f o r
determining the arable and non-arable classes and sub-classes.
The survey boundaries d i d not cover the great sand dune bodies
such as Ash Shqayqah on the west and At Thuwairat on the east
f r i n g i n g the great basins, desert plains, valleys and low
lands of the region. Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n maps presented here
have been subject t o re-arrangement i n a d i f f e r e n t order t o
s u i t the nature o f t h i s work. The re-arrangement of the map
compilation i s based on the geologic and geomorphologic sub
provinces i n the region. This i s due t o the fact that these
two physical items are the primary factors i n determining
the composition and the nature of the land i n the region;
neither the climate, nor the vegetation have a comparative
effect i n t h i s respect. Thus the region i s divided i n t o
f i v e zones:- Qusaiba zone, Asyah zone, Wadi zone,
Shmasiyah zone and Midhnab zone (Fig.18).
The system which was adopted i n the land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of the Qassim i s based on the land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system of
the Bureau of Land Reclamation, U.S.D.I., as designated and

nao
01

in

in
CM

rvi

CM

5
<0

10 Q f a
CO
ro

UJ

LU
UJ
LU

rsl
ISJ

00

LU

LU

UJ

CO
UJ

CON

90

described i n volume V " I r r i g a t e d Land Use," p a r t two

"Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . " The l a n d classes i n the Manual are
s i x ; f o u r basic classes ( I , I I , I I I and I V ) were used t o
i d e n t i f y the arable lands according t o t h e i * s u i t a b i l i t y
f o r i r r i g a t e d farming. One p r o v i s i o n a l class (V) and one
class t o i d e n t i f y the non-arable lands ( V I ) . Each class
i s d i v i d e d i n t o seven sub-classes t o i n d i c a t e the d e f i c i e n c y ,
whether i n s o i l , topography, or drainage, or the combination
of d e f i c i e n c i e s , e.g. I l l s , H i t , I H d , H i s t , I H s d , I H t d ,
I H s t d . To s u i t the requirements o f the present p r e l i m i n a r y
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the lands i n al-Qassim, classes IV and V
were dropped as they are needed i n the case of d e t a i l e d
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n studies o n l y .
10.Z$ (83142 h e c t . ) o f the l a n d i n the r e g i o n represents
the arable lands (Pig.19). This p o r t i o n o f l a n d i s
c l a s s i f i e d i n t o classes and sub-classes o f I I and I I I only
(Pig.20) because none o f the lands matched the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
f i x e d i n the Manual f o r Glass I . However, these arable
lands i f provided w i t h the e s s e n t i a l p r a c t i c e s o f l a n d
improvement such as l e v e l l i n g , drainage, i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s ,
etc., under sustained i r r i g a t i o n , would have a repayment
capacity t o meet and cover a l l p r o d u c t i o n expenses and
maintenance p l u s a reasonable p r o f i t .
8.2 Glass I I lands ( C I I L )
The t o t a l area occupied by t h i s type o f land i n the
Qassim i s (k&5k h e c t . ) 5.858 o f the t o t a l percentage o f the
arable lands i n the r e g i o n . The general p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the C I I L ; topographic s e t t i n g p o s i t i o n , d r a i n a b i l i t y ,
and slope are demonstrated i n Fig.2U_ The c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h i s
f i g u r e i s t e n t a t i v e and based on the a v a i l a b l e data and
i n f o r m a t i o n . This f i g u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t 56,2% o f the C I I L
i s found i n the closed basins and depressions which are
s c a t t e r e d throughout the r e g i o n . This i s apparently due t o

IU

(9

in

8
8
UJ

LU

r- CO
CO

8
N

ARABLE

AND

NON

ARABLE LANDS

ARABLE

NON ARABLE

ARABLE LANDS

CLASSES

CLASS I I

CLASS I I I

FIGURE 2 0

91.

the f a c t t h a t these topographic p o s i t i o n s are comparatively

p r o t e c t e d from wind and water erosion; i n a d d i t i o n , they are
the t e r m i n a l p o i n t s of the numerous small wadis i n the region
and a c t as i n t e r n a l drainage basins t o them. These wadis,
whenever they f l o o d , "bring loads o f s i l t , c l a y , and other
f i n e m a t e r i a l from t h e surrounding small cuestas and low
r i d g e s . 18.7% and 12.5% o f the C I I L i n the r e g i o n are
s i t u a t e d i n the wadis and a l l u v i a l p l a i n s r e s p e c t i v e l y , and
the remaining A2.6% are s c a t t e r e d e i t h e r along the desert
p l a i n s o r s i l t f l a t s i n the r e g i o n .
The d r a i n a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n o f the C I I L i n the r e g i o n i s
on the whole s a t i s f a c t o r y w i t h Zj.2.8% and 28.7% o f t h i s land
being w e l l - d r a i n e d land and moderately-drained r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The remaining p o r t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o 21 .3% poorly-drained
land and 1.2.% excessively-drained l a n d . However, t h e f i g u r e s
r e f l e c t t h a t around 30% o f the area c l a s s i f i e d as CIIL needs
serious c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e drainage problem.
L e v e l l i n g i s n o t a problem f o r the CIIL i n the region as
i t i s estimated t h a t 42.1% o f the land i s o f a l e v e l slope
and the remainder i s o f n e a r l y l e v e l slope b u t none o f i t i s
undulating o r even g e n t l y undulating.
Most o f the C I I L i n the r e g i o n i s v i r g i n and has never
been brought under c u l t i v a t i o n . This i s apparently due t o a
complex o f p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l f a c t o r s when the e x i s t i n g
settlements were set up. The s i t e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l settlement
was judged by those f a c t o r s r a t h e r than by the q u a l i t y o f l a n d .
These circumstances have r e s u l t e d i n the f a c t t h a t most o f
these lands are remote and i n v o l v e f a r too much c a p i t a l t o
e x p l o i t and operate i f the farmers are r e l u c t a n t and refuse
to move from t h e i r o l d households.
I t i s estimated t h a t 33% o f t h e t o t a l i s w i t h i n t h e
Qusaiba zone where i t concentrates round Qusaiba and t h e
northern p a r t o f a l B u t a i n where 16.9% l i e s and 10.9% i s

CLASS

71

A-GEOGRAPHICAL

LANDS

DISTRIBUTION

OUSAIBAH

ALrWADI

ASYAH

MIDHNAB SHMASS.

B-DIST ACCORDING TO TOPOG. SETTING

BASINS

WADIS

ALLUVIAL
PLAINS

DESERT
PLAINS

SILT
FLATS

C-DIST. ACCORDING TO DRAINAGE CONDITION

WELL

MODERATE

POOR

EXCESSIVE

O-DIST. ACCORDING TO SURFACE SLOPE

LEVEL

NEARLY LEVEL

FIGURE

21

92.

found pound a l Weta area. 2k.k% o f the GIIL t o t a l i s

s i t u a t e d w i t h i n the wadi zone p a r t i c u l a r l y round the Braydah
and Aunayzah areas where Aunayzah area comprises A 3.2% of
the wadi t o t a l and the remaining p o r t i o n i s w i t h i n Braydah.
A l Asyah zone (N.E. ) comprises 22j..2% and the Midhnab
zone comprises 16.8% o f the t o t a l percentage of GIIL i n the
region,- the_.r-ema-ining 1 .6% i s s i t u a t e d i n Ash Shmaseyyah zone.
(a) Qusaiba zone
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the C I I lands i n the Qusaiba zone
(1610 hect.) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l l areas of t h i s land i n the
zone are located i n the s c a t t e r e d closed basins and depressions of i n l a n d drainage. Consequently as wadi d e p o s i t i o n
i s important, the land i n the zone i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a
s i l t y loam, sandy loam, and clayey loam t e x t u r e s . Thus
i t i s expected t h a t the c l a y mineral content and the a v a i l a b l e
moisture capacity i s h i g h and favourable. The slope of these
lands i s very favourable and does not i n v o l v e any cost f o r
levelling.
D r a i n a b i l i t y too i s not a problem f o r the C I I L i n the
zone; i t i s estimated t h a t 80% of the zone t o t a l i s of a
w e l l - d r a i n e d c o n d i t i o n and 20% o f a moderately-drained
c o n d i t i o n . Moderate s a l i n i t y i s the order i n C I I L of the
zone and most of the lands need not be leached a r t i f i c i a l l y
as i t seems t h a t n a t u r a l leaching by normal p r a c t i c e s o f
i r r i g a t i o n and c u l t i v a t i o n i s adequate. Few areas reach i n
s a l i n i t y the r a t e o f as h i g h as 18 m i l l i m h o s . The small
p o r t i o n o f t h i s type of land which has been brought under
c u l t i v a t i o n i s mainly wheat producing l a n d . The remaining
area i s s t i l l v i r g i n land a w a i t i n g development f a c i l i t i e s .
(b) The Wadi zone
H a l f of the C I I L of the Wadi zone i s spread out i n the
a l l u v i a l p l a i n s o f the great Wadi Ar Rma and 25% l i e s w i t h i n
the s c a t t e r e d small wadis which descend from the surrounding

and r e l a t i v e l y h i g h lands p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the n o r t h . The

remaining 25% i s found w i t h i n the surrounding desert p l a i n s .
The C I I L i n the Wadi zone i s characterized "by a n e a r l y l e v e l
. feature.
/
Drainage i s a r e a l problem i n the C I I L of t h i s zone,
where i t i s estimated t h a t 75% i s of a poor d r a i n a b i l i t y
c o n d i t i o n , and the remaining 25% i s moderately-drained.
This h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f poor d r a i n a b i l i t y r e q u i r e s and indeed
necessitates p a r t i c u l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n any land development
p r o j e c t . The E.C. values do not exceed 7.k millimhos a t i t s
upmost extreme and goes down as low as 0 . 7 9 m i l l i m h o s . A
s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s type o f l a n d i s t h a t i t i s of a
u n i f o r m l y t e x t u r e d composition, mainly sandy loam. This i s
explained by the great and almost equal p o r t i o n s of a e o l i a n
and a l l u v i a l deposits which have been deposited throughout
the wadi b a s i n and i n t e r c a l a t e d t o produce u n i f o r m i t y i n
t e x t u r a l composition,
( c ) Midhnab zone
I n the Midhnab zone where 16.8% o f the C I I L l i e s , the
lands are mostly c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e i t h e r basins or wadis as ~topographical s e t t i n g s , w i t h these two topographical aspects
i n c l u d i n g 33.5% and 33.2% o f the zone t o t a l r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The remaining p o r t i o n i s d i v i d e d more or l e s s e q u a l l y between
the desert p l a i n s and s i l t f l a t s . The slope i s favourable
as i t i s estimated t h a t 57.2% i s o f a n e a r l y - l e v e l f e a t u r e
and the remaining p o r t i o n i s of a l e v e l f e a t u r e . The
t e x t u r a l composition v a r i e s , w i t h sandy c l a y loam, s i l t
loam, clayey loam and.sandy loam p r o f i l e s being found. The
combination of these f a c t o r s has favoured a very good d r a i n a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n , and i t i s estimated t h a t almost 50% i s
w e l l drained and the other 50% i s moderately drained.
S a l i n i t y i s diverse w i t h the maximum 9 . 4 and the minimum 0 . 7
E.C. m i l l i m h o s .

9k

( d ) A l Asyah zone
I n the a l Asyah zone the C I I L are o f a uniform topog r a p h i c a l s e t t i n g where they are spread out along the "broad
shallow v a l l e y o f a l Asyah. D r a i n a b i l i t y i s favourable
except f o r 9% of the t o t a l percentage of C I I L of the zone,
w i t h 59$ excessively drained and k% p o o r l y drained.
The
remaining p o r t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o 6i% and 30% f o r w e l l drained land and moderately-drained r e s p e c t i v e l y . S a l i n i t y
seems not a c r i t i c a l l i m i t i n g f a c t o r f o r the CIIL o f the zone.
The CIIL of Ash Shmaseyyah (i+8 hect.) i s confined t o a
b a s i n topographical s e t t i n g w i t h a n e a r l y l e v e l f e a t u r e w i t h
75% w e l l - d r a i n e d , 1 3 % moderately-drained and ^2% p o o r l y
drained.
8 . 3 Class I I I Lands
The remaining 9k.2% ( 7 8 , 2 8 3 hect.) of thearable lands
i n the Qassim are c l a s s i f i e d as class and sub-classes I I I .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the lands of t h i s class according t o
t h e i r topographical s e t t i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t k2.8% i s l o c a t e d
along the a l l u v i a l p l a i n s which surround the main and subs i d i a r y channels o f the great Wadi o f Ar Rma. 27,9% i s
found i n the scattered closed basins and depressions
p a r t i c u l a r l y on the n o r t h e r n side o f the wadi, and 1 9 . 3 %
i s s i t u a t e d i n the small wadis which e i t h e r d r a i n i n t o the
wadi or the surrounding depressions and closed basins.' The
remaining p o r t i o n s , 6,7%, 2.596 and 0 . 9 % are found i n the
desert p l a i n s , s i l t f l a t s and a l l u v i a l fans throughout the
X

zonS_(Fig.22).

D r a i n a b i l i t y of t h i s class i n the r e g i o n on the whole i s

not s a t i s f a c t o r y and i t i s estimated t h a t 5k.3% o f the t o t a l
percentage i s o f a poor-drainage capacity and 0 . 8 % o f an
excessive d r a i n a b i l i t y , w h i l e only 3k.3!% i s w e l l - d r a i n e d and
X 1 0 . 6 % of a moderate-drainage capacity.
In fact, this

C L A S S / / /

A-GEOQRAPHICAL

LANDS

DISTRIBUTION

(ZONES*}

AL-WADI

SHMASEYY. ASYAH

QUSAIBAH MIDHNAB

B-DIST. ACCORDING TO TOPOG.

SETTING

ALLUVIAL
PLAINS

BASINS

WADIS

DESERT
SILT
PLAINS FLATS&
ALLU.FANS

C-DIST. ACCORDING TO DRAINAGE. CONDITION

POOR

WELL

MODER.

EXCESSIVE

0 DIST. ACCORDING TO SURFACE SL OPE

NEARLY
LEVEL

LEVEL

GENTLY UNDULATING
UNDULATING

FIGURE2 2

95.

d e f i c i e n c y on such a l a r g e scale necessitates an i n t e n s i v e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r the designation o f the lowest cost possible
t o overcome t h i s problem w i t h o u t any imbalance i n the output
and i n p u t o f any a g r i c u l t u r a l development p r o j e c t on these
lands.
I n general, l e v e l l i n g i s not a serious problem w i t h
only 9 . 8 % o f the t o t a l being i n need o f l e v e l l i n g . The
remaining p o r t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o 7 0 . 9 % o f a n e a r l y - l e v e l
surface and 1 9 * 3 % l e v e l . Generally, the C I I I L are s u i t a b l e
f o r i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l development but they are r a t h e r
close t o m a r g i n a l i t y f o r repayment c a p a c i t y . This i s due
t o the f a c t t h a t they are o f a r e l a t i v e l y r e s t r i c t e d
s u i t a b i l i t y because o f f a i r l y sharp d e f i c i e n c i e s i n s o i l
and drainage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Most o f the lands are o f a
good topographic s e t t i n g and l e v e l b u t , because of i n f e r i o r
s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which r e s t r i c t crop a d a p t a b i l i t y , they
do r e q u i r e l a r g e r amounts o f water and i n some cases s p e c i a l
i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s are necessary. I n some areas the need
f o r a l a r g e amount o f f e r t i l i z a t i o n or i n t e n s i v e s o i l
improvement p r a c t i c e i s a d e f i n i t e need. Farming Class I I I
lands o f the r e g i o n involves i n general g r e a t e r r i s k s than
i n farming Class I I lands, b u t , nevertheless, under proper
management i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t they would have an adequate
repayment c a p a c i t y .
The geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n o f these lands i n the
Qassim i n d i c a t e s t h a t 5 9 % o f the t o t a l percentage l i e s w i t h i n
the wadi zone where Ar Russ and Ar Rubaeyyah settlements
comprise 1 7 . 7 % , the biggest p a r t o f the wadi t o t a l . On the
opposite sides o f the wadi l i e Riyadh a l Khabra, a l H e l a l i y y a h ,
and a l Bukaireyyah settlements w i t h 1 2 . 9 % o f the wadi t o t a l .
Braydah area comprises 1 5 . 9 % and Aunayzah 1 0 . 7 % o f the t o t a l
percentage.
1 5 . 4 % o f the r e g i o n t o t a l i s l o c a t e d w i t h i n Ash
Shmaseyyah zone, and 1 0 . % w i t h i n a l Asyah area. The remain-

96

i n g 15% i s d i v i d e d almost e q u a l l y between the Qusaiba and

Midhnab zones.
( a ) The wadi zone ( 4 6 . 4 8 9 h e c t . )
58.6% o f the zone's t o t a l i s l o c a t e d along the a l l u v i a l
p l a i n s o f the great Wadi Ar Rma. 24.8% i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e
numerous small wadis o f the zone and 12% l i e s w i t h i n the
s c a t t e r e d closed basins and depressions where most o f the
small wadis o f the zone d r a i n , 4.6% i s found i n the desert
plains ( F i g . 2 3 ) .
L e v e l l i n g on the whole i s not r e q u i r e d on a widespread
scale, as only 5.5% needs a moderate l e v e l l i n g p r a c t i c e .
78.2% and 16.3% are the percentages which represent the
n e a r l y l e v e l slope and the l e v e l surface lands r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Drainage i s a r & t h e r serious and widespread problem
i n t h i s zone where i t i s estimated t h a t 5 8 . 9 % i s o f a poor
drainage capacity w h i l e 3 6 . 5 % i s o f a good d r a i n a b i l i t y
c o n d i t i o n and 4.6% moderately drained.
S a l i n i t y i s very d i v e r s e i n the zone's C I I I L . The r a t e
o f e l e c t r i c c o n d u c t i v i t y ranges from 0 . 9 t o 350 mmhos; i n
the areas o f such h i g h extremes considerable work and cost
f o r leaching p r a c t i c e s would be i n v o l v e d . F o r t u n a t e l y the
m a j o r i t y o f lands i s f a r below the high t o t a l and i n f a c t
the range o f 1 - 2 0 i s t h e order throughout the zone. The
t e x t u r a l composition v a r i e s according t o the parent m a t e r i a l
and topographic p o s i t i o n o f the l o c a l i t i e s , and the sandy
loam, s i l t loam, and c l a y p r o f i l e s are very common almost
i n every s i n g l e l o c a l i t y .
( b ) Ash Shmasiyyah zone ( 1 2 . 4 0 9 h e c t . )
The Class I I I lands i n Ash Shmasiyyah zone ( P i g . 2 4 ) are
scattered throughout t h e zone on e i t h e r side o f the J i l h
escarpment. The western side i s a narrow long s t r i p o f land
bordered by the western edge o f the escarpment on the east
and by a tongue o f the As S i r r sand dunes on the west. A l l
the a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements w i t h i n the zone are confined t o

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97.

and c l u s t e r e d along t h i s s t r i p and i t i s the only i n h a b i t e d

p a r t o f the zone; apart from t h a t a l l the C I I I L east t o the
scarp are v i r g i n and have never been brought under c u l t i v a tion.
55*3% and 26% o f t h i s land are l o c a t e d i n the closed
basins and depressions and i n the a l l u v i a l p l a i n s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
A l l u v i a l fans, a t the f r o n t o f the escarpment on e i t h e r side
a

comprise 8.6% o f the zone t o t a l which i s the highest proport i o n o f C I I I L o f t h i s type o f topographical s e t t i n g i n t h e
r e g i o n . 5.2% and 4 . 9 % o f the zone t o t a l are s i t u a t e d i n t h e
desert p l a i n s and i n the wadis throughout the zone.
Drainage i s a widespread d e f i c i e n c y o f t h e C I I I L o f t h e
zone. I t i s estimated t h a t 60.8% and 2 . 1 % are o f a poor and
excessive d r a i n a b i l i t y conditions r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
remaining p o r t i o n i s almost o f a w e l l - d r a i n e d type o f land
where i t represents 3 6 . 9 % , and only 0.2% o f the zone t o t a l
i s moderately-drained.
Nearly 22.5% o f the zone t o t a l i s i n
need o f s l i g h t l e v e l l i n g p r a c t i c e s as i t has a g e n t l y
undulating surface, b u t t h e remaining p r o p o r t i o n does n o t
need such a p r a c t i c e , where 4 4 . 8 % and 3 . 7 % are r e s p e c t i v e l y
lands o f a. n e a r l y l e v e l and l e v e l slope. S a l i n i t y i s a
diverse p r o p e r t y o f the C I I I L where the r a t e i s i n the range
o f 176 and 0 . 5 mrahos. The higher cases are i n f a c t r a r e and
i t i s only a few areas which c o n t a i n above E.C. 50 mmhos.
Most o f the lands are o f a reasonable and moderate s a l i n i t y
i n the range o f 1 - 2 0 mmhos.
( c ) Asyah zone ( 7 . 7 1 4 h e c t . )
The topographical s e t t i n g o f the Class I I I lands i n t h i s
zone ( F i g . 2 5 ) i s confined t o f o u r topographical p o s i t i o n s ;
the basins and depressions, the a l l u v i a l p l a i n s , the wadis,
and the desert p l a i n s w i t h i n or surrounding the broad shallow
v a l l e y o f a l Asyah. The p r o p o r t i o n o f each i s 4 . 4 % , 3 0 . 4 % ,
1 8 . 6 % and 8.6% r e s p e c t i v e l y . Drainage d e f i c i e n c y i s the
2

SETTLEMENT

AT-TARFEYYAH

CLASS

VI

CLASS.

Ill

CLASS

II

SOIL
DEFICIENCY

AIN IBN FEHAID

Stcf

TOPOGRAPHY

DRAINAGE
DEFICIENCY

DEFICIENCY

AL-JEAALAH

s c ale
4
6

IO

kms.

LAND CLASSIFICATION
Air-ASYAH ZONE

THE PEG/ON

OF A1=-QASS/M.
FIGURE 25

character o f most o f the C I I I L and i t i s estimated t h a t

6k.7% i s t h e percentage o f the C I I I L i n t h e zone c l a s s i f i e d
as poorly-drained l a n d , w h i l e 17.7% and 17.6$ are the
percentages f o r moderately-drained and w e l l - d r a i n e d
r e s p e c t i v e l y . Slope i s n o t a very favourable character o f
t h i s land as i t i s estimated t h a t 18.1% and 0.2% represent
the g e n t l y undulating and u n d u l a t i n g lands. 59% and 22.7%
are the f i g u r e s f o r the n e a r l y l e v e l and the lands w i t h a
l e v e l surface. S a l i n i t y o f t h i s type o f land i n t h i s zone
seems the most moderate o f a l l i n t h e region where k0 mmhos.
i s the f i g u r e f o r t h e upmost extreme case, and most o f the
lands are o f a s a l i n i t y i n the range o f 0.5 t o 5. T h i s ,
i n f a c t , i s a very favourable character o f the C I I I L i n the
zone and indeed a promising one f o r a wide range o f crop
adaptability.
( d ) Qusaiba zone (5.890 h e c t . )
1+8.9% of the zone t o t a l i s l o c a t e d (Pig.26) i n t h e
closed basins and depressions which are s c a t t e r e d i n a
series o f broken chains throughout the zone separating t h e
low ridges and the cuestas of the zone and breaching the
vast d u r i c r u s t p l a i n . I n t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s l i e s 25.6%
of the C I I I L which u s u a l l y l i e s , adjacent t o the most
prominent topographic f e a t u r e o f the zone t h e low r i d g e s
and cuestas. Desert p l a i n s o f the area comprise 12.8% o f
the t o t a l percentage and the a l l u v i a l fans and wadis
c o n t a i n 7.6% and 5.1% o f t h e zone t o t a l .
Drainage capacity o f t h e C I I I L seems b e t t e r than i n
the previous zones. The moderately-drained lands and the
w e l l - d r a i n e d areas are estimated t o be o f the order o f
34.2% and 26.3% r e s p e c t i v e l y which on the whole surpass
the c o n d i t i o n s o f the wadi zone or Ash Shmasiyyah zone.
The slope of these lands i s almost n e a r l y l e v e l w i t h 72.4%
of the zone t o t a l and the l e v e l lands represent 13.8%.

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99

No p a r t o f these lands has a undulating surface and t h e

g e n t l y undulating lands represent 13.8%. I f l e v e l l i n g
p r a c t i c e s should he considered i t might he i n the case o f
the l a t t e r type o f slope where i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t o he o f
a very moderate c o s t . S a l i n i t y i n the zone reaches a
maximum as h i g h as k50 and also a minimum as low as 0.2
mmhos. These extreme cases are o f a very r a r e occurrence
and the common r a t e i s i n the order o f 5-20 mmhos. A
s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f the C I I I L i n t h i s zone i s t h a t the
t e x t u r a l composition i s almost confined t o loam and/or c l a y ,
(e) Midhuab zone (5.762 hect.)
The Class I I I lands i n the Midhuab zone (Pig.27) have
two d i s t i n c t i v e and comparatively b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
than the other zones i n the r e g i o n . F i r s t a very favourable
slope confined only t o n e a r l y l e v e l and l e v e l surfaces where
792$ and 20.896 represent both r e s p e c t i v e l y . The second i s
the good d r a i n a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n which, w i t h the a s s o c i a t i o n
of the favourable slope, would promote a good repayment
c a p a c i t y . 41.8% i s a moderately-drained land and 33.3%
w e l l - d r a i n e d , w h i l e 16.6% i s poorly-drained and 8.3% o f an
excessive d r a i n a b i l i t y . These percentages f o r unfavourable
drainage are the lowest i n the r e g i o n .
The Midhuab zone comprises a completely d i f f e r e n t
topographical s e t t i n g f o r 12.5% o f the CTII lands which l i e s
w i t h i n t h e s i l t f l a t s t h e unique topographical p o s i t i o n of
t h i s zone. 37.7% and 29.1% are l o c a t e d w i t h i n the wadis
and the basins and depressions o f the zone r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Desert p l a i n s i n the area comprise 20.7% o f t h i s type o f
land.
As i n other p a r t s o f the r e g i o n , s a l i n i t y i s a very
v a r i a b l e p r o p e r t y ranging from one l o c a l i t y t o another w i t h
maximum as high as 175 and t h e minimum as low as 0.8 mmhos.

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100

This extreme v a r i a t i o n i n the region as a whole i n d i c a t e s

the need f o r extensive and i n t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n order
t o f a c i l i t a t e and enable sharp and accurate l i n e s between
the many d i f f e r e n t s a l i n i t y r a t e s . T h i s , i f accomplished,
would lead t o the enhancement o f land improvement p r a c t i c e s
as s a l i n i t y i s a very i n h i b i t i n g and l i m i t i n g f a c t o r t o the
crop A d a p t a b i l i t y range.
8.14- Glass VI Lands
89.6% (703,925 h e c t . ) i s the percentage o f the nonarable lands i n the Qassim. The geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n
of these lands shows t h a t the Qusaiba zone comprises 39.1%
o f the t o t a l percentage. This great percentage i s due t o
the existence o f the vast d u r i c r u s t cover i n the area
associated w i t h the chain o f cuestas and low r i d g e s . The
second biggest percentage (30.3%) o f t h i s class l i e s w i t h i n
the wadi zone as a r e s u l t o f the large accumulation o f sand
dunes i n and around the wadi channels and the scarps edges
bordering the wadi basin. A l Asyah area comprises 14.2%
o f the t o t a l determined by the g r a v e l p l a i n s and A l . T r e f i y a h
sand dunes b o r d e r i n g the very shallow and broad v a l l e y o f
a l Asyah. Ashemaseyyah area has 9.5% and the Midhuab zone
contains 6.9% o f the t o t a l percentage;
However, g e n e r a l l y , class and sub-class V I lands are o f
a aevere, unfavourable combination o f topography, drainage,
and s o i l d e f i c i e n c i e s . I n general they are rough, broken,
or badly eroded lands, sand sheets or dunes; land w i t h s o i l
of very coarse or very f i n e t e x t u r e , o r shallow s o i l s over
g r a v e l , shale, sandstone o r hardpan. These lands u s u a l l y
have inadequate drainage c a p a c i t i e s and h i g h concentrations
of soluble s a l t s and/or sodium. Thus, Class V I lands do not
have s u f f i c i e n t repayment capacity t o cover the costs o f
production and reclamation p r a c t i c e s .

101

The only capacity of t h i s class i s g r a z i n g . Further

studies on t h i s subject are necessary t o determine the
a c t u a l and the safe margin f o r grazing capacity of each
i n d i v i d u a l sub-class. Undoubtedly, t h i s , i f accomplished
i n an e f f i c i e n t and accurate way and then handled by sound
management measures, would lead t o an improvement o f land
u t i l i z a t i o n on the range resources. For a considerable time
the range husbandry o f the r e g i o n i s l i k e l y to remain of
h i g h economic importance.
This p r e l i m i n a r y study of the land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
the Qassim has o u t l i n e d the areas t h a t should be given
p r i o r i t y i n any f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d studies concerning land
, and a g r i c u l t u r a l development i n the r e g i o n . An exception
to t h i s simple conclusion i s the class I I lands* of the
Qusaiba zone which comprises 33% of the t o t a l percentage of
the r e g i o n . Because o f the f a c t t h a t t h i s zone i s the l e a s t
inhabited zone i n the r e g i o n and lacks paved and good roads
t o the other p a r t s of the r e g i o n or even t o other p a r t s of
the kingdom, i t i s suggested t h a t t h i s zone should not be
given the f i r s t chance of land developments p r o j e c t s i n the
region.
The wadi basin zone which comprises the second biggest
share o f the Class I I lands i n the r e g i o n stands f i r m l y f o r
the f i r s t p r o j e c t . This i s based on the ground o f very
favourable circumstances; i t i s the most populated p a r t i n
the r e g i o n and enjoys a very modern and e f f i c i e n t highway
contacted at i t s southern end by the c e n t r a l highway which
crosses the Arabian peninsula: from the west t o the east
shores (Jeddah-Dammam highway v i a Riyadh). Moreover, t h i s
case i s supported s t r o n g l y by the f a c t t h a t the wadi b a s i n
zone holds 39% o f the t o t a l percentage of the Class I I I
lands i n the Qassim.

102.

A l Asyah zone w i t h the t h i r d share of the Class I I

lands i n the r e g i o n s u f f e r s from p r i m i t i v e communication
means. Nevertheless, i t i s i n a more favourable p o s i t i o n
as a whole than the Qusaiba zone due t o the f a c t t h a t the
lands i n a l Asyah are of continuous throughout the shallow
broad v a l l e y o f a l Asyah, w h i l e those of the Qusaiba zone
l i e w i t h i n the s c a t t e r e d basins and depressions which are
separated by rugged topography. However, the area which
i s suggested f o r the second o f any f u t u r e p r o j e c t s i s the
liidhnab, one as i t i s the second most populated p a r t of the
region and enjoys a very e f f i c i e n t highway f a c i l i t y across
the zone from the south t o the n o r t h by a sector of the Ar
Riyadh - Braydah highway. Moreover, t h i s zone, due t o i t s
geographical l o c a t i o n , i s the nearest p a r t of the r e g i o n
t o the b i g markets of Saudi i n Ar Riyadh, M&cca and Jeddah. V

References
1.

A l l e r d , B. W.

Technical Guide No.1. How t o

determine range s i t e s and c o n d i t i o n
classes i n Saudi Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , P r o j e c t 117,
F.A.O., Rome, 1965.

2.

A l l e r d , B. W. and others E c o l o g i c a l Evaluation o f Plants.

Saudi Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , P r o j e c t 117,
P.A.O., Rome, 1965.

3.

Balle-Jones, E. W.

Progress r e p o r t on response t o
f e r t i l i z e r s a p p l i c a t i o n i n Saudi
Arabia
Unpublished mimeograph,
S o i l F e r t i l i t y Branch,
P.A.O., Rome, June, 1967.

Clark, J. S.

An examination o f the p. o f
Calcareous s o i l s
S o i l Science,
Vol.98 (pages 145-151 ), 1964
Rugters U n i v e r s i t y ,
N.J., U.S.A.

5.

Draz, 0.

Some desert p l a n t s and t h e i r

uses i n animal feeding
de l I n s t i t u t e du Desert d'Egypte,
No.2 (pages 1-95).
Cairo, 1954.
1

6. F.A.O.

P.A.O.

Report, on the f i r s t meeting on

s o i l f e r t i l i t y and f e r t i l i z e r s
use i n the Near East and North
Africa
Rome, January, 1963.
S o i l Map o f the Near East:
P r o v i s i o n a l Examination Note
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n ,
Rome, 1963.

7.

F i t z g e r a l d , D. P.

The vegetation o f C e n t r a l and

Eastern Arabia
J o u r n a l o f Ecology, k5 (pages
779-789), 1957.

8.

Healy, H. P.

Grazing resources and the

problems. Saudi Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA
r e p o r t No.l6iA
P.A.O., Rome, 1963.

9. Klemme, M.

Pasture development and range

management. Saudi Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA
r e p o r t No.1993.
P.A.O., Rome, 1965.

10.

Kubiena, W. L.

The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f S o i l s
Journal o f S o i l Science,
Vol.9, 1958.

11.

Parsons-Basil

Report and recommendation on range

resources o f Area 1. the Qassim.
Wadi Sirham. Sakakah. al-Jawf.
Saudi Arabia
Unpublished mimeograph.
Water and A g r i c u l t u r a l Development Studies, M i n i s t r y o f Water
and A g r i c u l t u r e , Ar Riyadh,
A p r i l , 1967.

12.

Schwan, H. C.

An a p p r a i s a l o f the w i l d lands
of Saudi Arabia
Unpublished mimeograph.
U.S. operation mission t o
Saudi Arabia, 1954.

13.

S o i l Survey S t a f f

S o i l Survey Manual
U.S.D.A.,
Washington, D.C., 1953

15.

Survey S t a f f

guide l i n e s f o r s o i l d e s c r i p t i o n
S o i l survey and f e r t i l i t y branch,
B u l l e t i n No.29317
F.A.O., Ronje

Survey S t a f f

Land-Capability C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
A g r i c u l t u r e hand book No.21 0
S o i l Conservation Service,
U.S.D.A.--:

16. U.S.D.I.

Bureau'of Reclamation Manual

Vol.v., I r r i g a t e d Land Use,
Part 2, Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,
W shington,l953.
a

17.

Zahary, M.

On the Ghada trees on Northern

Arabia and Syrian Desert
P a l e s t i n e Jour. J e r . Series 1
(pages itf 3 - M 6 ) , 19*4-0.

PART I V
THE AGRICULTURE

103.

Chapter 9

The P a t t e r n of A g r i c u l t u r a l
Production

9.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
The Qassim i s d i v i d e d i n t o three main a g r i c u l t u r a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i s t r i c t s ; Braydah, Aunayzah, and Ar Russ
( F i g . 2 8 ) . These d i s t r i c t s embrace 269,57^ hectares of
land under a land h o l d i n g system, which c o n s t i t u t e s 58.2$
of the t o t a l land under a h o l d i n g system i n the kingdom.
I t i s reported i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l survey o f the region
(1961-62) t h a t t h i s aggregate represents the arable land
i n the Qassim. A recent study (1967)^ ^ revealed t h a t
the absolute area o f arable land i n the Qassim i s 83,118
hectares. This c a l c u l a t i o n was based on a e r i a l photograph
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s supplemented by f i e l d i n s p e c t i o n s . I n
f a c t , such a great d i f f e r e n c e between the two estimates could
be e a s i l y e l i m i n a t e d by r e j e c t i n g the assumption of the
a g r i c u l t u r a l survey report, on the grounds t h a t the sizes
of h o l d i n g were recorded according t o the farmers' statements
and were considered as representing the a c t u a l arable land.
Most o f the region*s farmers do not know the exact area o f
t h e i r holdings and the r a t i o o f the a c t u a l arable land
against non-arable land w i t h i n t h e i r holdings and they a l l
have the tendency t o exaggerate t h e i r p o s i t i o n s ; i n a d d i t i o n ,
most o f the surveyors who conducted the survey were p o o r l y
t r a i n e d and inexperienced, and t h e i r estimations o f the
a c t u a l size of the arable land w i t h i n the absolute size o f
the holdings i s r a r e l y accurate. I t was noted during f i e l d
1

Conducted f o r the M i n i s t r y of Water and A g r i c u l t u r e by

j o i n t American-Greek Consultants (Parsons-Basil).

AGRICULTURAL
43 OO

DISTRICTS

IN THE REGION

41 30

OF

AL-QASSIM

44 OO

44 30 t.
27 OO*

I
I
i
26 30

1i
( 7r 1
/

- J

IT

26 OO

it
>

as
BRATDAH
DISTRICT

AUHA YZAH
DISTRICT

ARRUSS
DISTRICT

AGRICULTURAL

NCW
AREAS

ARIAS

DVELOPUNT

t
IO

JO

20
-I

MHCS

FIGURE ?8

104.

work, however, t h a t many holdings comprise a sizeable area

of non-arable l a n d .
However, the survey estimates t h a t some 32-,000 hectares
were under c u l t i v a t i o n a t the time when the survey was
conducted. This magnitude represents 38.4 per cent of the
t o t a l of a c t u a l c u l t i v a b l e land i n the r e g i o n according t o
the recent estimates. This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , however, reveals

the great a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l which, under favourable

c o n d i t i o n s , could be e x p l o i t e d .
C u l t i v a t i o n i n the Qassim depends e n t i r e l y on i r r i g a t i o n ,
and i t i s estimated t h a t only some 0.6 per cent o f t o t a l
c u l t i v a t e d area i s r a i n f e d c u l t i v a t i o n of c e r e a l s .
However, throughout the h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on Arabia,
several statements occur which r e f e r t o the r e l a t i v e p r o s p e r i t y of a g r i c u l t u r e i n the Qassim i n the middle o f the
barren heart o f Arabia. U n t i l the present century,
a g r i c u l t u r e was confined t o the very l i m i t e d o l d settlements
of the r e g i o n . Subsistence a g r i c u l t u r e was the type o f
farming. The s h i f t towards a market-orientated type o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l economy was r e t a r d e d u n t i l the beginning o f
the 1950s by a complex of f a c t o r s . Severe shortage o f water
was the premier f a c t o r , supplemented by r e g i o n a l i s o l a t i o n
imposed by an e n t i r e l a c k of paved roads t o connect the
region w i t h the r e s t o f the kingdom. This i s o l a t i o n was
a m p l i f i e d by a p h y s i c a l f a c t o r , namely the huge bodies o f
sand dunes which surround the r e g i o n . A low standard o f
l i v i n g was the economic reason behind the low purchasing
power o f the i n h a b i t a n t s , and the low p r i c e s o f valuable
crops c o n s t i t u t e d an economic discouragement t o attempts by
the farmers t o depart from the subsistence type' o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l economy.
Since the beginning of the 1950s the ever r i s i n g

105

n a t i o n a l income from o i l has r e s u l t e d , however, i n a steady

r i s e i n per capita income and consequently i n an increasing
purchasing power f o r more valuable and d i v e r s i f i e d f o o d s t u f f s .
This change has r e s u l t e d i n increased farm income and has
enabled farmers t o i n t e n s i f y t h e i r e f f o r t s t o seek more
water i n order t o i r r i g a t e more land t o meet the increasing
demand. These e f f o r t s commenced i n a r a t h e r desperate way
by deepening t h e i r o r i g i n a l hand-dug w e l l s by h a n d - d r i l l e r s
t o allow more water t o seep from the deeper zones and
accumulate i n the w e l l . One of these hard attempts h i t the
a r t e s i a n water of the Tabuk a q u i f e r i n May, 1953 t o prove
the existence of such w e a l t h and mark the s t a r t of a new and
very promising era i n the h i s t o r y of the Qassim. This
discovery has urged the government t o a l l o c a t e considerable
amounts of funds f o r d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on the q u a n t i t y
and q u a l i t y o f t h i s new source of p r o s p e r i t y . These
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have proved the existence o f a r t e s i a n water
i n a q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y s u f f i c i e n t t o support a l l a r a b l e
lands i n the middle and eastern parts of the region f o r
generations t o come. The increasing n a t i o n a l income has
also enabled the government t o construct a net of paved
roads t o cover the kingdom, and the Qassim has l o s t i t s
geographical i s o l a t i o n and i s now l i n k e d by an e f f i c i e n t
highway w i t h e x c e l l e n t access t o the b i g markets i n the
Central Najd, and Hejaz r e g i o n s ;
9.2
The Land System
There i s no land r e g i s t r y map of the c u l t i v a t e d and
n o n - c u l t i v a t e d areas of the lands i n the Region. The deeds
lodged w i t h the emirs of the region are mere l i s t s of t a x payers (Mezzakkeyn) w i t h o u t any i n f o r m a t i o n on the nature
of the p r o p e r t i e s of the taxpayers. The only persons
capable of remembering, at l e a s t i n p a r t , the type of

106.

holding (owned, rented, or income or crop shared), and the

l i m i t s of each property are the heads of v i l l a g e s who, "by
t r a d i t i o n , hand down t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n . However, even
progressing along these l i n e s i t was impossible t o o b t a i n
s u f f i c i e n t , accurate, and r e l i a b l e data t o draw up a
complete p i c t u r e of land tenure f o r the e n t i r e arable
t e r r i t o r y of the r e g i o n .
However, the types of land tenure w i t h i n the r e g i o n
could be c l a s s i f i e d i n the f o l l o w i n g manner:1 . P r i v a t e l y owned land
(Mulk)
2. C h a r i t y land "
(Waqf)
3. T r i b a l l y owned land
(Deirah)
Due t o the u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f data on the areas o f each, a
p r o p o r t i o n a t e s i z e f o r each type cannot be drawn;-nonetheless,
i t i s expected t h a t the t r i b a l l y owned land occupies the
l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n of the arable and non-arable lands i n the
region as communal ownership i s common f o r most of the
p o p u l a t i o n i n the Qassim, e i t h e r s e t t l e r s or nomads.
P r i v a t e l y owned land comes next t o the t r i b a l land i n s i z e ,
but i t must be noted t h a t i t surpasses the t r i b a l land i n
terms of a c t u a l c u l t i v a t e d land s i z e , as most of the t r i b a l
lands are e x p l o i t e d merely as a range land.
(1 ) Mulk system
The breakdown of holdings i n t o small p l o t s and the
increase i n land fragmentation from one generation t o the
other does occur, g e n e r a l l y , i n t h i s type o f land tenure.
I n most cases, h e i r s o f t e n agree t o h o l d the land j o i n t l y ,
and e n t r u s t i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o a senior kinsman, who i n
r e t u r n f o r t h i s service not only r e t a i n s h i s share of the
crop but also i s p a i d f o r h i s labour (Ataab). The remainder
o f the crop or income i s d i v i d e d among the other owners.
This type o f arrangement, which i s known as Sharakah. was
frequent i n the past up t o the l a s t decade. Marriage between

107

f i r s t cousins f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t e d t o the c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f
f a m i l y holdings by preventing the property o f women from
"being t r a n s f e r r e d t o other f a m i l i e s . The c u r r e n t t r e n d ,
however, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the case of land being brought
under c u l t i v a t i o n by the newly wealthy sector, who resides
i n the towns e i t h e r w i t h i n the region or elsewhere i n the
kingdom, i s toward p a r t i t i o n o f property among h e i r s , w i t h
frequent sales t o o u t s i d e r s .
I n case the h e i r s wish t o d i v i d e the h o l d i n g among them,
the process o f d i v i s i o n has t o be c a r r i e d out according t o
I s l a m i c laws. The r u l e s o f the law which regulates land
i n h e r i t a n c e , as w e l l as other types o f i n h e r i t a n c e , are
o u t l i n e d b r i e f l y as f o l l o w s ; One-eighth o f the estate i s
a l l o c a t e d t o the s u r v i v i n g spouse; i f there i s more than
one spouse, the p o r t i o n i s d i v i d e d e q u a l l y among them. Seveneighths, the r e s i d u a l e s t a t e , i s d i v i d e d according t o the
number and sex o f the d i r e c t h e i r s (Dhurreyah). (Sons and
daughters).
I f there i s only one son ( o r only one daughter)
he or she i s e n t i t l e d t o the seven-eighths p o r t i o n ; i f there
are two or more sons or two or more daughters the seveneighths i s d i v i d e d between them i n equal p a r t s . I f there
i s one son. and one daughter the former gets t w o - t h i r d s o f
the seven-eighths and the l a t t e r the remaining o n e - t h i r d .
I f there are two sons and one daughter f o u r - f i f t h s of the
seven-eighths i s d i v i d e d between the sons, the daughter
receives o n e - f i f t h ; the same d i v i s i o n also occurs i f there
happens t o be more sons and more daughters: i n t h i s case
the f o u r - f i f t h s o f the seven-eighths p o r t i o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d
i n equal p a r t s between the sons and the f i f t h p a r t i s also
e q u a l l y d i v i d e d between the daughters.
Descendant and c o l l a t e r a l kinsmen ( b r o t h e r s , nephews,
e t c . ) only enter the i n h e r i t a n c e e x c e p t i o n a l l y when the dead

100

householder has had no d i r e c t h e i r s or when i t i s s t a t e d

i n the w i l l of the dead householder.
(2) Waqf system
Waqf land i s land which has been w r i t t e n , i n a w i l l o f
a dead householder as c h a r i t y land. The revenue o f such
lands must he spent i n accordance w i t h the statement of the
w i l l ; f o r instance, i n cases i t should he d i s t r i b u t e d among
h i s or her r e l a t i v e s or kinsmen, or, i f n o t , among poor
people i n the v i l l a g e , or t o he spent on maintenance of a
c e r t a i n mosque or mosques i n the v i l l a g e or towns as a
c h a r i t y from the dead householder. The r e n t u n i t always has
to be i n k i n d , u s u a l l y an amount o f wheat t o be paid y e a r l y .
Such an amount i s f i x e d according t o the s i z e of the land,
i t s productive capacity, the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water and farming
f a c i l i t i e s . However, i t i s u s u a l l y a small amount of wheat
i n the range of 20 saa '' per hectare per year. The d u r a t i o n
o f contract o f waqf land i s always i n the range o f 30 t o 100
years, i n a few cases even up t o 200 years. Such a case was
reported i n Ash Shmasiyyah zone.
v

(3) T r i b a l lands
These lands comprise the greatest p o r t i o n of the land i n
the r e g i o n , and are! l a r g e l y used as range lands. Such lands,
i n c l u d i n g t h e i r w e l l s , are h e l d i n t r u s t f o r the t r i b e by the
y r u l i n g sheikh, who mgy not s e l l any p a r t o f them and who passes
them on t o h i s successor. Ultimate j u r i s d i c t i o n over a l l
t r i b a l lands i s , however, possessed by the k i n g who r e t a i n s
the r i g h t t o give them away.
An i n t e r e s t i n g aspect of communal land tenure attached
to dry farming p r a c t i c e i n a l Asyah area (N.E.)is t h a t the
r a t i o of t r i b a l land i s h i g h . When the amount o f the
occasional w i n t e r r a i n f a l l or f l o o d i n g i s h i g h enough t o
permit dry farming ( u s u a l l y c e r e a l ) , the question o f land
d i v i s i o n of the surrounding communal land i s solved by the
1

^ ^Saa i s a l o c a l u n i t equal t o 2.8

kg.

109.

acceptable t r a d i t i o n a l way. The f i r s t person who s t a r t s

ploughing the land i s the one who i s e n t i t l e d t o claim i t
f o r the season provided he or she i s a s e t t l e r i n the
v i l l a g e or a nomad r e l a t e d w i t h the settlement. The s i z e
of claimed land i s u n l i m i t e d and the claimers plough from
the p o i n t he or she s t a r t s as f a r as the ploughing
operations set up "by other claimers i n the area.
Another i n t e r e s t i n g aspect concerning communal lands
i s encountered i n Wadi Ar Rma area ( e s p e c i a l l y around
Badaeya and a l Khabrasettlements). The wide wadi bed i s
a common p r o p e r t y o f the farmers who own farms on e i t h e r
side o f i t s banks where the o r i g i n a l palm gardens were
e s t a b l i s h e d . Every farmer has the r i g h t t o expand h i s
farm i n t o the wadi bed provided t h a t the extension does
not exceed i n w i d t h the w i d t h of the o r i g i n a l palm-garden
on the wadi bank.
However, the system o f land tenure o f the c u l t i v a t e d
lands i n the Qassim i s based on p r i v a t e ownership r a t h e r
^
than s t a t e ownership. This system contains k S63 holdings
which i n t u r n comprise 60,810 separate pieces o f land w i t h
a t o t a l area of 269,57k hect. and only 11.9 per cent o f the
holdings are under c u l t i v a t i o n ^ \ 90.7 per cent of these
holdings are farmed by the owners (Fig.29) who e i t h e r farm
the land themselves w i t h the help o f t h e i r household members
or who run the farm by h i r e d labour w i t h occasional superv i s i o n . The remaining 9.3 per cent o f the holdings i s e i t h e r
rented on the basis of c e r t a i n amount o f cash or k i n d or on
the basis of crop or income sharing basis depending on the
i n d i v i d u a l agreement. Absentee landlordism occurs on a small
scale e s p e c i a l l y i n the t r i b a l l y owned lands, which are cared
f o r by tenants u n t i l harvest time when the owner r e t u r n s t o
f

A l l these f i g u r e s are c a l c u l a t e d from data given i n

the a g r i c u l t u r a l survey of the Qassim i n 1961-62.

>

PERCENTAGES
43

OF

TYPES

OF HOLDINGS IN THE AGRICULTURAL

THE REGION OF AL-OASSIM
43

OO

OO

THC

OWNCR

<3

DISTRICTS,

27

0 0

26

SO

26

OO

2S

30

KGIOM

OCCUPIED

10

RENT ID
Li

FIGURE

29

110

c o l l e c t h i e share. The r a t e of rent o f a g r i c u l t u r a l lands

i s comparatively h i g h i n the r e g i o n . C a l c u l a t i o n o f the
average r a t e of r e n t "based on the f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n
suggests t h a t the average i s i n the range of 50 per cent
of the production and t h i s percentage i s probably the
highest i n the kingdom. A s i m i l a r estimate by the M i n i s t r y
of A g r i c u l t u r e f o r al-Ahsa r e g i o n ( e a s t ) and the n o r t h e r n
boundaries province i n d i c a t e t h a t the average r a t e l i e s
round 35 per cent of the t o t a l cost o f p r o d u c t i o n i n those
areas
The s i z e o f h o l d i n g throughout the r e g i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e . A c a l c u l a t i o n based on the a g r i c u l t u r a l survey data
(1961-62) i n d i c a t e s t h a t U.8.6^ ^ per cent of the holdings
are of 1 0 hectares and over, 36.5 per cent 1-5 hectares, and
the remainder l i e s w i t h i n the range of 5-10 hectares and
c l a s s i f i e d as medium s i z e of h o l d i n g s .
The most i n t e r e s t i n g and important aspect o f the land
holding system i n the r e g i o n i s the rent and metayage system.
There are, i n f a c t , many types of r e n t and metayage
contracts evolved and designated according t o a complex of
i n t e r c a l a t e d t r a d i t i o n , economics, and s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s .
Samples of these contract systems were i n v e s t i g a t e d i n the
f i e l d and grouped as f a r as possible i n the f o l l o w i n g types:(a) Teapeer system
The tespeer system i s a r e n t i n g system more commonly
found i n the i s o l a t e d c u l t i v a t e d areas. I t i s always dealt
w i t h f o r abandoned farms or f i e l d s . Such farms or f i e l d s
become abandoned e i t h e r as a r e s u l t of the death, i l l n e s s ,
or age of the owner whose household members l i v e on another
farm i n the adjacent v i l l a g e and are unable t o continue
1

See Appendix G.

111

farming such l a n d . Another cause o f such abandonment i s

because t h e owner has become bankrupt and i s unable t o
meet the farm's expenses. I n t h i s system t h e r e n t has t o
be p a i d i n cash and a t the end o f t h e c o n t r a c t p e r i o d which
u s u a l l y varies between 1-3 years.
(b) Sobra system
The sobra system i s a l i f e - l o n g c o n t r a c t , and i t i s a
r a t h e r uncommon system a t the present time and almost confined
t o t h e very i s o l a t e d settlements. Contract o f sobra has t o
be dealt w i t h through the court o f the settlement, or t h e
nearest court i n the adjacent v i l l a g e or town. F i n a l
r e g i s t r a t i o n o f the c o n t r a c t i n the court has t o gain the
approval o f the judge and the v i l l a g e ' s mayor. The r e n t
payment i s y e a r l y and f i x e d according t o t h e value o f the
land. The l a n d l o r d r e t a i n s the r i g h t t o repossess h i s land
only i n two circumstances according t o t h e t r a d i t i o n o f the
system. These are, f i r s t l y , the death o f t h e tenant, and,
secondly, the f a i l u r e o f the tenant t o pay the r e n t . However,
i n the few i s o l a t e d cases which represent t h i s system reasons
beyond the adoption o f such contract were always reported t o
be the d e c i s i o n o f the o r i g i n a l owner t o migrate t o one o f
the urban communities t o take up a job i n t r a d i n g or
governmental services, or t h e need o f the concerned farm or
land f o r considerable reclamation p r a c t i c e s and costs, which
renders the farm i n unacceptable c o n d i t i o n f o r short tenancy.
( c ) income sharing system
The common and p r e v a i l i n g income sharing system i s the
50 per cent system. The terms o f t h i s system vary from
place t o place, being a f f e c t e d by t h e l o c a t i o n and potent i a l i t y o f t h e farm. The various terms are grouped i n the
f o l l o w i n g two types o f c o n t r a c t s : -

112.

( i ) The l a n d l o r d has t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n the p r o d u c t i o n

coats and product t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o the market a t
the r a t e o f 50 per cent, p l u s p r o v i d i n g water
pumping f a c i l i t i e s . I n r e t u r n the l a n d l o r d w i l l
receive a t the end o f the year h a l f o f the farm
income
( i i ) The second type o f the f i f t y per cent income
sharing i s "based on the f o l l o w i n g terms. F i r s t l y ,
the l a n d l o r d has t o provide water pumping f a c i l i t i e s w i t h or w i t h o u t , depending upon the p o s i t i o n
of the farm, f u e l f o r pumping. Secondly, t h e
owner has t o pay f o r the ploughing cost o f the
land and f u l l or, i n cases, h a l f the p r i c e o f
the a p p l i e d chemical f e r t i l i z e r s . T h i r d l y , t h e
tenant has t o bear alone a l l the other costs o f
farming i n c l u d i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a r e s o f t h e
crops t o the market i n the nearby town.
However, i t i s noted t h a t the l a t t e r c o n t r a c t i s the
popular one, b u t i n e i t h e r case the c o n t r a c t i s on a y e a r l y
basis renewable a u t o m a t i c a l l y i f no o b j e c t i o n i s r a i s e d by
one o f the concerned p a r t i e s .
Another system of income sharing was encountered i n
Aunayzah area, b u t i t seems t h a t i t i s a r a t h e r i s o l a t e d
case. I t i s known as T h u l t h a i n system ( t w o - t h i r d s ) , I n
t h i s system the l a n d l o r d has t o provide water pumping
f a c i l i t i e s plus f u e l , and t o provide or pay f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o the market i n the nearby town. I n r e t u r n the
l a n d l o r d shares the farm income a t the r a t e o f 67 per cent.
The tenant has t o bear alone a l l other costs o f c u l t i v a t i o n ,
such as labour, seeds, ploughing, e t c . The p e r i o d o f the
encountered tenancy i n the f r u i t s farm case i s three years.
However, the question o f whether t h i s system would become
widespread i n t h e f u t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r f r u i t farms, i s

113.

i n t e r e s t i n g as i t i s expected t o be accepted notably f o r

the new c i t r u s farms around the towns o f Braydah and
Aunayzah where the income o f such farms i s h i g h enough t o
c o n s t i t u t e , by o n e - t h i r d o f i t s gross income, a reasonable
income f o r tenants t o j u s t i f y t h e i r labour and endeavour
i n t h e farm, e s p e c i a l l y f o r three guaranteed years,
(d) Metayage system
The metayage system i s confined t o e i t h e r o l d palm-,
gardens or t o f a l l o w f i e l d s . I t includes t h e f o l l o w i n g
types: ( i ) Aushr sharing (10 per cent)
The Aushr system i s u s u a l l y taken f o r f i e l d crops
( c e r e a l ) , and i t i s based on t e n per cent share
of the produce being p a i d t o t h e l a n d l o r d . Apart
from p r o v i d i n g the piece o f land o r farm, the
l a n d l o r d does not p a r t i c i p a t e i n any o f t h e
farming costs. Moreover, the metayer has t o
provide h i s own pumping f a c i l i t i e s , and i n cases,
he has t o d i g a w e l l i n the f i e l d . The p e r i o d
of t h i s type o f crop sharing ranges i n average
between 5-10 years. However, t h i s type o f
contract i s not a widespread and popular land
h o l d i n g among the metayers,
( i i ) Ar Rubua sharing (25 per cent)
This sharing i s found t o be exclusive t o palm-tree
gardens, b u t i t i s a d e c l i n i n g system. The l a n d l o r d
has the r i g h t t o claim 25 per cent o f the date crop.
A l l t h e expenses of palm farming p r a c t i c e s are p a i d
by the metayers. According t o t h e t r a d i t i o n o f
t h i s type o f metayage, however, the farmer has
the r i g h t t o c u l t i v a t e i n between the palm t r e e s ,
u s u a l l y a l f a l f a and/or mixed vegetables. I n
such case, the l a n d l o r d has no r i g h t t o share the

114.

product of the grown crops. This system i s

u s u a l l y formulated i n a one year c o n t r a c t , t h e
contract i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y renewable unless one
of the concerned p a r t i e s i n d i c a t e s h i s wish t o
terminate before harvest time,
( i i i ) T h u l t h sharing (33 per c e n t )
I n t h i s type o f metayage t h e owner has t o provide
water pumping f a c i l i t i e s and f u e l f o r pumping. I n
r e t u r n he claims 33 per cent o f the farm product.
Such a c o n t r a c t i s u s u a l l y and e x c l u s i v e l y a p p l i e d
to mixed f r u i t farms, which i n some cases includes
palm-trees as w e l l . The c o n t r a c t p e r i o d i s one
renewable year.
g.3 Methods o f c u l t i v a t i o n and types o f farming
Apart from ploughing and water l i f t i n g p r a c t i c e s , a l l
methods o f c u l t i v a t i o n i n the Qassim are hand operations
w i t h p r i m i t i v e hand-tools and f o l l o w t r a d i t i o n a l procedures
of sowing, p l a n t i n g , d i s t r i b u t i o n , f e r t i l i z a t i o n , i r r i g a t i o n ,
and h a r v e s t i n g . A f a i n t l i n e , however, could be drawn between
the methods f o l l o w e d i n the c u l t i v a t e d areas. Factors which
f u r n i s h e d such d i f f e r e n c e s are recognized as, f i r s t l y ,
p h y s i c a l f a c t o r s , i n terms o f t h e l a y o u t o f t h e farms i n a
l a r g e r u n i t o f l a n d size w i t h a w e l l organized i r r i g a t i o n
channel system. Secondly, human f a c t o r s i n terms o f eagerness
shown by the new developers o f the new farms who always show
considerable a n x i e t y t o adopt modern methods, equipment, and
techniques i n farming. The t h i r d set o f f a c t o r s are economic
f a c t o r s i n terms o f f i n a n c i a l a b i l i t y t o spend on adopting
modern methods, as most o f the new developers d e r i v e t h e i r
f i n a n c i a l source from t r a d i n g i n the urban centres throughout
the kingdom, where the t r a d i t i o n a l farmer i s dependent
e n t i r e l y on the income o f h i s farm. On the whole, however,
standards o f farming i n the r e g i o n i s considered t o be among

115

the f i n e s t and most advanced i n Saudi A r a b i a ,

T i l l a g e method
Ploughing, l e v e l l i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water
channels, and furrow making are c a r r i e d out by power machinery
on every s i n g l e farm i n the r e g i o n . Ploughing operations
are conducted i n two stages; f i r s t l y i n form of s o i l
disturbance, a f t e r which the land i s u s u a l l y l e f t untouched
f o r a p e r i o d of k-5 weeks, then a second ploughing takes
place. This operation i s c a r r i e d out a t an average of 3 h r s . /
dunum by t r a c t o r s . F r u i t t r e e p l o t s which have a l f a l f a
p l a n t e d in-between the trees are ploughed once every three
years as a l f a l f a l a s t s f o r two years i n the f i e l d a t l e a s t ;
i n the meantime a p a r t i a l ploughing by hand-tools i s c a r r i e d
out t w i c e a year round the trees f o r the a p p l i c a t i o n of
f e r t i l i z e r s . The l e v e l l i n g , together w i t h furrow e r e c t i o n
operation, u s u a l l y takes place a f t e r the second ploughing a t
an estimated speed r a t e o f 2 hrs./dunum. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n of
v i r g i n s o i l from the wadis beds t o exhausted f i e l d s and farms
i s an adopted p r a c t i c e among farmers i n the r e g i o n . The
amount of s o i l needed f o r such an o p e r a t i o n i s estimated a t
37.5 tons o f s o i l ' per dunum.
F e r t i l i z e r application
v

F e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s the dominant c u l t i v a t i o n
p r a c t i c e r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between t r a d i t i o n a l farming,
where manure f e r t i l i z e r s are p r e f e r a b l e , and the newly
established vegetable and f r u i t - g r o w i n g farms where modern
chemical f e r t i l i z e r s are used. Nonetheless, due t o the
recent i n t r o d u c t i o n of chemical f e r t i l i z e r s , the a p p l i c a t i o n
of organic manure i s s t i l l the dominant a d d i t i o n t o the s o i l .
The q u a n t i t y and frequency o f organic f e r t i l i z e r s i n a l l
types of farming r e f l e c t s the f i n a n c i a l p o s i t i o n of farmers

F i f t e e n loads o f two and h a l f t o n t r u c k .

116.

of "both types, b u t , g e n e r a l l y , the new developers are

I n c r e a s i n g l y p l a c i n g more emphasis on frequent a p p l i c a t i o n .
Timing f o r the organic manure a p p l i c a t i o n i s based on
t r a d i t i o n a l experience and knowledge. For a l l trees the
a p p l i c a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out once a year i n w i n t e r , except
f o r vineyards where i t i s p r a c t i s e d i n summer. The q u a n t i t y
of a p p l i c a t i o n o f such annual f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s u s u a l l y
designated according t o the age and v i g o u r of the t r e e s .
A standard q u a n t i t y has been worked out as an o v e r a l l average
based on the f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and tabulated i n - t h e
following:Table 8,
f o r trees
Q u a n t i t y / i n kg.

Object
For every s i n g l e f r u i t t r e e a t
p l a n t i n g stage
For every s i n g l e vineyard i n summer
annually
For every s i n g l e f r u i t t r e e i n
w i n t e r (except vineyard)

0.5
0.3
0.5

Most farmers apply chemical f e r t i l i z e r s (complex of

15 15 15^
* trees (except palm*trees) once every
t h r e e / s i x pon$li3 w i t h an average q u a n t i t y o f 0.5 kg. per
t r e e . For a l f a l f a and vegetables, a p p l i c a t i o n o f organic
manure i s adopted by a l l farmers once at the stage of crop
establishment only. The q u a n t i t y o f such a p p l i c a t i o n v a r i e s
according t o the a v a i l a b i l i t y of the manure and the f i n a n c i a l
p o s i t i o n of the farmer and the importance o f the crop. An
attempt t o estimate the q u a n t i t y applied f o r vegetables and
a l f a l f a i n d i c a t e s t h a t 100 kg. i s the average per dunum o f
N

t 0

f r u i

117.

vegetables OF a l f a l f a , applied, a t the sowing or p l a n t i n g

stage. Chemical f e r t i l i z e r s f o r vegetables and a l f a l f a
are a p p l i e d by most o f the farmers w i t h almost a standard
frequency of an average of three a p p l i c a t i o n s per crop. The
f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n i s a t the beginning o f the growth of crop
leaves, the second i s a t the f l o w e r i n g stage, and the t h i r d
at the r i p e n i n g stage. For c e r e a l s , f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s
exclusive t o chemical f e r t i l i z e r s and i t i s c a r r i e d out once
approximately two months a f t e r sowing. An i n t e r e s t i n g method
of f e r t i l i z i n g the c e r e a l was reported i n the a l Asyah and
Qusaiba areas. I t i s known as "Dathouth."( ) Dathouth i s
used as a f e r t i l i z e r f o r c e r e a l ; i t i s c a r r i e d out and
spread by hand throughout the f i e l d s , u s u a l l y a f t e r the
p l a n t has grown as t a l l as 20 cm.
1

I r r i g a t i o n methods
,
The method of i r r i g a t i o n commonly used throughout the
r e g i o n i s b a s i n (Howdh) f l o o d i n g i r r i g a t i o n f o r a l l f r u i t
trees (except vineyards and palm t r e e s ) , a l f a l f a , c e r e a l ,
onion, and l e t t u c e . For the other crops, vegetables,
vineyards and palm t r e e s , the method i s furrow i r r i g a t i o n

(Mesha' ab). The discussion on the a p p l i c a t i o n of water

i r r i g a t i o n i n terms o f q u a n t i t y and frequency i s , i n e v i t a b l y
of inaccurate conclusion due t o the d i f f e r e n t sizes o f d i t c h e s
leading water t o f i e l d s and d i f f e r e n t sizes of basins and
furrows i n almost every s i n g l e farm. However, the f a c t t h a t ^
i r r i g a t i o n methods are characterized by o v e r - i r r i g a t i o n can
be seen by the water l o g g i n g and white s a l t y c r u s t cover on
almost every s i n g l e farm ( p l a t e s x x x i i i and x x x i v ) . As an
example of o v e r - i r r i g a t i o n a few rough f i n d i n g s based on the
(2)
f i e l d observations^ ' show t h a t an area of 15 hect. i s
^ ) Dathouth i s the l o c a l name f o r s a l t e d clayey sand.
2

( ) I n Ar Rashid farm a t Ad Dughmaneyyat (33 km. N.E.

Braydah).

of

P l a t e N o . x x x i i i . A view from a newly e s t a b l i s h e d farm

i n the B r a y d a h a r e a ; i t r e p r e s e n t s a s e c t i o n of t h e
farm where t h e i r r i g a t i o n method i s the f u r r o w method;
n o t e t h e w a t e r l o g g i n g of t h e s o i l and t h e t r a c e s of
w h i t e s a l t y c r u s t a s a r e s u l t of over i r r i g a t i o n .

P l a t e No.xxxiv. Another view from a l Q a a y y e r a r e a s o u t h

of a l "idhnab s e t t l e m e n t , where u n c o n t r o l l e d w a t e r
f l o w i n g o f the a r t e s i a n h o l e - b o r e s , and t h e o v e r
i r r i g a t i o n , have r e s u l t e d i n a h i g h s o i l s a l i n i t y w i t h
white surface c r u s t .

118,

i r r i g a t e d by 1l+5000 ^
i
These hectares are set t o
wheat i n w i n t e r and various vegetables i n summer.
Another example was observed a t the farm of the experimental
s t a t i o n of Braydah. The a r t e s i a n deep w e l l flows a t an
estimated r a t e of 55 n?/hr.
f o r 2Zj. hours d a i l y (i+82,000
m^), t h i s amount i s used t o i r r i g a t e 17 h e c t . under
experimental c o n d i t i o n s . C l e a r l y , such q u a n t i t i e s a p p l i e d
to such areas i n d i c a t e a great loss of i r r i g a t i o n water i n
these two examples i n one o f the f i n e s t farming areas i n the
r e g i o n . I t i s assumed, however, t h a t s i m i l a r or even greater
losses occur i n every s i n g l e farm i n the r e g i o n . These
losses apparently take place i n the earthen tanks where
water i s c o l l e c t e d and s t o r e d a t the c o l l a r of w e l l s ( p l a t e
x x x v ) , as w e l l as i n the earthen broad ditches l e a d i n g t o
the f i e l d s ( p l a t e x x x v i ) . Frequency of i r r i g a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n i s designated f o r the various crops v a r y i n g from area
to area according t o the t r a d i t i o n a l knowledge passed down
from f a t h e r t o son, which w i l l remain the manner u n t i l a
r e a l knowledge of water a p p l i c a t i o n frequency i s e s t a b l i s h e d
by experimental research and conveyed t o farmers. However,
the p r e v a i l i n g p r a c t i c e of i r r i g a t i o n frequency observed
and s t u d i e d during the f i e l d work i s summarized i n the
following table:m m

Water i s pumped from deep non-flowing a r t e s i a n a q u i f e r

at an average of i+0 nr/hr.. f o r 10 h r s . d a i l y throughout
the year.

P l a t e No.xxxv. A view
o f t h e common e a r t h e n
t a n k s , where i r r i g a t i o n
water i s u s u a l l y s t o r e d
on most f a r m s .

P l a t e No.xxxvi.
T h i s photograph shows an example o f t h e
common w i d e e a r t h e n d i t c h e s l e a d i n g w a t e r t o t h e f i e l d s ,
a c h a r a c t e r which c o n t r i b u t e s to l o s s of water.

119.
Table 9. Adopted frequency o f i r r i g a t i o n water
application

Frequency
Crop
Summer

Winter

Palm-trees
Wheat

Once every s i x days

None

Once every t e n days

(12-15 a p p l i c a t i o n s
per c r o p ) .
Once every two
weeks t i l l the crop
has grown as t a l l
as 20 cm. then
once every t e n days
t i l l the grains
start to ripen,
then once every
three days t i l l
grains complete
r i p e n i n g stage.

Alfalfa

Once every three

days
Once every f o u r
days

Once a week

F r u i t trees
Vegetables
(a) Tomatoes

Once every other

day t i l l y i e l d s
start ripening
then once a day.

(b) Lettuce,
onion,
carrot
( c ) Pumpkin

Once every other day

(d) Cauget

Once every 9-10 days ;

Once a week

Once every other day

t i l l y i e l d i n g stage
(two months l a t e r )
then twice every day
t i l l the yields
harvested.
Once every twelve
days.

120.

D i v e r s i o n and c o n t r o l o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r i s c a r r i e d
out by h a n d - t o o l s .

P r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n o f manpower

needed p e r one a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a t e r i r r i g a t i o n h a s

suggested

t h a t 0 . 5 ^ ^ manpower day i s needed t o i r r i g a t e a dunum

i r r i g a t e d by b a s i n method, and 0.1 manpower p e r day i s
needed t o i r r i g a t e a dunum i r r i g a t e d by f u r r o w method.
Such f i n d i n g s a s s e r t
f a r more e f f i c i e n t

t h e b e l i e f .that t h e use o f f u r r o w s i s

i n terms o f f a r m i n g c o s t

d i m i n i s h i n g w a t e r l o s s t h r o u g h seepage

i n addition to

of applied water.

Method o f c u l t i v a t i o n
C u l t i v a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out by two d i f f e r e n t

methods;

b a s i n method (Howdh), and f u r r o w method ( M e s h a _ a b ) . The

b a s i n method i s u s e d f o r a l l f r u i t

trees (except vineyards),

palm t r e e s i n many c a s e s , a l f a l f a ,

onion, c a r r o t ,

and c e r e a l ( p l a t e x x x v i i ) .

lettuce

T h e r e i s no s t a n d a r d s i z e f o r

b a s i n s , but i t i s apparent t h a t the s i z e i s ,

i n fact,

dependent on t h e t y p e o f c r o p s , t h e s i z e o f h o l d i n g , and
the l e v e l . o f land s u r f a c e .

However, t h e f o l l o w i n g measured

s i z e s have b e e n o b s e r v e d a s t h e o v e r a l l a v e r a g e o f dominant
s i z e s i n most of t h e f a r m s : 2 4 x 15 m e t r e s

for cereal

3 0 x 16 m e t r e s f o r o n i o n , l e t t u c e , and
2 0 x 1i+ metres

f o r f r u i t s and

V i n e y a r d s a r e u s u a l l y p l a n t e d on a row

carrot

alfalfa

along the w a t e r i n g

c h a n n e l s i n t h e farm, and s u c h a method s u b j e c t s t h e v i n e s

t o improper

c o n t i n u o u s watering:.. S u c h a t e c h n i q u e h a s b e e n

o b s e r v e d i n t h e o l d p a l m - t r e e g a r d e n s , w h e r e palms a r e
p l a n t e d i n t h e same manner.

Many d i f f e r e n t

types of

a r e p l a n t e d b e s i d e e a c h o t h e r i n one b a s i n ( p l a t e
Many f a r m e r s import f r u i t

fruits

xxxiii).

t r e e s f o r p l a n t i n g long before

t h e l a n d i s c o m p l e t e l y p r e p a r e d f o r them; s u c h p l a n n i n g

B a s e d on t h e f i e l d work

investigation.

P l a t e N o . x x x v i i . A view from a newly e s t a b l i s h e d

f a r m i n t h e Wadi A r Rma a r e a .
This section of
t h e f a r m shows t h e "basin method o f c u l t i v a t i o n .

P l a t e N o . x x x v i i i . A v i e w o f a f r u i t f a r m i n t h e Wadi
A r Rma a r e a .
Note t h e d i f f e r e n t types o f t r e e s
p l a n t e d b e s i d e each o t h e r , pomegranate i n t h e f r o n t ,
a p r i c o t , and plum n e x t t o them. A l s o n o t e t h e
closeness o f the t r e e s .

121

s u b j e c t s many o f t h e s e t r e e s t o g r e a t l o s s e s a s i t i s
observed

d u r i n g t h e f i e l d work p e r i o d .

f a r m e r s do n o t prune t h e i r f r u i t
shortage of s k i l l e d

Moreover, most

t r e e s mainly because

of the

l a b o u r , o r , i n few c a s e s , a s a r e s u l t

o f l a c k o f knowledge o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s u c h p r a c t i c e , a s
fruit

growing i s a newly i n t r o d u c e d type o f farming t o t h e

region.

However, autumn i s t h e p l a n t i n g s e a s o n f o r a l l

fruit

t r e e s , e x c e p t t h e palm t r e e s .

The s p a c e i n b e t w e e n

fruit

t r e e s i s u s u a l l y occupied by a l f a l f a .

I n a v e r y few

c a s e s , f a r m e r s sow c e r e a l between palm t r e e s I n s t e a d o f

alfalfa

i n the o l d farms.

F o r palm-trees, the r e - p l a n t i n g

o p e r a t i o n o f o f f - s h o o t s o f a n age o f 3-5 y e a r s , t a k e s p l a c e
i n sufljmer.

The b a s i c and n e c e s s a r y p r a c t i c e s f o r e v e r y

female palm-tree

a r e summarized i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e : -

T a b l e 1 0 . Summary o f n e c e s s a r y c u l t i v a t i o n
p r a c t i c e s f o r f e m a l e palm t r e e s

Operation

Manpower days
p e r 1000 t r e e s

Frequency
per year

Season of
operation
Summer a n d
autumn

Pruning

25

Thrones p i c k i n g

15

Indefinite

Grafting

30

At the beginn i n g and i n

the middle o f
summer

( 1 ) Takhsheep

15

Middle o f
summer

15

End

10

Starts i n
September

(2}
v

'Tarkeeb

Harvest
S o u r c e : F i e l d work i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
( 1 > The o p e r a t i o n o f s e p a r a t i n g palm t r e e
( 2 > The

o f summer

branches.

operation of sustaining the date-bearing

branches.

122.

However, t h e e x p e r i e n c e d l a b o u r e r c o u l d manage t o
m a i n t a i n and c a r r y out t h e o u t l i n e d p r a c t i c e s f o r 1 0 0 0 t r e e s
a year.

S u c h a w o r k e r needs 90 w o r k i n g days d i s t r i b u t e d

t h r o u g h e i g h t months o f e a c h y e a r .

The a v e r a g e wage f o r s u c h

s k i l l e d l a b o u r i s 30 SRS p e r day.
C u l t i v a t i o n o f v e g e t a b l e s i s a l w a y s c a r r i e d out i n
furrows (Mesha_ab).(plate x x x i x ) .

The l e n g t h o f f u r r o w v a r i e s

a c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s f a c t o r s , b u t t h e dominant

f a c t o r i s the

s l o p e o f t h e f a r m s u r f a c e ; h e n c e , on t h e whole, t h e f l a t t e r
the f i e l d the longer the furrow.

The w i d t h o f a mesha* ab i s

s t a n d a r d i z e d f o r most p l a c e s ; two m e t r e s w i d t h i s adopted

f o r growing tomatoes, cucumbers, c a u g e t , o k r a , s p i n a c h ,
peppers.

and

The d i s t a n c e between p l a n t s i n t h i s t y p e o f f u r r o w

i s 0.5 m. and between rows a m e t r e .

Four metres wide furrows

a r e adopted f o r c r e e p i n g p l a n t s s u c h a s melons, marrow,

pumpkin, e t c .

D i s t a n c e between p l a n t s i n t h e f o u r m e t r e s

mesha* ab i s measured a t one metre i n a v e r a g e and two m e t r e s

between r o w s .

M i x i n g v a r i o u s t y p e s o f v e g e t a b l e s i n one

f u r r o w h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d i n many a r e a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n .
However, many f a r m e r s f a i l ,

i n most c a s e s , t o sow o r p l a n t

t h e i r vegetables a t the r i g h t time.

Correction

measures

. f o r s u c h p r a c t i c e s s h o u l d be i n t r o d u c e d and t a u g h t t o f a r m e r s .
The a g r i c u l t u r a l r o t a t i o n s y s t e m i s v a r i a b l e i n t h e Q a s s i m ;
i n a few c a s e s t h e one y e a r f a l l o w s y s t e m i s adopted f o r
f i e l d s a l l o c a t e d t o c u l t i v a t e t h e same c r o p .

I n most c a s e s

farmers i n the r e g i o n adapt e i t h e r of the f o l l o w i n g systems

( a ) Two

y e a r s growing melons, one y e a r g r o w i n g

and two y e a r s

cereal,

fallow.

( b ) One y e a r growing melons, two y e a r s g r o w i n g

alfalfa

and one y e a r v e g e t a b l e s .Types o f f a r m i n g

Types o f f a r m i n g i n t h e Q a s s i m a r e c l e a r l y d i v i d e d
two.

into

S u b s i s t e n c e t y p e o f f a r m i n g i s found i n t h e i s o l a t e d

P l a t e No.xxxix.
A view o f a f a r m i n Aunayzah
a r e a s h o w i n g t h e f u r r o w method o f c u l t i v a t i o n .
Note t h e closeness o f t h e mixed tomatoes,
p e p p e r s and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e s a l o n g t h e r o w s .
I t a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s p r i m i t i v e and i m p r a c t i c a l
i r r i g a t i o n channels, r e s u l t i n g i n a s o i l water
l o g g i n g and s a l t c r u s t s .

123

a r e a s o f a l A s y a h ( N . E . ) and t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t

round

Q u s a i b a and a l Ayon a r e a s where human and economic

are

still

factors

unfavourable f o r market-orientated production.

The s e c o n d i s t h e m a r k e t - o r i e n t a t e d t y p e o f f a r m i n g
the

round

r e g i o n ' s towns o f B r a y d a h , Anuayzah, and A r R u s s ,

i n c l u d i n g the Ash Shmasiyyah s e t t l e m e n t s i n the e a s t

a l Midhnab a r e a i n t h e s o u t h .

and

I n those a r e a s , the newly

e s t a b l i s h e d farms a r e e n t i r e l y v e g e t a b l e s and f r u i t

growing

farms f o r m a r k e t i n g , w h i l e t h e o l d p a l m - t r e e g a r d e n s

have

o n l y r e c e n t l y s h i f t e d b u t s l o w l y t o c u l t i v a t e market

crops;

t h u s i n t h o s e farms a b a l a n c e e x i s t s between a c o m b i n a t i o n
of

t h e two t y p e s o f f a r m i n g .

Furthermore, a

localized

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f a r m i n g p a t t e r n s has b e e n o b s e r v e d
throughout

the r e g i o n .

I n the s o u t h e r n p a r t , between a l

Midhnab and al-Amar s e t t l e m e n t s , most o f t h e f a r m s a r e

newly e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h a d i s t i n c t
v e g e t a b l e growing

only.

specialization in

I n s u c h f a r m s , t h e r e i s no

real

f a r m e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n t h e form o f f e n c e s , h o u s e s , s t o r a g e
facilities,

o r permanent i r r i g a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s ( p l a t e

xl).

The farms a r e i n forms o f open f i e l d s w i t h a d j a c e n t deep

b o r e h o l e s t a p p i n g w a t e r from t h e deep a q u i f e r s , and most
of

the farmers a r e metayers

of

s h i f t i n g f a r m e r l o o k i n g f o r l a n d s w i t h b e t t e r terms

contract.

or t e n a n t s , r e p r e s e n t i n g a s o r t
of

A c o m p l e t e l y s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n has been observed

a l s o i n a l - B u t a i n a r e a ( 1 5 km.

N.E. o f B r a y d a h ) .

Another

l o c a l i z e d p a t t e r n i s o b s e r v e d i n the s o u t h e r n f r i n g e s o f t h e
town o f A u n a y z a h where i n t h e n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d farms t h e
t r e n d o f f a r m i n g i s c o m p l e t e l y towards c i t r u s
supplemented
xli).

growing

b y a l f a l f a i n t h e s p a c e between t h e t r e e s

(plate

A p h y s i c a l f a c t o r behind t h i s trend i s the favourable

n a t u r e o f t h e s o i l t e x t u r e o f t h i s a r e a where loamy and

s a n d a r e t h e dominant s o i l s .

I n the o l d farming s i t e s

town t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f p a l m - t r e e p l a n t a t i o n

silty
of t h e

is.still

Plate No.xl.
One o f t h e many v e g e t a b l e g r o w i n g
f a r m s s o u t h o f a l Amar a r e a i n t h e s o u t h o f
al-Qassim. Note t h e absence o f permanent
farm e s t a b l i s h m e n t f a c i l i t i e s , and t h e t e m p o r a r y
and r a t h e r p r i m i t i v e i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m .
V e g e t a b l e s a r e m i x e d i n one f u r r o w on s u c h a
f a r m w h i c h i s m e r e l y an open f i e l d a n d t h e
farmer's household l i v e i n a temporary t e n t
or s h a n t y .

1*4

dominant b u t
marketing

the a r e a s a l l o c a t e d t o v e g e t a b l e g r o w i n g f o r

are i n c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y i n those farms.

l a t t e r p a t t e r n i s i n f a c t p r e v a i l i n g elsewhere
(plate x l i i ) .

The
1

i n the r e g i o n ^ ^ -

B r a y d a h , A r R u s s , Bada y e a and R i y a d h

K h a b r a a r e a s c o n c e n t r a t e on wheat p r o d u c t i o n

al

i n winter,

where most o f t h e r e g i o n ' s c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t i o n

i s obtained.

As a common p a t t e r n , most f a r m s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o s m a l l
fields,

s e p a r a t i n g t h e b a s i n s and f u r r o w

t r e e s (Tamarisk s p . ) .

l a y o u t s "by A t h l

The A t h l a l s o p l a n t e d round t h e w h o l e

a r e a o f h o l d i n g s a s a permanent f e n c e f o r t h e farm a s w e l l
a s sand and wind b r e a k
9,k

Crop
The

(plate

xliii).

production
s i z e of c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

c r o p p e d i s one

as r e l a t e d to the a r e a

o f the most i m p o r t a n t

o f development o f f a r m i n g

i n d i c a t o r s of the

i n any g i v e n r e g i o n .

level

In fact,

an

i n c r e a s e i n the e f f e c t i v e a r e a of a r a b l e l a n d together w i t h
an i n c r e a s e of the y i e l d p e r u n i t of c u l t i v a t e d l a n d a r e
v e r y n e c e s s a r y measures t o r a i s e c r o p p r o d u c t i o n .

the

Basic

d e c i m a l c e n s u s e s supplemented by p e r i o d i c s e a s o n a l d a t a

on

crop a r e a , y i e l d i n g c a p a c i t y per u n i t , annual v a r i a t i o n i n

output

o f farm p r o d u c t s ,

and

the t o t a l crops p r o d u c t i o n

n e c e s s a r y to enable r e s e a r c h e r s to r e v e a l s t r u c t u r a l
p a t t e r n s , and
area.

t r e n d s i n the a g r i c u l t u r e o f any

changes,

concerned

Unfortunately, such data a r e l a c k i n g f o r the Qassim

as w e l l as f o r elsewhere

i n t h e Kingdom.

However, a good

s t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g up a g r i c u l t u r a l
for

are

t h e Q a s s i m was

t a k e n i n 1961-62 when the f i r s t

t u r a l s u r v e y f o r the r e g i o n was

conducted.

The

statistics
agricul-

information

g i v e n i n t h e s u r v e y r e p o r t c o u l d s e r v e a s a benchmark
i n v e n t o r y on t h e s t a t e o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e Q a s s i m .
s u r v e y ' s d a t a show a g g r e g a t e
v e g e t a b l e s , and

f i e l d c r o p s and,

i n f o r m a t i o n on y i e l d and
1

a r e a s o f permanent

^ ^ E s p e c i a l l y i n t h e new
30 kms. a p p r o x i m a t e l y

i n a few

The

crops,

cases i t provides '

c o s t of production,

i n a d d i t i o n to

development a r e a a t jd Dughmaniyat,
n o r t h o f t h e town of B r a y d a h .

Plate No.xli.
A v i e w o f one o f t h e c i t r u s
growing farms l o c a t e d a t t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n
o u t s k i r t s o f t h e town o f A u n a y z a h . N o t e t h e
a l f a l f a g r o w i n g i n between the t r e e s .

IL,

Plate No.xlii.
A n o t h e r v i e w as above a t Ad.
Dughraaniyat a r e a , n o r t h o f t h e t o w n o f B r a y d a h .

125.

various r e l a t e d data.

The

r e s u l t s gained

a r e " b e l i e v e d t o "be o f i m p e r f e c t

statements

t h e i n t e r v i e w e r s and

to the e v e r

of t h e f a r m e r s ,

who

deceive

status, i n

might l e a d t o f i n a n c i a l

m a t e r i a l a i d s from t h e government.

due

expected

always

exaggerate t h e i r farming

the view t h a t such statements

survey

r e l i a b i l i t y , however,

t o t h e p o o r l y t r a i n e d s u r v e y o r s , and
misleading

from t h e

Nonetheless,

the

or
availabi-

l i t y of such incomplete data i s u s e f u l because at l e a s t

show t h a t c e r t a i n r e - a l l o c a t i o n s a r e underway i n
and

t h e y g i v e a r o u g h i d e a of g r o w t h s t a t e and

region i n general.

production,

t r e n d i n the

T h i s s e t o f d a t a , however, w o u l d s e r v e

no p u r p o s e u n l e s s s i m i l a r s u r v e y s

are reported

periodically

( e a c h 5 o r 1 0 y e a r s ) ; t h e r e f o r e , no p r o v i s i o n s h o u l d
claimed

be

f o r t h e c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from i t .

( a ) Permanent

crops

Permanent c r o p s

i n t h e Q a s s i m occupy 2 7 . 9

the t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d area ( P i g . 3 0 ) .
( B e r s e e m ) and

fruit

per cent

They c o m p r i s e

crop

of

alfalfa

2).

t r e e s (Appendix H Table

A l f a l f a i s the p r i n c i p a l forage
occupies

they

i n the r e g i o n .

It

21 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d a r e a i n t h e

r e g i o n and

i s grown a l m o s t on e v e r y s i n g l e f a r m .

of a l f a l f a p r o d u c t i v i t y ranges between 2 - 3

The

years.

Harvesting

i a a hand o p e r a t i o n w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e once e v e r y 2 0
approximately

i n summer and

3 0 - 3 5 days i n w i n t e r .

days
Crop

t o r a n g e b e t w e e n 1 0 0 and 1 2 0

per hectare i s estimated

S u c h a s i z e of p r o d u c t i o n

could,

u n d o u b t e d l y , be

c o n s i d e r a b l y through proper f e r t i l i z a t i o n ,

period

yield

tons.

increased .

improved

c u l t i v a t i o n methods and

t o o l s , and p r o p e r p r o t e c t i o n m e a s u r e s

against plant disease.

I n fact, a considerable increase i s

reported

i n one

o f t h e new

and a d v a n c e d . f a r m s i n A u n a y z a h

a r e a where an i n c r e a s e of some 3 0 p e r c e n t o f y i e l d p e r
was

gained

o v e r one

sold while s t i l l

crop p e r i o d ( t h r e e y e a r s ) .

g r e e n i n l o c a l m a r k e t s , and

hect.

Alfalfa i s

t h e demand i s

PERCENTAGES OF

CROPPED AREAS IN THE AGRICUL TURAL

THE REGION OF AL- OASSIM
4

O 0

DISTRICTS

44QO

44 3 0 f
27

26

OON

30

22.5
37.5
MO

<6-

26 OO
2 8.5

as

49.8

THE

RCGIO

29 3 0

FIELD

CHOPS
VEGETABLES

PERMANENT

20

CROPS
MILES

FIGURE JO

Plate N o . x l i i i .
A n o t h e r v i e w o f t h e new f r u i t
g r o w i n g f a r m i n Aunayzah a r e a ; n o t e t h e
l i n e d and w e l l - b u i l t i r r i g a t i o n c h a n n e l s ,
and a l s o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f A t h l t r e e s
(Tamarisk Sp).

126

v e r y h i g h a s i t i s u s e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y "by f a m i l i e s

owning

a s i n g l e cow o r a few g o a t s , a s i t u a t i o n p r e v a l e n t i n e v e r y
town and v i l l a g e i n t h e Q a s s i m .

Due t o t h e l o n g e r p e r i o d

of a l f a l f a p r o d u c t i v i t y i n w i n t e r , a shortage

of supply i n

w i n t e r s e a s o n i s r e p o r t e d and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y

prices

o s c i l l a t e "between summer and w i n t e r s e a s o n s .

I n order t o

maintain a l e v e l o f supply t o s t a b i l i z e p r i c e s

throughout

t h e y e a r a c e r t a i n p o r t i o n o f t h e summer p r o d u c t
"be s t o r e d o r d e h y d r a t e d

ought t o

and s o l d d u r i n g w i n t e r a s a

supplement f o r t h e main p r o d u c t .

I t i s c l e a r , however, t h a t

d e h y d r a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g i n v o l v e s a complex o f economic f a c t o r s
w h i c h s h o u l d h e a p p r a i s e d "before s t e p s towards s u c h a move
are

taken.
The n e t income o f a l f a l f a p e r h e c t a r e i s e s t i m a t e d t o "be

round 1 6 7 0 S R s ,
Nonetheless,

' t h e second

h i g h e s t n e t income among c r o p s .

a l f a l f a n e t income i n t h e Q a s s i m i s t h e l o w e s t
(2)

compared w i t h o t h e r r e g i o n s and a r e a s i n t h e kingdom^

T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r a t e o f r e n t p e r h e c t a r e
o f a r a b l e l a n d s s u i t a b l e f o r a l f a l f a growing i n t h e Q a s s i m
i s the highest i n the k i n g d o m ^ \
F r u i t t r e e s amounted t o 9 0 k , 9 0 0 t r e e s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e
8.8

p e r c e n t o f t h e kingdom's f r u i t

trees' total.

They

occupy 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d l a n d i n t h e r e g i o n .
The

fruit

t r e e s i n t h e Qassim a r e p a l m - t r e e s , v i n e s ,

pomegranates, plums, a p r i c o t s , f i g s , a p p l e s , oranges,

and

mandarins

lemons.
The

palm-tree

i s t h e o l d e s t and t r a d i t i1o n a l f r u i t

'

tree

'One s t e r l i n g pound e q u a l s 1 0 . 8 S a u d i r i y a l s .
(2)
'2970 SRs f o r Medina a r e a , 2900 SRs f o r t h e r e g i o n o f C e n t r a l
N a j d and 2 3 1 0 f o r t h e p r o v i n c e o f t h e n o r t h e r n b o u n d a r i e s .
v

^ ^ I n t h e Q a s s i m U 6 0 S R s p e r dunum p e r y e a r , i n J e d d a h a r e a
325 SRs, i n the C e n t r a l Najd r e g i o n and i n t h e n o r t h e r n
boundaries province 3 0 0 S R s .

127

i n the Qassim.
production

I t s magnitude i n t e r m s of number

i s a v e r y v a l u a b l e a s s e t t o the

economy o f t h e r e g i o n .

According

and

agricultural

to the a g r i c u l t u r a l

survey,

t h e Q a s s i m s s t o c k o f palm t r e e s c o n s i s t s o f 7 3 5 , 6 7 7 t r e e s
1

(8.6

p e r c e n t of the kingdom's t o t a l ) w i t h 76 p e r

b e a r i n g date palm-trees

(females).

non-bearing date palm-trees

The

2k p e r c e n t

o l d and

unproductive

g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of

female

palm-trees

t h r o u g h o u t the r e g i o n r e v e a l s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f
productive palm-trees

of

c o n s i s t s of young t r e e s ( l e s s

t h a n 10 y e a r s ) , male p a l m s , and
palm-trees.

The

cent

the

a r e l o c a t e d i n and around t h e

old a g r i c u l t u r a l settlement
p l a n t e d i n B r a y d a h , 22%

very

i n t h e r e g i o n , w i t h k9 p e r

i n Aunayzah and 19 p e r c e n t i n A r

R u s s , w h i l e o n l y 10 p e r c e n t a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t
rest

of the r e g i o n . ^ ^

New

the

t r e e s a r e p r o d u c e d "by p l a n t i n g

f i v e to e i g h t y e a r s o l d o f f s h o o t s of o l d e r t r e e s .

The

f e m a l e blooms and b e a r s f r u i t f o u r t o s i x y e a r s a f t e r
t r a n s p l a n t e d , and

one male palm i s c a p a b l e

f i f t y female t r e e s .
s t o c k o f palms c a n be

productive

being

of p o l l i n a t i n g

T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s mean t h a t
e n l a r g e d o n l y g r a d u a l l y , and

However, a v e r a g e a n n u a l y i e l d k g .

the

thus

c h a n g i n g o f magnitude o f t h e s e a s s e t s i s by n a t u r e a
term p r o c e s s .

long

per

t r e e i s e s t i m a t e d a t 41 .3 f o r t h e r e g i o n .

r a t e i s among the l o w e s t a v e r a g e s
2

t h e kingdom.^ ^

The

i s estimated at 27,586

t o n s a n n u a l l y ( F i g . 3 1 ) , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s 1.2 p e r c e n t
the t o t a l date output of Saudi A r a b i a .
dates account

Dates are

s t a p l e i n t h e Qassim; not

f o r the main l o c a l p r o d u c e b u t

^ ^ S e e Table 3 Appendix

This

of date producing areas i n

t o t a l production

t o be t h e most i m p o r t a n t

cent

of

considered
only

do

a l s o they

H.

'For C e n t r a l N a j d i t i s 5 5 . 6 k g / p r o d u c t i v e t r e e , f o r
Madinah 5 5 and t h e p r o v i n c e of t h e N o r t h e r n B a u d r i a

53.2.

PERCENTAGES OF PRODUCTION OF MAIN

DISTRICTS. THE REGION OF AL QASSIM
43 OO

43

30

CROPS

IN THE

AGRICULTURAL
44 3 0 e

44 0 0

27 O O *

2 * SO

26 OO

rut.

PCGION

25

30

i\
ALFALFA

WHEAT

VCGCTABLCS

BARLEY

OA

res

10

20
I

FIGURE 31

128

c o n s t i t u t e t h e main i t e m o f d i e t o f t h e r u r a l and nomadic

s e c t i o n of the r e g i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n .
An

i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f d a t e s e l l i n g i s t h a t most

farmers p r e f e r to s e l l t h e i r product

on t r e e i n f a v o u r o f

a v o i d i n g the o p e r a t i o n of h a r v e s t i n g , packing, t r a n s p o r t i n g ,
and m a r k e t i n g .

Many townsmen c o n t a c t f a r m e r s when h a r v e s t

time i s imminent t o b a r g a i n on 100, 500 or 1000 t r e e s b a s i s

o r even t h e w h o l e farm s t o c k i f i t does c o n s i s t
t h a n one

thousand

customers,

trees.

o f more

As t h e s e townsmen a r e r e g u l a r

s a l e agreement i s a l w a y s v e r b a l and no c a s h h a s

t o be p a i d i n advance,

b u t t h e f a r m e r h a s t o w a i t some t h r e e

o r f o u r months b e f o r e r e c e i v i n g t h e money.

However, many

f a r m e r s and d e a l e r s have r e p o r t e d t h a t a d e c l i n e i n d a t e
v a l u e s i n c e the middle

o f the l a s t d e c a d e .

T h i s harrowing

of the p r o f i t margin of dates has been s e v e r e l y

aggravated

i n remote and i s o l a t e d a r e a s where d a t e p r o d u c t i o n i s a l m o s t

u n p r o f i t a b l e and i s e n t i r e l y consumed by t h e
families.

The d e c l i n e o f d a t e i m p o r t a n c e

householder's

as a p r o f i t a b l e

c r o p c o u l d be a s c r i b e d ^ however, t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s : ( a ) The

increase i n cost of production,

f e r t i l i z a t i o n , ploughing,

irrigation,

etc.

( b ) The d e c r e a s e i n number, and i n c r e a s e i n wages,,

of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l e d l a b o u r t o m a i n t a i n
p r o p e r l y t h e palm t r e e s w h i c h

require special

practices.
( c ) The d w i n d l i n g v a l u e o f d a t e s a s a v i t a l

source

of s t a p l e d i e t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e Q a s s i m ' s
towns and t h e urban p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e kingdom.
This f a l l

i s c l e a r l y due

t o t h e r i s e i n income

per c a p i t a which enables people

to d i v e r s i f y

t h e i r d i e t by more v a l u a b l e v e g e t a b l e s and

fruits.

( d ) The d e c l i n e i n p a l m - t r e e s ' output a s a r e s u l t

the farmer's n e g l e c t because
towards

of

of the r e c e n t swing

the p r o d u c t i o n of more p r o f i t a b l e

and

129

demanded crops on the one hand, and "because o f

the i n c r e a s i n g number o f sown palm trees which
usually produce lesser product than the
transplanted t r e e , on the other hand,
(e) The decreasing p r i c e o f dates as a r e s u l t o f
misorganized marketing process and misd i s t r i b u t i o n o f the dated by marketing a l l the
produce at one time.
Such a d e t e r i o r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e s an i n v e s t i g a t i o n
On the economic f e a s i b i l i t y of processing the date product
i n the r e g i o n .
Other types o f f r u i t trees amount t o 196,300 which
comprise 11.2 per cent o f the kingdom's t o t a l . Due t o the
comparatively recent i n t r o d u c t i o n of such f r u i t t r e e s i n
the region an i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n o f geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n and concentration were observed and revealed from the
a v a i l a b l e data. 99 per c e n t ^ ^ o f the region's t o t a l i s
concentrated i n and around the townlets o f the region w i t h
51 per cent planted a t Braydah, 37.5 a t Ar Russ, and 10.5
at Aunayzah. Pomegranates, vines, a p r i c o t s and c i t r u s
are the most important f r u i t trees i n terms of numbers.
Plums, apples, and f i g s c o n s t i t u t e only 9 per cent o f the
region's f r u i t t r e e t o t a l . Pomegranate t r e e s count f o r
75700 productive t r e e s . Data r e v e a l t h a t Ar Russ town i s
the major pomegranate area w i t h 61.3 per cent o f the region's
t o t a l , Braydah and Aunayzah have 26.3 per cent and 11.k per
cent r e s p e c t i v e l y . Vines are the major f r u i t trees and
consist o f 52,700 productive t r e e s . 68.5 per cent o f the
vines are p l a n t e d i n Braydah area w i t h the greatest grape
production i n the Qassim; Ar Russ and Aunayzah have 25 and
5.6 per cent r e s p e c t i v e l y . A p r i c o t t r e e s are estimated t o
be 21,500 and 72 per cent o f t h i s t o t a l i s planted i n Braydah.

A l l these percentages were computed from f i g u r e s given i n

the a g r i c u l t u r a l survey o f the Qassim 1961-62.

130.

C i t r u s t r e e s (orange, mandarine, and lemon) c o n s i s t o f

21,100 t r e e s ; 50,7 per cent, 32.5 per cent, and 15.6 per
cent o f t h i s t o t a l are located i n Braydah, Ar Russ, and
Aunayzah towns r e s p e c t i v e l y . Plums, apples and f i g s c o n s i s t
together 9 per cent o f the region's non-date f r u i t t r e e s
w i t h Braydah being the major producing area f o r plums and
f i g s and Aunayzah f o r apples. However, i t must he s t r e s s e d
once again t h a t these f i g u r e s represent the non-date f r u i t
trees aggregate i n 1961--62. i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t these trees
have undergone considerable increase and expansion.
Aunayzah area has p l a n t e d f a r more f r u i t trees i n the l a s t
f i v e years w i t h a considerably f a s t e r r a t e than any other
area i n the r e g i o n . The t e c h n i c a l s t a f f o f the E.P.S.C.
of Aunayzah have p o i n t e d out t o the w r i t e r d u r i n g the f i e l d
work p e r i o d (Summer, 1967) t h a t some o f 70,000 f r u i t t r e e s ,
mainly orange, have been introduced t o the area d u r i n g the
l a s t f!ive years. However, comparison o f such u n o f f i c i a l
estimates w i t h the f i g u r e given i n the survey t a b l e s
(16,930 t r e e s ) i n d i c a t e s a four f o l d increase i n f r u i t t r e e s
i n f i v e years,
(b) Vegetables
Melons (water melon and sweet melon), squash group
(marrow, cauget, and pumpkin), onions, tomatoes, eggplant,
cucumbers, okra, green peppers, c a r r o t s , l e t t u c e , leeks,
c a u l i f l o w e r s , cabbages, spinach, green beans and peas are
the vegetables grown i n the Qassim, producing 66,778 metric
tons annually approximately and occupying an area o f 8,300
hectares ( F i g s . 30 and 31 ), which c o n s t i t u t e 27 per cent o f
the t o t a l vegetable area i n Saudi Arabia. The geographical
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the vegetable area i n d i c a t e s t h a t Ar Russ
d i s t r i c t ( e s p e c i a l l y the eastern area o f a l Khabra and
Bada'ea s e t t l e m e n t s ) i s the main vegetable growing area, .
comprising 62.9 per cent o f the t o t a l vegetable area i n the
Qassim. Braydah area comprises the second highest vegetable

)^area w i t h 2g2per cent o f the region's t o t a l , w h i l e

Aunayzah area's share i s estimated at 7.9 per cent o n l y .
With a concentration of vegetable areas around the tov/ns
of the region which i s a normal phenomenon i n an area o f
low d e n s i t y of p o p u l a t i o n throughout and a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h
d e n s i t y i n the urban centres where size of markets and
access create more favourable p r o f i t margins. I n a d d i t i o n ,
of course, the towns are connected w i t h other major urban
centres i n the kingdom "by e x c e l l e n t highways. These
favourable f a c t o r s , i n fac$, have encouraged the n o t i c e a b l e
and r a t h e r high increase i n perishable crops produced.
Melons are the p r i n c i p a l , most p r o f i t a b l e , and most
widespread vegetable, occupying 42 per cent o f the region's
t o t a l vegetable area (30 per cent f o r water melons and 12 per
cent f o r sweet melons). The output per hectare f o r melons
i s estimated a t 6,500 melons, the highest melon y i e l d per
(.4

hectare i n the kingdom; ' The p r o f i t margin of water melon

c u l t i v a t i o n per hectare i s the widest among a l l the crops
grown i n the r e g i o n . I t i s estimated t o be a t 37.5 per cent
of the t o t a l cost. Nonetheless, the melons* p r o f i t i n the
Qassim i s Harrow compared t o other melon producing areas i n
the k i n g d o m / ) This i s due to the higher r a t e of land r e n t
i n the Qassim where i t i s estimated t o be a t 66 per cent o f
the t o t a l cost o f melon p r o d u c t i o n . This r a t e goes down i n
the other regions t o 51.2 per cent i n the Jeddah-Mecca area,
and t o kS per cent i n the r e g i o n of C e n t r a l Najd. The
second major vegetable i n the Qassim i s the squash group
(marrow, cauget, and pumpkin) which occupies 30.8 per cent
of the region's t o t a l vegetable area. Onions occupy 6.6
per cent and tomatoes 5.6 per cent. The remaining area i s
2

^ ^6*250 melons/hectare f o r the r e g i o n of C e n t r a l Najd, and

6,000 melons/hectare tor the province of the Northern
Boundaries.
(2}
' P r o f i t a b i l i t y margins of melon p r o d u c t i o n are estimated a t
53.7 per cent and 43.6 per cent o f the t o t a l production cost
i n the Jeddah-Mecca area, and the r e g i o n of C e n t r a l Najd
x

132

d i v i d e d i n an almost equal r a t i o among the r e s t o f t h e

vegetables grown i n the r e g i o n . Data o f y i e l d , cost, and
income per hectare f o r these types o f vegetable are not
a v a i l a b l e , h u t an e s t i m a t i o n f o r the tomato output i s
1 8 tons/hectare, which iiss very
very h i g h comp
compared w i t h estimat i o n s f o r other tomato growing areas (O However, on t h e
whole, the conclusion t h a t the vegetable growing i s the most
p r o f i t a b l e c u l t i v a t i o n i n the region could be s a f e l y and
accurately drawn on the basis o f the farmers' statements.
A l l farmers met and i n t e r v i e w e d have expressed a c o l l e c t i v e
statement t h a t vegetable growing i s the most p r o f i t a b l e
provided t h a t i t escapes the harmful e f f e c t s o f p l a n t
diseases and i n s e c t s . I n cases where p l a n t disease c o n t r o l
f a i l e d i n a vegetable growing farm, a severe or even an
almost complete l o s s occurred. Thus, the s e n s i t i v i t y o f
vegetables against the numerous diseases and the p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f t h e i r output make the question o f t h e p l a n t disease
c o n t r o l o f great economic importance. However, t h e t e c h n i c a l
s t a f f o f the E.S.P.Cs. i n the Qassim r.eport a steady and
comparatively h i g h r a t e o f increase i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f
vegetables d u r i n g the l a s t f i v e years and the t r e n d i s s t i l l
moving forward e s p e c i a l l y i n the new development areas.
Unfortunately, the l a c k o f seasonally and y e a r l y data on
vegetable areas, and magnitude o f y i e l d per u n i t since 1961
makes the t r a c i n g and demonstration o f t h e a c t u a l t r e n d and
growth i n vegetable c u l t i v a t i o n impossible. T e n t a t i v e
c a l c u l a t i o n s based on sampled farms i n d i f f e r e n t zones i n
the r e g i o n show, however, the r e l a t i v e importance o f
vegetable output, which counts f o r approximately one f o u r t h
o f the t o t a l value o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l output of these farms.

15 tons/hectare f o r the r e g i o n o f C e n t r a l Najd, and 13

tons/hectare f o r T a i f area i n the Hedaz r e g i o n .

133.

T h i s , undoubtedly, r e f l e c t s the change i n p a t t e r n o f

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n which has tended t o s h i f t towards
h i g h value vegetables a t the expense o f the t r a d i t i o n a l
dates and c e r e a l s ,
( c ) F i e l d crops
F i e l d crops i n the Qassim consist o f wheat, b a r l e y ,
m i l l e t , sorghum, h i l b a , and maize occupying some i+9.7 per
cent o f the t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d land i n the r e g i o n ( F i g . 3 0 ) .
The geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n of the f i e l d crop area i n
the Qassim i n d i c a t e s t h a t Ar Russ d i s t r i c t i s the main
c e r e a l producing area where 57.8 per cent o f the region's
t o t a l l a y o u t . 23.7 per cent and 18.5 per cent l i e w i t h i n
Braydah and Aunayzah d i s t r i c t s r e s p e c t i v e l y . F i e l d crops
i n the Qassim are grouped i n two seasonal groups; w i n t e r
f i e l d crops and summer f i e l d crops. Winter f i e l d crops
(wheat, b a r l e y and h i l b a ) , i n f a c t , are the p r i n c i p a l g r a i n
produced i n the r e g i o n , and they occupy 17,289 hectares
which c o n s t i t u t e 93 per cent o f the t o t a l f i e l d crops i n
the Qassim.
Wheat i s the most important s i n g l e crop and
i s grown over an area o f 15,570 hectares (90 per cent o f
the w i n t e r f i e l d crops a r e a ) . The estimated average output
o f wheat per hectare was reported i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l survey
of 1961-62 t o be 1,55 tons/hectare which counts f o r a gross
output o f 2.J+00 m e t r i c tons approximately (Fig.31 ) . A few
experiments' ^ on the date o f sowing o f wheat have shown t h a t
sowing between 15th October and 15th November gives much
b e t t e r r e s u l t s than around 15th December, the t r a d i t i o n a l l y
accepted and p r a c t i s e d p e r i o d o f wheat sowing throughout the
r e g i o n . These experiments have also i n d i c a t e d t h a t 130 kg.
1

1965, 1966 a t Braydah experimental s t a t i o n .

seeds per hectare give the highest r e t u r n among the t e s t e d

q u a n t i t i e s . However, wheat i s apparently a dwindling crop
and most farmers g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h the size o f wheat
f i e l d s because i t i s found t o be grown a t a loss o f 0.26^ ^
Srs/kg. Moreover, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t wheat i n
many other regions i n the kingdom, such as t h e province o f
the Northern Boundaries, and the Eastern Province, i s grown
at a loss o f cost r e t u r n , w i t h the exception o f the r e g i o n
of Central Najd where a very s l i g h t p r o f i t i s gained due t o
the comparatively greater y i e l d per hectare which count f o r
2 tons/hectare. (The highest i n t h e kingdom). The causes
of t h i s loss are, undoubtedly, due t o t h e low y i e l d per u n i t
and t o the hard competition w i t h the imported wheat which was
introduced i n t o t h e kingdom's market w i t h subsidies. I n
f a c t , although such a measure a f f e c t s the p r i c e of wheat i n
the markets and consequently b r i n g s about l o s s i n cost r e t u r n s
f o r the home-produced, wheat, i t i s w e l l j u s t i f i e d and
defended on t h e nation's w e l f a r e ground by p r o v i d i n g cheaper
bread t o the people'. The only way out t o overcome such a
d e l i c a t e s i t u a t i o n i s t o a l l o c a t e a s i m i l a r subsidy f o r
home-grown wheat promotion and the improvement o f i t s
capacity o f y i e l d per u n i t . Pew farmers apply f e r t i l i z e r s
t o wheat f i e l d s and even the a p p l i c a t i o n o f those who do i s
very l i m i t e d due t o the r e l a t i v e vastness o f wheat area.
1

Barley i s grown over 9.2 per cent o f the w i n t e r f i e l d

crop area w i t h a t o t a l output o f 338 metric tons. The
estimated average y i e l d o f b a r l e y per hectare was r e p o r t e d
i n t h e region's a g r i c u l t u r a l survey (1961-62) t o be some o f
2.1 tons per hectare, a y i e l d which ranks among t h e highest
i n t h e Middle East, Asia, and A f r i c a n countries w i t h t h e
Based on f i g u r e s on cost and income o f wheat given i n
the a g r i c u l t u r a l survey o f al-Qassim (1961-62).

135

exception o f Japan ( 2 . 7 tons/hectare) and U.A.R. '

(2.6 t o n s / h e c t a r e ) . No experiments on the proper sowing
p e r i o d f o r "barley were conducted i n the Qassim, b u t an
experiment i n Braydah experimental s t a t i o n on the proper
q u a n t i t y o f seeds per hectare has i n d i c a t e d t h a t 100
kg/hectare i s the q u a n t i t y which has given the highest
r e t u r n among the t e s t e d q u a n t i t i e s o f 60 kg, 1U0, 180,
230 kg ./hectare.
Summer f i e l d crops consist o f sorghum, m i l l e t , and
maize. Sorghum i s grown over 1+8.3 per cent o f summer
f i e l d crop t o t a l area (1,339 hectare) and m i l l e t i s
c u l t i v a t e d over 1*65 per cent o f summer f i e l d crop t o t a l
area, and maize over a very n e g l i g i b l e area o f 0.1 per
cent. Data on t h e output per u n i t o f these g r a i n s are
unavailable. The summer f i e l d crops together w i t h b a r l e y
are used as a supplement f o r a l f a l f a i n f a t t e n i n g t h e
sedentary l i v e s t o c k i n both r u r a l and urban households.
However, although a d e t a i l e d study on the r e l a t i v e
costs and returns o f the various a g r i c u l t u r a l crops i n
the r e g i o n i s impossible t o undertake because o f the l a c k
of the necessary set o f data, nevertheless, t h e a v a i l a b l e
s c a t t e r e d f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e a gap between the p r o f i t a b i l i t y
of f r u i t s and vegetables on the one hand and dates and
cereal on the o t h e r . Approximate estimates o f y i e l d s ,
costs, and p r i c e o f f i v e major crops and groups i n the
Qassim are c a l c u l a t e d and t a b u l a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g
table:-

A g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i s t i c a l , year book, Pafct I , Production,

P.A.O., 1966.

136.

Table 1 1 . Estimates o f y i e l d s , coats, and

prices o f f i v e major crops and
groups i n the r e g i o n

Crop
Dates
Wheat
Tomatoes
Vegetables
Fruits

Average y i e l d Average cost Average cost Average farm

per h e c t . / i n per h e c t . / i n per k g / i n
p r i c e per
kg.
k g / i n S.R.
S.R.
S.R.
5,600
1,500

1,400
680

0.36
0.68

0.25
0.42

13,500

2,310

0.17

0.60

6,000
5,000

2,050
3,650

0.34
0.61

0.54
0.96

Figures and percentages have been c a l c u l a t e d from data

given i n the f o l l o w i n g sources:1 . Gross n a t i o n a l product o f Saudi Arabia, E.R.I, o f A.
< U r i i v e r s i t j j B e i r u t , 1961.
2 . A g r i c u l t u r a l survey o f the Qassim, s t a t i s t i c s Department, M i n i s t r y of Water and A g r i c u l t u r e 1961-62.
3 . Economic s t u d i e s on the a g r i c u l t u r a l sector o f Saudi
^ A r a b i a . E.R.I, o f A. U n i v e r s i t y , B e i r u t , 1964.
The cost f i g u r e s presented i n the t a b l e are f o r t h e
t o t a l o f v a r i a b l e and f i x e d costs i n c l u d i n g costs o f h i r e d
labour b u t excluding land r e n t . The t a b l e reveals t h a t
dates and wheat r e s u l t i n net losses t o the farmers, w h i l e
growing o f tomatoes and other vegetables are b r i n g i n g i n net
r e t u r n s . I t should be noted t h a t n e i t h e r t h e cost f i g u r e s
nor the estimates o f farm p r i c e s are o f p e r f e c t r e l i a b i l i t y .
Nevertheless, they may serve as a rough i n d i c a t o r o f r e l a t i v e
d i r e c t i o n s and trends i n t h i s respect n o t f o r the Qassim i n
p a r t i c u l a r b u t a l s o f o r the other a g r i c u l t u r a l areas i n
Saudi Arabia.

137

9.5

Animals husbandry
I n the Qassim farm animals c o n s i s t o f sheep, c a t t l e ,
camels, goats, and a l i m i t e d v a r i e t y o f p o u l t r y (chickens,
geese, ducks, pigeons and t u r k e y s ) . The only a v a i l a b l e
data on the size o f farm animals i s recorded i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l survey o f the r e g i o n (1961-62). Since then these
basic data have not been supplemented by annual series o f
data on number, and m i l k and meat y i e l d per u n i t o f t h e
various animals. Moreover, m i l k and meat y i e l d per u n i t
has not been recorded i n the survey, and the number o f
l i v e s t o c k recorded was not based on a head count b u t on the
numbers o f l i v e s t o c k as declared by the householder, who may
underestimate the f i g u r e t o avoid payment o f t i t h e (Zakat a l
Oshr). The survey's f i g u r e f o r c a t t l e , which are more e a s i l y
determined due t o f i x e d l o c a t i o n , however, can be considered
more r e l i a b l e .
Most o f the farm l i v e s t o c k are indigenous t o the r e g i o n ,
but some imported European c a t t l e , North A f r i c a n camels and
a few I r a q i and Syrian sheep, and Egyptian goats are being
introduced and absorbed i n t o n a t i v e f l o c k s .
Farm sheep are the p r i n c i p a l animal i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l
areas o f the Qassim. They number 11^,570 which c o n s t i t u t e s
13.7 per cent o f the kingdom's farm sheep t o t a l . The
Najdi-bred sheep are the most numerous, and the b l a c k N a j d i ,
a l a r g e b l a c k hardy sheep averaging 60 kg. l i v e weight, i s
by f a r the most common. I t i s an e x c e l l e n t meat producer
and i t s m i l k y i e l d i s superior t o o t h e r s . I t has a long
s t r i n g y h a i r y f l e e c e w i t h hard b l a c k opaque f i b r e s which
are d i f f i c u l t t o dye. The w h i t e N a j d i sheep p a r a l l e l s i t s
b l a c k cousins f o r meat and m i l k p r o d u c t i o n ; i t s w h i t e f l e e c e
i s superior i n manufacturing because i t i s e a s i l y m o d i f i a b l e
by a v a r i e t y o f dyes. This remarkable breed would be very
u s e f u l i n upgrading and crossbreeding f o r sheep improvement.

138.

However, improved sheep n u t r i t i o n a t the Hafonf experimental

s t a t i o n (Eastern Province) on green a l f a l f a d i e t has proved
increased q u a l i t y and lamb growth. Thus, i t i s obvious t h a t
r a i s i n g sheep on farms where i r r i g a t e d pasture i s produced,
i s a p r o f i t a b l e husbandry p r a c t i c e . During the experimental
p e r i o d most o f the mature N a j d i ewes have been producing
twins and many gave two lamb crops per year. Lambs a t f i v e
months o f age weigh 90 pounds which equals the weight of
g r a i n - r a i s e d sheep i n any country.
Recorded gains o f the lambs during t h e experimental
p e r i o d r e v e a l some i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t o s . During the e x p e r i mental p e r i o d when 5*8 months o f age, t h e lambs gained
45.5 kg. ( n e a r l y 100 pounds); w i t h an average d a i l y g a i n
per lamb amounting t o 0.24 kg. When 9.9 months o f age the
average g a i n per lamb was 57.7 kg. (126.5 pounds), w i t h an
average d a i l y g a i n o f 0.18 kg. This t r e n d i n d i c a t e s t h a t
(1 )
at 5.8 months o f age the lamb gains were 78 ' per cent as
much as they were a t 9*9 months of age, and thus, lambs
made most e f f i c i e n t gains a t a younger age, a f a c t which
r e s u l t s i n greater returns by s e l l i n g them when 5 Jro 5.5
years o l d . Sheep and goats l i v e mainly on the i r r i g a t e d
pasture produced i n the farm supplemented w i t h hay and
grains straw, b u t d u r i n g w i n t e r and s p r i n g when n a t u r a l
pastures on the adjacent ranges are r e l a t i v e l y abundant they
are sent f o r a few hours d a i l y t o these ranges. I n such
circumstances green a l f a l f a i s provided as a supplement i n
a r e l a t i v e l y smaller r a t e .
Goats number 39110 which count f o r 9.7 per cent o f the
kingdom's goat t o t a l . They are second t o sheep i n p o p u l a t i o n
and are associated w i t h them i n herds over much of the r e g i o n .
v

The f i g u r e s were c a l c u l a t e d and quoted from data given i n

the sheets o f r e s u l t s o f the animal improvement experiments
at a l Hafsuf experimental s t a t i o n during the years 19631964-1965.

139.

Hair on most of them i s of a medium length and colours

vary i n c l u d i n g black, brown, dun, t a n , and white. Most
are horned, some have w a t t l e s , others do not, and many
have long ears. Goat meat i s a regular f e a t u r e of the
Qassimi d i e t but i s second choice compared w i t h sheep.
Goat's m i l k i s u t i l i z e d as f r e s h , and i s reputed as the
best d i e t f o r c h i l d r e n on account of i t s low b u t t e r content.
C a t t l e number 17,870 which c o n s t i t u t e s 1U.8 per cent
of the kingdom's t o t a l of farm c a t t l e . C a t t l e are v e r y
s c a t t e r e d , and a household w i t h even f i v e t o seven heads
i s unusual. The m a j o r i t y are found w i t h owners who keep
one or two cows f o r t h e i r personal needs f o r m i l k .
For
c e n t u r i e s , however, Qassimi farmers have r a i s e d s t r a i n s of
small brown and black hardy n a t i v e Zebu c a t t l e f o r waterd r a f t and cereal threshing purposes, m i l k , and beef. I t i s
estimated t h a t mature c a t t l e weigh from 700 t o 1,000 pounds;
b u l l s weigh up t o 1,14-00 pounds. They are horned, small
humped animals w i t h dropping rumps and s l i g h t l y swayed backs.
C a t t l e , generally, s u f f e r from hunger and m a l n u t r i t i o n .
Forage supplies are f a r below c a t t l e needs and q u a l i t y too
o f t e n i s f i b r o u s and low. C a t t l e i n the Qassim are housed
next to the f a m i l i e s ' homes i n pest-ridden, p o o r l y
v e n t i l a t e d rooms or s t a l l s . Owners give them a short r a t i o n
of h i g h p r i c e d a l f a l f a t o supplement the t a b l e scraps.
They are also fed on weeds, grass, p l a n t c u t t i n g s , paper
sacks, and pasteboard boxes. However, experimental research
on c a t t l e r a i s i n g i s badly needed, and such experiments
would be most u s e f u l i f d i r e c t e d towards the s e l e c t i o n and
upgrading of n a t i v e zebu already adopted and producing w e l l
under the Qassim c o n d i t i o n s . The question of c a t t l e r a i s i n g
p r o s p e r i t y i s dependent e n t i r e l y on the a v a i l a b i l i t y of
adequate forage and modern housing f a c i l i t i e s . I n f a c t ,
there i s no doubt t h a t i t would be wise once such requirements

140.

have "been amply provided t o introduce superior Zebu d a i r y

blood from neighbouring c o u n t r i e s .
Camel herds consist o f 17,650 camels, a magnitude
which c o n s t i t u t e s 22.7 per cent o f the kingdom's camel t o t a l .
The m a j o r i t y o f camel herds are concentrated i n the wadi
Ar Rma area e s p e c i a l l y i n the settlements o f a l Badaea and
Riyadh a l Khabra i n Ar Russ zone. They are a t the present
time r a i s e d and f a t t e n e d f o r meat marketing, w i t h s u b s i d i a r y
m i l k i n g f o r farm household consumption. The Arabian camel,
or dromedary, Camelue dromedarius. i s indigenous i n A b i a ,
India,and a l l o f North A f r i c a . Leggy, l i g h t l y b u i l t and
short h a i r e d , the Arabian camel i s s u i t e d t o hot d e s e r t i c
c l i m a t e . Camel colour v a r i e s and includes b l a c k , w h i t e ,
gray, brown, t a n , and yellow. Farmers buy lean camels from
nomads and f a t t e n them, t o re-stock t h e i r s o l d stock, by a
combination o f green a l f a l f a , weeds, and b a r l e y - m i l l e t
m i x t u r e . However, as a r e s u l t o f the recent drought p e r i o d
1959-1965, many thousands o f camels have vanished from
ranges throughout the kingdom. I n order t o re-stock such
great losses many thousands o f camels were imported mainly
from North A f r i c a r e c e n t l y and cross-bred w i t h the remaining
n a t i v e herds. Aged farmers, however, have reported t h a t the
o r i g i n a l Arabian Peninsula camels were r a t h e r smaller but
hardy and good workers under the p r e v a i l i n g c l i m a t i c condit i o n s . As a meat producer, camels seem t o be uneconomical
on the ground t h a t the females seldom bear young more o f t e n
than once every two years, and not a l l she-camels bear
young each two years. Hence, the new camel crop i s always
i n the range of 25 per cent per year.
r a

The town of Braydah has by f a r the l a r g e s t l i v e s t o c k

market i n the region, and even i n the whole o f n o r t h e r n Najd.
The number of camels and sheep seen a t the market i n summer,
1967 ( t h e f i e l d work p e r i o d ) suggested a r a t h e r a c t i v e animal

1i+1.

t r a d i n g centre. Undoubtedly, most o f the marketed animals

are range-raised stock, and the p r o p o r t i o n of the farmr a i s e d herds i s not known and impossible t o be e s t a b l i s h e d
as the dealers do not keep such i n f o r m a t i o n . However, i t
i s estimated t h a t 11,897 animals are slaughtered y e a r l y t o
meet the demand f o r meat. This estimate i s based on the
r e p o r t of the slaughter house o f Braydah t h a t 25 animals are
salughtered d a i l y . The p r o p o r t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n t types of
animals d a i l y slaughtered at Braydah i s nine camels, twelve
sheep, four goats and one cow. By working out the average
of per c a p i t a gross meat consumption per year f o r Braydah
area, a s i m i l a r average was applied t o Aunayzah, and Ar Russ
areas. Consequently the average of the three major areas
were c a l c u l a t e d as the region's average t o t a l o f meat
consumption per year. The extent t o which farmers and town
dwellers do t h e i r own butchering i s , however, not known.
I n v e s t i g a t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t l i t t l e meat i s consumed
by farmers. Of the 50 farms sampled from the d i f f e r e n t
zones of the region 10 per cent oat:,meat d a i l y , 32 per cent
twice a week, i+2 per cent once weekly, and 1.6 per cent each
two weeks. Such a low per c a p i t a consumption among farmers
i n the Qassim presents a very sad s i t u a t i o n indeed and
r e f l e c t s the s e v e r i t y of the poor l i v i n g standards of farmers.
M i l k y i e l d per day per animal i n the Qassim i s not p r e c i s e l y
known.
ft.6
A g r i c u l t u r a l Marketing
Almost a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i s marketed i n the
towns o f the r e g i o n , Braydah and Aunayzah and, t o a smaller
e x t e n t , i n Ar Russ. Only a few farmers of the new vegetable
growing farms i n the southern p a r t o f the r e g i o n market
t h e i r production d i r e c t l y outside the region. This d i r e c t
contact of farmers w i t h outside markets has s t a r t e d only
l a t e l y since the completion o f Braydah-Macca and Ar Riyadh
highway. Farmers o f t h i s area have reported t h a t the r e t u r n

1U2.

from s e l l i n g t h e i r product i n Ar Riyadh d i r e c t l y j u s t i f y

the e x t r a cost of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o such a r e l a t i v e l y d i s t a n t
market i n s t e a d o f Braydah. I t i s a n t i c i p a t e d , however, t h a t
i n a few years time the southern new development area w i l l
develop a permanent d i r e c t marketing l i n e w i t h Ar Riyadh and
other "big markets i n s t e a d o f the present system o f marketing
v i a Braydah dealers.
At the present time, a l l the marketing operations are
i n p r i v a t e hands, commission dealers are a c t i n g as a gobetween separating the farmers from the market. Commission
r a t e i s f i x e d a t f i v e per cent o f the t o t a l marketed produce
p r i c e f o r a l l the various crops. Farmers have t o pay as
w e l l f o r l o a d i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and unloading t h e product
i n the market. No co-operatives operate i n the Qassim t o
organize and handle marketing. The non-existence o f such
organizations or even c o l d storage f a c i l i t i e s has created
an unfavourable s i t u a t i o n f o r valuable and perishable products
during peak periods o f y i e l d s s u r p l u s , a case which b r i n g s
p r i c e s down very sharply t o the extent t h a t i t may not even
cover the cost o f p r o d u c t i o n and badly a f f e c t s the farm's
balance of payment.
P r i c e s t a b i l i t y i s a very v i t a l f a c t o r i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l economy i n terms o f organizing appropriate schedules
f o r an e f f e c t i v e economic p r o d u c t i o n ; such s t a b i l i t y cannot
be secured i n the Qassim under t h e present marketing methods
and f a c i l i t i e s . On the c o n t r a r y , the unstable r a t e o f p r i c e s
i n the r e g i o n i s very h i g h . For instance, an increase o f
250 per cent i n tomato p r i c e s occurs i n w i n t e r when a
shortagje o f supply occurs, a s i m i l a r increase occurs i n
pumpkin and eggplant p r i c e s , w h i l e onion p r i c e s o s c i l l a t e
i n the range o f 180 per cent of the p r i c e o f peak p e r i o d
yield.
The complex o f marketing d i f f i c u l t i e s , however, i s
c l e a r l y demonstrated by the p r e v a i l i n g Serious l a c k o f

143.

organization i n a l l steps r e q u i r e d t o get the produce from

the f i e l d s t o the consumers. Factors behind such d i f f i c u l t i e s are t h r e e f o l d . F i r s t l y , the p r e v a i l i n g techniques o f
harvesting, handling and packing are p r i m i t i v e . Secondly,
there are the r e l a t i v e l y expensive and i n e f f i c i e n t i n t e r n a l
r u r a l t r a n s p o r t media through the unpaved roads which l i n k
the s c a t t e r e d a g r i c u l t u r a l areas w i t h the market centres.
T h i r d l y , there are poor, inadequate and unhygenic marketing
f a c i l i t i e s i n the marketing centres. These f a c t o r s cause
considerable damage t o the produce and consequently degrade
i t s a c t u a l value. Moreover, such f a c t o r s make marketing
process unable t o bridge the e s s e n t i a l l i n k between increased
a g r i c u l t u r a l production and increased farm income i n the
r e g i o n . A f a i l u r e t o improve the present marketing conditions
and o r g a n i z a t i o n would, undoubtedly, f u r t h e r f r u s t r a t e a l l
investments and endeavours t o increase a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n .
Great improvement i n t h i s respect could be e a s i l y secured
through the instalment o f modern p h y s i c a l marketing f a c i l i t i e s ,
such as c o l d storage, and the use of hygenie t r a n s p o r t means
to wholesale and r e t a i l shops, as w e l l as the instalment o f
intake o f produce, weighing, and d i s p l a y f a c i l i t i e s i n the
markets. Another aspect o f the poor marketing o r g a n i z a t i o n
i n the r e g i o n i s the f a c t t h a t none o f the farmers nor the
dealers and commission merchants i n the region's markets has
ever c o l l e c t e d and kept i n f o r m a t i o n on the need and the
general s t a t e o f supplies i n the other markets e i t h e r w i t h i n
or outside t h e r e g i o n . Such a case o f t e n r e s u l t s i n misd i s t r i b u t i o n of the marketed products and consequently p r i c e s
vary considerably f o r the one crop i n the d i f f e r e n t marketing
centres w i t h i n a r a t h e r small geographical c i r c l e . However,
the job o f i n t r o d u c i n g modern marketing f a c i l i t i e s i s
obviously a task beyond the capacity o f i n d i v i d u a l farmers,
r e t a i l e r s , and commission merchants. I t i s , indeed, a task

Mik.

of organized group or p r o f e s s i o n a l body such as co-operatives.

Therefore, the e v o l u t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l co-operatives w i t h
s u f f i c i e n t f i n a n c i a l c a p a c i t y and o r g a n i z a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y
i s the only way t o solve the present marketing d i f f i c u l t i e s
and improve the e x i s t i n g crop r e t u r n s and farm income.

Chapter 10

Problems of A g r i c u l t u r a l
Development

The advent of a r t e s i a n water i n the r e g i o n i n the e a r l y

19508. has paved the way f o r a sudden and c o n s i d e r a b l e
expansion i n farming without p r i o r planning for the a p p l i c a t i o n of such huge q u a n t i t i e s of i r r i g a t i o n water, adequate
farming f a c i l i t i e s and improvement of farming methods and
marketing c o n d i t i o n s . The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s d i s c u s s the
extent of these problems on a g r i c u l t u r e at the present time
i n the Qassim. These, problems have, i n f a c t , r e s u l t e d from
the sudden change from an a g r i c u l t u r a l economy based on a
shortage of water to an economy of s u r p l u s water, and have
a r i s e n by the previous l i m i t e d c a p a c i t y of farming and
marketing methods and techniques.
10.1
Labour f o r c e and farm equipment
The a g r i c u l t u r a l labour f o r c e i s one of the most c r i t i c a l
and l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s which f a c e the a g r i c u l t u r a l development
plans of the Qassim. A l l interviewed farmers throughout the
r e g i o n have complained about the severe shortage of labour
and the comparatively high r a t e of wages per day per workers
T h i s comparatively high r a t e of wages has a f f e c t e d farming
processes to the extent of discouraging most of the farmers
from g i v i n g t h e i r farms and f i e l d s s a t i s f a c t o r y care and
s e r v i c e s ( p l a t e x l i v ) which, owing to the nature of the crop
or to the l o c a l farm circumstances, can only be achieved
w i t h hand t o o l s and l i g h t implements. T h i s f a c t , together
w i t h the nature of the overwhelming s m a l l farming u n i t s

P l a t e N o . x l i v . A view f r o m one o f t h e farms i n

t h e Wadi A r Rma; i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x t e n t o f
t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s e r v i c e and severe n e g l e c t
o f t h e farmer o f h i s farm as a r e s u l t o f
combined s h o r t a g e and h i g h wages o f l a b o u r t o
do such hand o p e r a t i o n s as weeding and p r u n i n g
the t r e e s . This standard o f s e r v i c e i s r a t h e r
common.

146.

makes the f u l l replacement of such labour shortage by power

machinery an arguable suggestion. The f r a c t i o n of the
permanent labour f o r c e engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r e i n the Qassim
i s , however, estimated to 16.6 per cent of the s e d i n t e r y
population of the r e g i o n (Table 1 2 ) . T h i s s m a l l percentage
suggests a d i s g u i s e d unemployment among the s e d i n t e r y
population; n e v e r t h e l e s s , the percentage of such d i s g u i s e d
unemployment i s expected t o be low due to the f o l l o w i n g
f a c t o r s . The percentage of the s e d i n t e r y population who
are between 10-50 years of age i s 4 8 . 8 p e r c e n t . The female
percentage i s estimated to be 51.2 p e r cent, t h i s l a r g e
s e c t i o n of the population i s not considered a s a working
s e c t o r i n the r e g i o n .
However, the average worker p e r h e c t a r e i s 0.3; ( t h e
o v e r a l l average f o r the kingdom i s 0 . 9 ) . Such an average
i s v e r y low compared w i t h other c o u n t r i e s . F o r example, t h e
corresponding average i n I n d i a i s 2.2 per h e c t a r e , Turkey
2.7, Y u g o s l a v i a 1.6, B r a z i l 1.9, P h i l l i p p i n e s 1.2.^ ^ I t i s
assumed, however, that the low average of labour p e r h e c t a r e
i n the Qassim and the kingdom a s a whole i s apparent due t o
the small absolute a r e a of c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s . Of the t o t a l
permanent labour f o r c e engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r e i n the Qassim,
i t was observed that only a s m a l l percentage c o n s i s t s of
h i r e d labour and the r e s t i s drawn from the f a m i l i e s of holders
1

Table 12. R u r a l population of the Qassim

Permanent labour i n a g r i c u l t u r e
Number of householders
Population of households
Average of household

11,401
8,947
68,668

size

7.8

Source of f i g u r e s : The A g r i c u l t u r a l Survey of the Qassim,

S t a t i s t i c s Department, M i n i s t r y of Water and A g r i c u l t u r e
1961 - 6 2 .

F.A.O. A g r i c u l t u r a l Production Year Book 1 9 5 0 / 6 0 .

1i+7.

However, t h i s shortage of labour f o r c e i n the r e g i o n

had been mostly caused and i n t e n s i f i e d through the l a s t
decade by the d i s c o v e r y . o f the a r t e s i a n water which
consequently l e d to the expansion i n a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s ,
and by the i n c r e a s i n g p r e s e n t t r e n d of market-orientated
production (mainly vegetables and f r u i t s ) . Such production
needs f a r more working hours throughout the year than the
t r a d i t i o n a l production of c e r e a l and d a t e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
the use of modern power machinery where the income, s i z e ,
and s t r u c t u r e of the farm u n i t s permit, and the use of
improved hand-tools and l i g h t farm equipment i n the s m a l l
holdings w i l l undoubtedly improve the c a p a c i t y of the
a v a i l a b l e labour f o r c e .
A study of a g r i c u l t u r a l problems r e l a t e d to the
improvement of the farm equipment shows c l e a r l y that the
q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y of crop production could be c o n s i d e r a b l y
i n c r e a s e d by more widespread use of modern farm equipment.
The f i r s t s t e p towards the improvement and replacement of
the t r a d i t i o n a l farm equipment was the change from an animal
power w a t e r - l i f t i n g system to motor pumps. The i n t r o d u c t i o n
of the huge q u a n t i t i e s of non-flowing a r t e s i a n water had
n e c e s s i t a t e d such a s t e p . T h i s move was the f i r s t s i g n of
farm mechanization i n the r e g i o n . I t was g r e a t l y encouraged
by the M i n i s t r y of Water and A g r i c u l t u r e i n the e a r l y 1950s
when the M i n i s t r y launched i t s f i r s t s p e c i f i c mechanization
scheme. The scheme was a very loose instalment system which
helped the farmers to buy power-operated water-pumping s e t s .
The scheme q u i c k l y became popular and a f t e r a few y e a r s the
mechanized w a t e r - l i f t i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s had taken over every
s i n g l e farm i n the r e g i o n . Conventional c e n t r i f u g a l pumps
are on hand-dug w e l l s , and hand-dug d r i l l e d w e l l s . Deep
well-pumps are i n s t a l l e d on d r i l l e d non-flowing w e l l s .
The

148.

completion of the scheme had r e s u l t e d i n a s i z e a b l e i n c r e a s e

i n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d . Thus, the need f o r the use of improved
hand-tools, l i g h t equipment, and power machinery i n
performing the-various a g r i c u l t u r a l operations, i s c r i t i c a l
to compensate the i n c r e a s i n g shortage of farm hands and to
r e p l a c e the l e s s economic and slow performance of animal
power.
Unfortunately, the swing towards modern and improved
farm equipment was and i s s t i l l concentrated on power farm
machinery w i t h almost no c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r hand-tools and
l i g h t implements .which a r e , i n the opinion of the w r i t e r ,
of equal importance. The f u l l use of the a v a i l a b l e power
farm machinery i s l i m i t e d to l a r g e farm u n i t s of the new
development a r e a s and f i e l d s . The farm equipment s i t u a t i o n
i s grave on the s m a l l holdings which account f o r as much as
35 per cent of the r e g i o n . The small holders (whether
owners, t e n a n t s , or metayers) s t i l l s t r u g g l e w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
hand t o o l s and implements i n an attempt to improve t h e i r
production. These farms s t i l l bear to a l a r g e extent the
t y p i c a l f e a t u r e s of s u b s i s t e n c e farming. The primary need
i s f o r improved hoes, s c y t h e s , i n a d d i t i o n to simple and
s m a l l but more e f f e c t i v e ploughs, s m a l l seeders, and simple
spraying, dusting, t h r e s h i n g equipment. The i n t r o d u c t i o n
of such improved hand t o o l s and l i g h t implements seems to be
the only way of improving the e x i s t i n g farm p r a c t i c e s and
the i n s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y of the a v a i l a b l e labour f o r c e .
The farm equipment s i t u a t i o n i s b e t t e r on the l a r g e r
farms whose reasonable income u s u a l l y permits the use of
h i r e - s e r v i c e s of power machinery provided and organized by
the E x t e n s i o n F i e l d Centres i n the r e g i o n . The h i r e s e r v i c e f o r power.farm machinery i s l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by
the E.F.S.Cs., which evolved the system i n 1955 hy demonstrat i n g a small number of crawler t r a c t o r s w i t h b u l l d o z e r blades

1^9.

for the e r e c t i o n of w a t e r - c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s and land

l e v e l l i n g o p e r a t i o n s . As a consequence a few r i c h farmers
and townsmen followed the example to undertake c o n t r a c t
works on adjacent farms w i t h t h e i r own equipment which i s
confined to t r a c t o r s , ploughs, and t h r e s h e r s . I t i s
recognized, however, that the present a v a i l a b l e power farm
machinery i s f a r from "being adequate. The number of t r a c t o r s
per 1,000 h e c t a r e s i s 1.8; t h i s r e p r e s e n t s the second h i g h e s t
average i n the kingdom a f t e r the e a s t e r n province ( a l Ahsa)
which has 2.5 t r a c t o r s per 1,000 h e c t a r e s . Most farmers
have to wait a long time (1+-5 weeks) f o r the busy t r a c t o r s
and ploughs.
Moreover, i t has been observed i n the f i e l d
that t h i s low average of t r a c t o r s per 1,000 h e c t a r e s i s not
f u l l y u t i l i z e d , a s i t u a t i o n which aggravates the e f f e c t s of
the shortage. The reason behind t h i s i s b e l i e v e d to be the
poor standard of maintenance and o p e r a t i o n . Indeed, the
farm equipment maintenance and r e p a i r s e r v i c e i s one of the
major problems of farm machinery'in the r e g i o n . Spare p a r t s
are u n a v a i l a b l e i n most cases and the supply i s very slow
and l a r g e l y jeopardized by the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o u t i n e s i n
the M i n i s t r y headquarters at Ar Riyadh. As a r e s u l t , often
such v a l u a b l e equipment stands i d l e f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e time.
A case was witnessed during the f i e l d work p e r i o d where a
t r a c t o r of 0-8 ^ ) type stood i d l e f o r 6 weeks w a i t i n g f o r a
s m a l l spare p a r t to be d e l i v e r e d . However, the e f f i c i e n c y
of the a v a i l a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l machinery i n the region,
p a r t i c u l a r l y as regards the heavy equipment f o r e a r t h moving
i n connection w i t h l a n d l e v e l l i n g and e r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n
channels, i s extremely low because the present equipment i s
not f u l l y s u i t a b l e f o r such l o c a l i z e d p r a c t i c e s . I n most
cases crawler t r a c t o r s operate w i t h b u l l d o z e r blades only,
1

^Worth 35 SRs. an hour (roughly 3).

150

even i n c a s e s where the s o i l has to he moved over long

d i s t a n c e s . The r e c e n t hut l i m i t e d i n t r o d u c t i o n of buckets
to these t r a c t o r s has "brought about a remarkable improvement
i n the e f f i c i e n c y of such c o s t l y equipment. Moreover, the
performance of the wheel t r a c t o r was a l s o g r e a t l y improved
r e c e n t l y by using the t i l l e r . T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n has not
only helped to speed up t i l l a g e but i n a d d i t i o n saved
subsequent expensive l a n d smoothing operations which a r e
i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n i r r i g a t e d crop production.
There i s a great need f o r l a n d forming on almost every
farm i n order to improve the present water c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s ,
i r r i g a t i o n f i e l d c o n d i t i o n , and to f a c i l i t a t e the i n t r o d u c t i o n of modern farming techniques. T i l l a g e i s one of the
a g r i c u l t u r a l operations which can be s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d
out by farm machinery provided that the r i g h t type of t i l l a g e
i s used. The i n c r e a s e d use of the t i l l e r i n the region's
farms would improve the c a p a c i t y of the four-wheel t r a c t o r s .
I t would help to speed up t i l l a g e operations, improve
moisture c o n s e r v a t i o n , and. reduce t i l l a g e c o s t s f o r farmers.
Another advantage of the use of the t i l l e r i n s t e a d of d i s c
or mouldboard would be the ease of c u l t i v a t i o n of even s m a l l
f i e l d s without much damage t o i r r i g a t i o n systems and
disturbance to land l e v e l . Moreover, the operation of the
t i l l e r i s much e a s i e r and the maintenance and r e p a i r cost
i s c o n s i d e r a b l y lower than the p r e v a i l i n g types, d i s c and
mouldboard.
An i n t e r e s t i n g aspect of t i l l a g e i n the Qassim a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h s o i l t e x t u r a l type was observed i n many f i e l d s which
l i e on a c l a y e y or s i l t y s o i l . I n the Qassim the land i s
u s u a l l y l e f t untouched a f t e r h a r v e s t u n t i l the f o l l o w i n g
sowing season, and under the p r e v a i l i n g a r i d c o n d i t i o n s the
l a n d d r i e s out q u i c k l y and becomes very compact and hard,
and consequently d i f f i c u l t to plough.

Thus, the power

151

machinery requirement f o r t i l l a g e of such lands i s extremely

high and l a n d i s l e f t i n a rough c o n d i t i o n , u n s u i t a b l e f o r
e f f i c i e n t c u l t i v a t i o n . T r a c t o r s and t i l l e r s s u f f e r severe
s t r a i n working over such sunbaked f i e l d s and hard i r r i g a t i o n
d i t c h e s . I t i s suggested, however, that such lands should
be i r r i g a t e d before ploughing. T h i s p r a c t i c e ought to save
power, reduce damage to the equipment, help to speed up
t i l l a g e operations, and save farmers unnecessary a d d i t i o n a l
working hours. The argument that p r e c i o u s i r r i g a t i o n water
i s wasted i n such a p r a c t i c e i s , i n f a c t , only p a r t l y
c o r r e c t . Ploughing and p l a n t i n g , as a demonstration i n the
e a s t e r n province ( a l Ahasa) has proved, can be timed so t h a t a
good p o r t i o n of the s o i l moisture i s s t i l l a v a i l a b l e f o r the
crop.
The t h r e s h i n g process i s s t i l l i n most cases c a r r i e d out
i n a very i n e f f i c i e n t and p r i m i t i v e manner r e s u l t i n g in;,
production of a poor q u a l i t y of g r a i n . Farmers were found
to be very anxious t o use modern dusting and t h r e s h i n g
equipment, but t h e i r f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n does not permit
them to pay f o r such expensive equipment. The a v a i l a b l e
t h r e s h e r s , e i t h e r of the A.E.S.Cs. or of the p r i v a t e
c o n t r a c t o r s , a r e f a r below the demand l e v e l a t the p r e s e n t
time.
G r a i n h a r v e s t i n g i s s t i l l a hand-operation; an
i n t r o d u c t i o n of simple and s u i t a b l e g r a i n h a r v e s t i n g equipment i s n e c e s s a r y to improve the labour f o r c e d e f i c i e n c y i n
the f i e l d s of c e r e a l . A l f a l f a i s another important crop
which, due to i t s v a s t a r e a s , d e s p a r a t e l y needs the
i n t r o d u c t i o n of mechanized h a r v e s t i n g equipment. An
experimental demonstration of such equipment had f a i l e d to
prove i t s e f f i c i e n c y when introduced i n the r e g i o n i n 1963.
Root vegetables, e.g. onions, c a r r o t s , a r e harvested a t the
present time by hand and the i n t r o d u c t i o n of modern mechanized
h a r v e s t i n g equipment f o r such operations i s very urgent.

152.

However, i f such equipment i s s u c c e s s f u l l y introduced i n

s u i t a b l e design f o r the l o c a l conditions i t w i l l , undoubtedly,
speed up the expansion i n c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s .
However, the i n t r o d u c t i o n of new farm equipment and the
improvement of equipment i n use must embrace hand-tools and
l i g h t equipment as w e l l as power machinery equipment. The
present complete swing towards introducing only heavy
machinery i n the region must not be allowed to continue any
f u r t h e r . Any i n t r o d u c t i o n of new farm equipment i s n e c e s s a r y
to be based on s i m p l i c i t y i n operation, low maintenance and
r e p a i r c o s t s , and an a b i l i t y to work i n confined areas and
fields.
10.2

Problems of i r r i g a t i o n and p l a n t water requirements

The b a s i c cause of a l l the present i r r i g a t i o n problems

i n the region i s the recent i n t r o d u c t i o n of g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d
q u a n t i t i e s of i r r i g a t i o n water from the deep a q u i f e r s i n t o
an e x i s t i n g i r r i g a t i o n system based on l i m i t e d s u p p l i e s of
water drawn by animal power from the poor shallow

aquifers

of the r e g i o n . T h i s i n e f f i c i e n t and poor s t r u c t u r e of

i r r i g a t i o n layout p r e v a i l s i n the old palm-tree gardens.
I t i s a combination of i l l - o r g a n i z e d , randomly d i s t r i b u t e d ,
unlined earthen, wide and long channels, and earthen open
storage ponds. Unfortunately t h i s bad s t r u c t u r e has been
extended to the newly c u l t i v a t e d lands annexed to these
farms r e c e n t l y a f t e r the i n c r e a s e of water production c a p a c i t y .
Moreover, i t has been noticed t h a t the same s t r u c t u r e has
been adopted to a great extent i n the newly e s t a b l i s h e d f i e l d s
and farms sponsored by the new developers i n the region.
An i r r i g a t i o n water study of a l l the a q u i f e r s i n d i c a t e s
that the waters of P h r e a t i c , J i l h , and Khuff a q u i f e r s , are
l e s s s u i t a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l use. T h i s i s based on the
(1 )
f a c t that "SAR" ' values of these a q u i f e r s range from 1.0
Sodium Absorption R a t i o .

153.

to i+.O w i t h E.C. v a l u e s commonly exceeding 3000 '

micromhes/cm. ( F i g . 3 2 ) . Boron ( B ) c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n these
waters i s found t o he medium t o high (0.5-3.0 ppm).
It is
because of t h i s f a c t that the use of these waters f o r
i r r i g a t i o n should be l i m i t e d and c a r e f u l l y a p p l i e d a s ,
although boron i s e s s e n t i a l f o r p l a n t growth, i t i s h i g h l y
t o x i c where i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a t e i s high. However, on the
whole, such waters could be s u i t a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
a p p l i c a t i o n where e f f i c i e n t drainage c o n d i t i o n s are maintained
and s a l t - t o l e r a n t crops a r e grown. Waters of the Tabuk and
Saq a q u i f e r s are c l a s s i f i e d as "G^-S^'^ ' w i t h a boron
c o n c e n t r a t i o n measured a t 0.1 to 0.5 ppm. Thus,% these
waters are the most s u i t a b l e i r r i g a t i o n waters i n the r e g i o n .
However, the complex of i r r i g a t i o n problems i n v o l v e s
three major problems; i n e f f i c i e n t pumping systems, overproduction of water, and i n e f f i c i e n t r a t e of i r r i g a t i o n w i t h
high r a t e of waste.
The problem of i n e f f i c i e n t pumping i s c l e a r l y demonstrated
by the almost u n i v e r s a l p r a c t i c e , throughout the region, of
pumping water from shallow w e l l s through a p i p e l i n e o f t e n
too s m a l l i n diameter f o r the pump stream c a p a c i t y . Such
a s t r u c t u r e would exert a bad e f f e c t on the pump which
consequently i n v o l v e s unnecessary cost of maintenance. I n
most cases the discharge pipe r i s e s v e r t i c a l l y two metres
or more above the earthen pond a t the c o l l a r of the w e l l .
Many i r r i g a t i o n engineers have pointed out that such an
arrangement i s t e c h n i c a l l y unnecessary and c o s t s the farmer
c o n s i d e r a b l y more f u e l and l a r g e r engine c a p a c i t i e s than i f
water i s l i f t e d only to the l e v e l of the pond and through a
larger pipe.
1

( ) s e e Table ^, Appendix J .

, f o r medium to moderately high s a l i n i t y ,

f f o r low sodium.

CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION WATERS,

THE REGION OF AL OASSIM

IOO

5 6 7 B9IOOO
I III I

SOOO

30
28-

CI-S4

26
24

C3-S4

22
CI-S3
C4-S4
18

C2-S3

OI6
A

"J

14

C3-5 3

CI-5 2
512
C2-S2

C4 S 3

wt|0
C3'S2

C4-S2

Cl S
C2-SI

C3-SI
I

L J-l

COND.-MICROMHOS/CML
MEDIUM

LOW

SALINITY

PH RE A TIC

KHUFF

C4^SI

ECx\Q
HIGH

AT

VERYH'AS/

CONTENT

AQUIFER
AQUIFER
AQUIFER

SAQ

AQUIFER

FIGURE 32

The problem of over-production of ground water i s ,

so f a r , l i m i t e d to the o l d and t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n of palmt r e e garden a r e a s . I t has not been observed on a l a r g e
s c a l e yet i n the new lands which have been brought.under
i r r i g a t i o n away from the old a g r i c u l t u r a l s i t e s , nor do
they a f f e c t the vast areas of n o n - i r r i g a t e d p a s t u r e s .
This
newly introduced a d d i t i o n a l supply of deep ground water has
l e d to a great reduction i n use of the ground water i n the
shallow a l l u v i a l a q u i f e r , on which the settlements, of the
Qassim have been o r i g i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d , and w i t h whose
l i m i t e d water productive c a p a c i t y an e q u i l i b r i u m has been
maintained. However, such a s i t u a t i o n has l e d to over
i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s , p l u s a d d i t i o n a l s u p p l i e s from the
P h r e a t i c a q u i f e r s from below have l e d to a r i s e of the watert a b l e of the shallow zone and consequently reduced drainage
c a p a c i t y . The non-existence of an a r t i f i c i a l drainage system
f o r c e s s u r p l u s water to escape through evaporation.
Thus,
as a r e s u l t of the p r e v a i l i n g high r a t e of evaporation, s a l t s
are l e f t on the land s u r f a c e rendering the land u n f i t f o r
p r o f i t a b l e c u l t i v a t i o n ( p l a t e x x x i v ) , except f o r s p e c i e s
t o l e r a n t to s a l t from which a diminishing r e t u r n i s expected.
With adequate drainage i t i s f e a s i b l e to l e a c h the s a l t out
of the s o i l and r e c l a i m the numerous f i e l d s that have become
u n f i t f o r a g r i c u l t u r e and to i n c r e a s e the y i e l d s i n f i e l d s
where productive c a p a c i t y has been reduced by s a l i n i t y .
The problem of an i n e f f i c i e n t net of i r r i g a t i o n and high
r a t e of water waste i s the r e s u l t of the earthen, unlined
i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s and unsuitable earthen storage ponds. I n
the Braydah area, a farmer l i f t s 19 L P s ^ ^ i n t o the r e g u l a t i n g
pond near the w e l l . The stream from the pond conveys water
1

L i t r e per second.

155

to the f i e l d through a l e a k y d i t c h , where only k LPs roughly

reach the "basin "boundaries. Such f i n d i n g s suggest t h a t 79
per cent of the pumped water i s wasted through the earthen
pond and i r r i g a t i o n channels. C e r t a i n l y , w i t h the use of
p i p e l i n e s or l i n e d c a n a l s to e l i m i n a t e such great l o s s e s
through seepage, t h i s farmer could have i r r i g a t e d a t l e a s t
four times as much land and would have saved at l e a s t one
S.R./day i n d i e s e l f u e l c o s t alone. L i n i n g ponds and c a n a l s
i n some of the newly e s t a b l i s h e d farms (south Aunayzah) has
given immediate and p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s w i t h quick n o t i c e a b l e
repayment b e n e f i t s i n terms of water and f u e l saving, as
w e l l as a r e d u c t i o n i n the e f f e c t of drainage d i f f i c u l t i e s .
I n f a c t , l i n i n g operations f o r the m a j o r i t y of farmers i n
the region i s very expensive as t h e i r farms' income do not
permit the cost of such expensive schemes. For these, a
temporary improvement could be achieved through l e v e l l i n g the
f i e l d s and r e - l o c a t i n g the i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s f a r more
e f f i c i e n t l y . I t i s a l s o concluded t h a t the present i r r i g a t i o n canals can be improved by removing the o b s t r u c t i o n s and
by regrading, so that the water could be c a r r i e d at the
highest uniform v e l o c i t y to the f i e l d s . However, the random
d i s t r i b u t i o n and c l o s e n e s s of t r e e s throughout the f i e l d s i n
most farms c o n s t i t u t e s a s e r i o u s problem i n l e v e l l i n g the farm
s u r f a c e i n order to develop by grading or l i n i n g an e f f i c i e n t
i r r i g a t i o n system.
I n some p l a c e s water from the deep boreholes has
temperatures i n the range of 30C. to kOC. e.g. Farm of
P r i n c e Met eeb i n a l B a t i n east of Braydah ( p l a t e x x x v ) .
Farmers consider that i t must be allowed to stand i n a
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e pond and c o o l before i t i s a p p l i e d to the
f i e l d . Such a prolonged stand causes more i n f i l t r a t i o n i n
the earthen ponds. Thus, i t i s necessary to e s t a b l i s h
through experimental r e s e a r c h the f a c t whether the a p p l i c a t i o n

156.

of such hot water a f f e c t s the p l a n t or not.

The

expansion

i n a l f a l f a growing w i l l undoubtedly p a r t i c i p a t e i n d i m i n i s h ing

the s i z e of wasted i r r i g a t i o n water e s p e c i a l l y i n summer

time, when the absolute c u l t i v a t e d a r e a i s s m a l l e r than i n

w i n t e r , due to the f a c t t h a t a l f a l f a r e q u i r e s the h i g h e s t
r a t i o of water among the r a i s e d crops i n the Qassim.

In

a d d i t i o n , e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n of a l f a l f a i s estimated a t
73 mm/dunum i n w i n t e r w h i l s t i t i s i n the range of 300

mm/

dunurn i n summer.
The question of the proper s i z e of watering

canals

which should be adopted i n the d i f f e r e n t farming types

and

a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s , i s h i g h l y important f o r the achievement

of e f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e .

Such a question, i n f a c t ,

can only be d i s c u s s e d and concluded through adequate

information and data on s o i l i n t a k e r a t e , the depth of
water to be a p p l i e d f o r the v a r i o u s crops d e s i r e d to be
grown i n the farm, and the s i z e of the f i e l d .

The l a c k of

p r e c i s e information of these w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y make such

d i s c u s s i o n concerning

the two methods of i r r i g a t i o n i n the

region of a r a t h e r general and t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n .

With Mesha ab (furrow) method i n d i v i d u a l streams must
be l a r g e r as the length of furrow i n c r e a s e s .

Where streams

a r e too small f o r the s o i l i n t a k e r a t e , a l a r g e amount of

i r r i g a t i o n water w i l l be wasted through e x c e s s i v e deep
p e r c o l a t i o n on the upper end of the f i e l d .

On land of

0.5

slope, the maximum s i z e of furrow stream that does not cause

e r o s i o n i s estimated to be 0 . 7 5 / L P s .
than 0 . 5 ,
desired.

furrow streams could be of a l a r g e r s i z e i f

Where slopes are more than 0 . 5 ,

s i z e should be reduced to prevent

furrows.

I f the slope i s l e s s
the stream's

e x c e s s i v e e r o s i o n from the

I n the case of flooding method of i r r i g a t i o n ( b a s i n ) ,

i f a depth of 7 . 5

cm.

of water were to be a p p l i e d to a f i e l d

of medium textured s o i l (sandy loam) a stream of 31 LPs/dunum

157.

i s necessary f o r e f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n . I f 5.0 cm. depth

of i r r i g a t i o n i s to he a p p l i e d to f i e l d s of s o i l s c l a s s e d
as loamy sand, the stream s i z e should "be of 125 LPs/dunum.
For optimum production- of the various crops i n any
given region, d e f i n i t e amounts of water and the number and
frequency of a p p l i c a t i o n s should he e s t a b l i s h e d f o r every
i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t according to i t s b i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e and
the environmental f a c t o r s of the area where crops are to be
grown. Where such information i s a v a i l a b l e a s a t i s f a c t o r y
system of i r r i g a t i o n could be e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d . For the
Qassim, there i s a severe l a c k , and almost no information
of p l a n t v/ater requirements. Therefore, a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n
on t h i s aspect must s u f f i c e .
F i g u r e 33 demonstrates the
amount of i r r i g a t i o n water g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d by the v a r i o u s
c r o p s . For i n s t a n c e , a l f a l f a r e q u i r e s about 2.8 metres of
i r r i g a t i o n water a n n u a l l y whereas beans r e q u i r e about onef o u r t h as much. However, i n an a r i d region such as al-Qassim,
the unit of production and r e t u r n s should be compared a g a i n s t
water r e q u i r e d i n s t e a d of per u n i t of area cropped.
The
amount of moisture-holding c a p a c i t y which the v a r i a b l e s o i l s
make a v a i l a b l e f o r p l a n t use, the p l a n t root zone, and the
l e v e l to which the water can be removed by the crops without
reducing y i e l d s a r e the most important f a c t o r s i n determining
the water i r r i g a t i o n frequency. However, normally i r r i g a t i o n
takes p l a c e by the time 50 per cent of the usable s o i l
moisture has been removed from the root zone. Thus, i f the
s o i l i s medium t e x t u r e d and the root zone i s one metre, a
depth of 170 mm. of water could be s t o r e d as usable moisture
but only 88.mm. should be removed before replenishment by
a d d i t i o n a l i r r i g a t i o n water. I f the s o i l were a coarse sand,
i r r i g a t i o n would have to be much more frequent s i n c e not more
than about 2+0 mm. should be removed before replenishment.

THE WATER REQUIREMENTS

THE REGION

CROP

OF

TOTAL

OF MAIN

CROPS

AL-QASSIM

OF

ANNUAL

REQUIREMENT

ALFALFA
DATES
TOM A

TOES

WATER

MELON

SORGHUM
ONIONS
PEPPERS
CORN
PEAS
BARLEY
LETTUCE
BEANS

O.O
DEPTH

PEAK

MONTH

0.5
OF

l
I.O
I.O
WATER

~1

1.5

2.0
2.0

REQUIRED

(IN

2.5
2.5

3.0

METERS)

REQUIREMENT

FIGURE

33

158

F o l l o w i n g these l i n e s a t e n t a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n o f water
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r seven types o f crop were concluded "by t h e
M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e ' s e x p e r t s and l a i d dov/n as a "basic
g u i d e f o r use i n t h e r e g i o n .
They a r e summarized i n t h e
following table:Table 15*

Peak f r e q u e n c y ^ ' o f i r r i g a t i o n
i n t h e Qassim
Soil

Crop

Alfalfa
Dates
Barley
Corn
Lettuce
Melons;
Tomatoes

C l a y and
clayey s i l t

Silt
or
loam

18
16

10
13
16

Sandy loam
or
sandy c l a y

21

20
16

texture

10
to
9
6

7
8

16

11*
13
07
10
11

Loamy
sand

Sand

12
10
10

10
11
18

9
6

16

7
8

10
13
12

'Frequency i n days.
Source: Emergency area e i g h t e e n months r e p o r t .
Qassim. Wadi S i r h a n . and Tabuk.
M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e and Water,
1965.

10.3

Problems o f p l a n t and a n i m a l diseases

One o f the.main a g r i c u l t u r a l problems f a c i n g e v e r y
i n d i v i d u a l f a r m e r as w e l l as t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l development
p l a n s i n t h e Qassim as a whole, i s t h a t o f c r o p p e s t s and
p l a n t and animal d i s e a s e s . C o n t r o l i s a t p r e s e n t i n t h e hands
o f the E x t e n s i o n F i e l d s . S e r v i c e s Centres (E.F.S.Cs.). These
c e n t r e s , i n f a c t , h a n d l e t h e problem w i t h p o o r knowledge,
i n a d e q u a t e equipment and f a c i l i t i e s c a r r i e d out b y a few
p o o r l y t r a i n e d and u n q u a l i f i e d s t a f f . T h i s low s t a n d a r d o f
s e r v i c e i s g r e a t l y a g g r a v a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i e l d

159.

c e n t r e s p r o v i d e t h e s e r v i c e t o any f a r m e r upon h i s r e q u e s t ,
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e number o f dunums o r a n i m a l s , o r s i z e o f
c r o p t o "be t r e a t e d , or t h e d i s t a n c e t h e s e r v i c e u n i t has t o
t r a v e l t o r e a c h t h e i n f e s t e d a r e a . Such f l e x i b i l i t y makes
i t d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e p r e s e n t s i z e and c a p a c i t y o f s e r v i c e
u n i t s t o cope w i t h a l l t h e demands. These f a c t s a r e ,
u n d o u b t e d l y , t h e causes o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g t r e n d o f t h i s
problem c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i n c r e a s e s i n expansion i n
a g r i c u l t u r a l areas t h r o u g h t h e l a s t few y e a r s .
Saudi A r a b i a i s one o f t h e few c o u n t r i e s w h i c h has n o t
yet imposed p l a n t q u a r a n t i n e r e s t r i c t i o n s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n
h a s , i n f a c t , r e s u l t e d i n many s e r i o u s consequences because
a great v a r i e t y o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p l a n t s are c u r r e n t l y being
i m p o r t e d t o meet t h e i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r p l a n t s f o r t h e new development areas as w e l l as t h e o l d s i t e s where a swing
towards t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f f r u i t s i s i n c r e a s i n g . Thus, i t i s
expected t h a t such i m p o r t a t i o n w i l l c o n t i n u e f o r many y e a r s
t o come, and w i t h such a r a t e many e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t
p l a n t diseases have a l r e a d y been i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e c o u n t r y .
I n c l u d e d among these a r e c i t r u s l e a f cutworm, and c i t r u s l e a f
minor from I r a q , t h e melon bores and c u c u r b i t w e e v i l f r o m
J o r d a n and I r a q , s p i d e r m i t e s f r o m t h e Lebanon, and many
others.
However, crop p e s t s and p l a n t d i s e a s e s o f major
importance and f r e q u e n t occurrence i n t h e r e g i o n i n c l u d e
"Red s p i d e r m i t e s , " w h i c h were i d e n t i f i e d on many c r o p s ,
" T e r m i t e s , " and "Nematodes," w h i c h cause s e r i o u s l o s s e s o f
v e g e t a b l e s . e s p e c i a l l y tomatoes and melons. " A l f a l f a Dwarf"
(Dabbas) i s c a u s i n g a s e r i o u s l o s s i n a l f a l f a f i e l d s . I t
i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t over f i f t y p e r c e n t o f a l f a l f a area i n
the r e g i o n i s s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h i s d i s e a s e . The disease
i n h i b i t s p l a n t g r o w t h and p r o d u c t i v i t y and as a r e s u l t t h e
p l a n t d i e s p r e m a t u r e l y . I t i s caused by a v i r u s organism

160.

and i s t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m p l a n t t o p l a n t by a l e a f - h o p p e r
t y p e o f i n s e c t . The same t y p e o f v i r u s causes a d i s e a s e
on v i n e y a r d s known as " P i e r c e s d i s e a s e . " On v i n e y a r d s i t
does n o t cause a d w a r f i n g o f g r o w t h b u t s e r i o u s l y i m p a i r s
f r u i t development, t h e c o n t r o l o f t h i s d i s e a s e depends upon
the e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e l e a f - h o p p e r o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
known i n f e c t e d v i n e y a r d s . A n o t h e r measure o f c o n t r o l cana l s o be a c h i e v e d b y k e e p i n g t h e a l f a l f a and v i n e y a r d s w e l l
apart.
Most o f t h e p e s t i c i d e s i n use i n t h e r e g i o n a r e o f
e m u l c i f i a b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t y p e . Many e x p e r t s have p o i n t e d
o u t t h a t t h e use o f i n s e c t i c i d e s c o n t a i n i n g o i l under t h e
p r e v a i l i n g desertic c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n i s responsible, f o r
a g r e a t d e a l o f f o l i a g e damage. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s b e l i e v e d
t h a t t h e s h i f t t o w e t t a b l e powders o f p e s t i c i d e s i n s t e a d
i s a v e r y necessary change. The method o f use, t i m e , and
f r e q u e n c y and amount o f a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t i n a l l
cases, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e company s e l l i n g
the p e s t i c i d e s w h i c h u s u a l l y a r e p r i n t e d on t h e c o n t a i n e r s .
I t has been n o t i c e d , however, t h a t f o l l o w i n g such i n s t r u c t i o n s does n o t , i n many cases, r e s u l t i n f u l l e f f i c i e n c y
o f t h e p e s t i c i d e s . T h i s p r o b l e m has r a i s e d t h e s u g g e s t i o n
t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n method s h o u l d b e r e - c o n s i d e r e d and
m o d i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o r e s u l t s secured f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t under l o c a l f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . Such
i n v e s t i g a t i o n w o u l d be most u s e f u l i f c a r r i e d o u t i m m e d i a t e l y
on " a l f a l f a drawf," " P i e r c e s d i s e a s e " f o r v i n e y a r d s , "Aphids"
on pomegranates, and " w e e v i l " on c u c u r b i t and on "melon
b o r e r . " F u r t h e r m o r e , t o f a c i l i t a t e such a programme, i t i s
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f i e l d c e n t r e s t o be equipped w i t h i n s e c t
p e s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h an
i n s e c t r e f e r e n c e c o l l e c t i o n . The E.F.S.Cs. a t a l a t e r stage
s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e i t s e f f o r t s on r e s e a r c h a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n

161

r a t h e r t h a n p r o t e c t i o n p r a c t i c e s , w h i c h , i n f a c t , s h o u l d be
c a r r i e d o u t "by t h e f a r m e r s themselves when s u f f i c i e n t t i m e
p e r m i t s them t o a c q u i r e t h e t e c h n i q u e and develop a b e t t e r
r a t e o f n e t income f r o m t h e i r f a r m s . To s t a r t w i t h such a
p o l i c y , f a r m e r s owning l a r g e farms o f a r e a s o n a b l y good n e t
income s h o u l d be encouraged t o b u y t h e i r own equipment and
i n s e c t i c i d e s and c a r r y o u t t h e p r a c t i c e under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n
and guidance o f p l a n t p r o t e c t i o n o f f i c e r s . Free p l a n t
p r o t e c t i o n s e r v i c e s c o u l d b e made e x c l u s i v e t o t h e s m a l l farms
(5-10 dunums).
Animal d i s e a s e s i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e r e g i o n a r e t a b u l a t e d
i n the following t a b l e : T a b l e Ak.

Cattle
Rinderpest
Foot and mouth
Anthrax
Bovine t u b e r c u losis
Mastatis

A n i m a l diseases i n t h e Qassim

Sheep & Goats

Pleuropneumonia
Foot and mouth
Anthrax
Sheep pox
L i v e r Flukes
Haemonchur
External parasites

Camels
Mange
Haemonchur

Poultry
Caprine
Newcastle
disease
Chronic r e s piratory
disease
complex
Fowel
Cholera
Caccidiosis
dictry

Source: V e t i n a r y f i l e s . E.S.F.Cs. o f Braydah. Aunayzab;

and A r Russ ( A r a b i c ) 196i+-67.
These diseases cause a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
economy o f t h e Qassim. The h i g h r a t e o f m o r t a l i t y and t h e
h i g h r a t e o f disease a r e f r e q u e n t l y a g g r a v a t e d b y a n i m a l
weakness due t o m a l n u t r i t i o n . However, f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g
t o t h e spread o f d i s e a s e s a r e t h e l a c k o f a p p r o p r i a t e modern

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f a c i l i t i e s and measures f o r f e e d i n g , s h e l t e r s and v a c c i n a t i o n on t h e f a r m s . A l l f a r m e r s r e - s t o c k t h e i r s o l d animals

f r o m nomadic h e r d s , and a d i r e c t cause o f d i s e a s e f o r t h e
nomad herds i n t h e r e g i o n i s t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d i n f i l t r a t i o n
o f thousands o f animals a c r o s s t h e n o r t h e r n b o u n d a r i e s o f
Saudi A r a b i a , w i t h J o r d a n , S y r i a , I r a q , and K u w a i t .
Such
i n f i l t r a t i o n s p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e c o u n t r y as f a r s o u t h as t h e
extreme s o u t h e r n l i m i t s o f N a j d t h r o u g h a l Qassim, and
t h r e a t e n t o b r i n g i n f e c t i o n s capable o f p a r a l y z i n g t h e
l i v e s t o c k community i n N a j d as a w h o l e . The complete b l o c k a d e
of these i n f i l t r a t i o n s and nomad movement across t h e n o r t h e r n
b o u n d a r i e s i s one measure t o b l o c k such a source o f i n f e c t i o n ,
but r e g a r d i n g a complex o f t r i b a l , h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i a l ,
t r a d i t i o n a l , and p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s , such a s t e p w i l l r e s u l t
i n unnecessary and t e n s e i n c o n v e n i e n c e s f o r t h e governments
and nomads o f t h e f o u r c o u n t r i e s concerned. T h i s f a c t l e a v e s
the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p o i n t s o f c o n t r o l a t t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n
p o i n t s as t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e measure. A t such p o i n t s o f
c o n t r o l , f a c i l i t i e s and s t a f f s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e t o i n s p e c t
the p a s s i n g herds and t o c a r r y o u t t h e necessary measures o f
v a c c i n a t i o n . An exchange o f i n f o r m a t i o n on diseases on each
s i d e and c o l l a b o r a t i o n among a l l concerned would h e l p g r e a t l y
i n t h e success o f such a p l a n .
I n t h e Qassim, where f a r m e r s seek v a c c i n a t i o n measures
f o r t h e i r a n i m a l s , t h e nomads a r e r e l u c t a n t t o have t h e i r
animals v a c c i n a t e d unless disease i s imminent. Moreover,
the i n e v i t a b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f such u n v a c c i n a t e d animals
round t h e few and i n s u f f i c i e n t permanent w a t e r h o l d s p r o v i d e s
an e f f i c i e n t medium f o r t h e spread o f disieases. I n o r d e r t o
overcome such a problem, temporary u n i t s w o r k i n g on seasonal
terms a r e necessary a t t h e w a t e r i n g p o i n t s f o r i n s p e c t i o n and
v a c c i n a t i o n measures. Such a s t e p would, u n d o u b t e d l y ,
p r e v e n t t h e seasonal and sudden b r e a k o u t o f diseases and
i n f e c t i o n s , w h i c h u s u a l l y end w i t h a g r e a t l o s s i n h e r d s .

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However, f o r "both, f a r m and range l i v e s t o c k , development

p l a n p r a c t i c e s would be more e f f e c t i v e i f c a r r i e d out on t h e
b a s i s o f seasonal v a c c i n a t i o n a g a i n s t seasonal d i s e a s e s , t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f necessary l e g i s l a t i o n s f o r a n i m a l diseases
c o n t r o l , and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a disease r e f e r e n c e o f t h e
v a r i o u s v i r u s e s c a u s i n g t h e common d i s e a s e s .
1 O.U F u t u r e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l development
The p r e s e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l development i n terms o f a r e a l
expansion, q u a l i t y , and d i v e r s i t y o f m a r k e t - o r i e n t a t e d
p r o d u c t i o n has been e v o l v e d i n t h e Qassim s i n c e t h e m i d d l e
o f t h e l a s t decade when a r t e s i a n w a t e r was d i s c o v e r e d and
tapped t h r o u g h d e e p - d r i l l e d w e l l s . I n s u f f i c i e n t w a t e r f o r
i r r i g a t i o n has been, i n f a c t , - t h e main o b s t a c l e w h i c h h e l d
up expansion i n a g r i c u l t u r e f o r c e n t r u e s . Thus, s u b s i s t e n c e
and/or s e m i - s u b s i s t e n c e t y p e s o f a g r i c u l t u r e were t h e forms
o f c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n p r i o r t o t h e 1950s. These have
been based on d a t e s , c e r e a l s , and a v e r y l i m i t e d v a r i e t y o f
v e g e t a b l e s produced m a i n l y f o r household consumption.
The
a g r i c u l t u r a l methods, t e c h n i q u e s , and p r a c t i c e s were v e r y
p r i m i t i v e and handed down b y t r a d i t i o n from g e n e r a t i o n t o
g e n e r a t i o n . T h i s s i t u a t i o n has r e s u l t e d i n t h e v e r y l i m i t e d
f a r m i n g knowledge o f the Qassim f a r m e r s and t h e p r o d u c t i v e
c a p a c i t y o f f a r m s , t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f improved h a n d - t o o l s and
t h e e x i s t e n c e o f r a t h e r p r i m i t i v e i r r i g a t i o n system t o g e t h e r
w i t h odd and clumsy arrangements o f the f i e l d s and t r e e s i n
farms.
The sudden a c t i v e expansion i n w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i n t h e
e a r l y f i f t i e s has l e d t o a r e a l expansion i n a g r i c u l t u r e w i t h
o v e r - i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s . Such a s i t u a t i o n has, i n d e e d ,
i n b a l a n c e d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t e and s t r o n g l y shaken t h e
f a r m i n g process i n most of. t h e s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e r e g i o n .
However, due" t o t h e l a c k o f a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i s t i c s on t h e
s i z e o f c u l t i v a t e d a r e a , y i e l d per u n i t , p r o p o r t i o n o f areas
o c c u p i e d by t h e v a r i o u s c r o p s , i t i s almost i m p o s s i b l e t o

164.

t r a c e t h e t r e n d and t h e r a t e o f g r o w t h i n t h e percentage
o f cropped a r e a . An a c c u r a t e p r o j e c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
development i n t o t h e f u t u r e cannot "be drawn f o r t h e r e g i o n .
Thus, a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o b r i d g e t h i s s e r i o u s gap and p r e s e n t
a't l e a s t an approximate s t a t u s has been s o u g h t .
The e s t i m a t e d d a t a are on t h e s i z e o f cropped a r e a , c r o p
o u t p u t , and v a l u e o f crop p r o d u c t i o n f o r a p e r i o d o f 13 years
f r o m 1949-50 t o 1962-63. ( T a b l e 4 Appendix H ) . The d a t a
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e o f cropped l a n d has been i n t h e
range o f about 7.5 p e r cent a n n u a l l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d .
Such a r a t e o f expansion i s , i n f a c t , h i g h f o r an a g r i c u l t u r a l
economy r e s t r i c t e d b y a s h o r t a g e o f complimentary r e s o u r c e s .
Nonetheless, t h e w r i t e r i n c l i n e s t o accept t h a t such a r a t e
c o u l d be f a i r l y s a f e l y t a k e n as t h e t e n t a t i v e r a t e o f
expansion i n t h e Qassim a t l e a s t s i n c e 1961-62 when the f i r s t
a g r i c u l t u r a l s u r v e y o f t h e r e g i o n was conducted.
This
i n c l i n a t i o n i s based on c o u n t l e s s statements d e c l a r e d b y t h e
Qassim f a r m e r s as w e l l as b y t e c h n i c a l s t a f f o f t h e E x t e n s i o n
F i e l d S e r v i c e s Centres i n t h e r e g i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , a
p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n based on sampled cropped areas l o c a t e d
i n t h e Braydah, Aunayzah and A r Russ areas has shown a s i m i l a r
r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n t h e t h r e e areas t h r o u g h 1964-65-66 (based
on f i g u r e s on t h e y e a r l y i n c r e a s e s g i v e n b y t h e f a r m e r s ) .
The r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n these areas averaged 7.2 p e r annum
f o r Auhayzah, 79 f o r Braydah and 5.8 f o r A r Russ a r e a .
The r e l e v a n t d a t a on crop p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e kingdom f o r t h e
p e r i o d i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r a t e o f o v e r a l l crop p r o d u c t i o n
i n c r e a s e i s i n t h e r a n g e o f 7.2 p e r c e n t .
An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e d a t a i s t h e marked i n c r e a s e
i n v e g e t a b l e and f r u i t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e i r y e a r l y g r o w t h r a t e
f a r exceeds t h e r a t e o f g r o w t h i n o t h e r p r o d u c t s , b o t h i n
terms o f cropped area (17.4 p e r c e n t f o r v e g e t a b l e s and 13.7
p e r c e n t f o r f r u i t ) and p r o d u c t i o n (21 p e r c e n t f o r v e g e t a b l e s
and 15.3 p e r cent f o r f r u i t ) and t o t a l v a l u e (21 .2 p e r cent

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f o r v e g e t a b l e s and 15.3 per cent f o r f r u i t ) . An e x p l a n a t i o n

of t h e s e h i g h r a t e s f o r v e g e t a b l e s and f r u i t s l i e s i n t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e r i s e i n per c a p i t a income over t h e f i f t i e s ,
as a r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s e s i n t h e n a t i o n a l income t h r o u g h
i n c r e a s e d o i l revenue, has b r o u g h t w i t h i t a demand f o r a
more d i v e r s i f i e d d i e t o f more v a l u a b l e c r o p s . Thus p r i c e
i n c e n t i v e s a r e t h e most e f f e c t i v e means f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
a g r i c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n and t h e p r o d u c t i o n t r e n d o f i n d i v i d u a l
crops t h r o u g h o u t the kingdom. An e s t i m a t i o n o f the cropped
area and c r o p p r o d u c t i o n g r o w t h r a t e s and t r e n d s i n t h e
Qassim s i n c e 1961-62 was a t t e m p t e d and based on t h e r a t e s
of t h e kingdom. F i g u r e s g i v e n i n t h e f i r s t a g r i c u l t u r a l
s u r v e y o f t h e r e g i o n were used as a benchmark f o r t h e
assessment, w h i l e t h e p e r i o d p r i o r t o 1961-62 was r e g a r d e d
as a b l a n k p e r i o d f o r w h i c h l i t t l e r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i s
a v a i l a b l e . F o l l o w i n g these l i n e s , i t i s estimated t h a t the
s i z e o f c u l t i v a t e d area has r i s e n f r o m 31,963 h e c t a r e s i n
1961-62 t o 45,886 h e c t a r e s i n 1966-67. P r o j e c t i o n o f t h i s
r a t e o f expansion i n c u l t i v a t e d area i n t o t h e immediate
f u t u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c u l t i v a t e d area i n t h e Qassim w i l l
r e a c h 81,834 b y 1975, w h i c h i s almost double t h e c u l t i v a t e d
area a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . However, t h e assumption o f t h e
c o n t i n u e d expansion i n t h e Qassim, t h r o u g h o u t t h e s i x t i e s
and s e v e n t i e s , i s r e f l e c t e d i n a s t u d y o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n
of a g r i c u l t u r a l commodities i n t h e w o r l d 1970 made b y
F.A.O. ' One o f t h e i n t e r e s t i n g c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y
was t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e l o w income c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g t h e f i f t i e s was due t o t h e expansion
o f e f f e c t i v e c u l t i v a b l e l a n d . Moreover, t h e s t u d y a l s o
p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e same t r e n d w i l l c o n t i n u e

A g r i c u l t u r a l Commodities - P r o j e c t i o n f o r 1970.
Rome, 1962.

166.

i n t h o s e c o u n t r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s i x t i e s and p r o b a b l y t h e
s e v e n t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e passim
c o u l d expand i t s e f f e c t i v e a r a b l e l a n d d u r i n g t h e n e x t decade.
T h i s i n c r e a s e would be some o f 35,9^+8 h e c t a r e s i n c u l t i v a t e d
l a n d ; such an e x t e n t s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d t h e l e a s t t o be
expected and c o n s e q u e n t l y a l l f u t u r e p l a n s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
development up t o 1975 s h o u l d be based on and t a k e account
o f t h i s f a c t o r . T h e r e f o r e , an i n c r e a s e o f some 100 p e r cent
of t h e a v a i l a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e
s h o u l d keep pace w i t h t h e improvement p l a n s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
c o n d i t i o n s and f a c i l i t i e s . I f such a r a t e o f i n c r e a s e o f
t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s f a i l e d t o be secured t h e p r e s e n t
a g r i c u l t u r a l problems o f i r r i g a t i o n , equipment, t r a i n i n g ,
and m a r k e t i n g w i l l be g r e a t l y a m p l i f i e d .
A l l t h e c o n c l u s i o n s based on r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from a
s t u d y o f sampled cases t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n have i n d i c a t e d
a probable s h i f t i n t h e p a t t e r n o f crop p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e
Qassim i n f a v o u r o f v e g e t a b l e s and f r u i t s a g a i n s t c e r e a l and
d a t e s . T h i s s h i f t can o n l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e v a r i a n c e i n
p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s and p r o f i t margins. A d e f i n i t e and f i n a l
c o n c l u s i o n on t h e n a t u r e and e x t e n t o f t h i s and i t s p r o j e c t i o n i n t o t h e f u t u r e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l development purposes
needs, however, c l o s e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f c o s t and r e t u r n
v a l u e s f o r t h e v a r i o u s crops grown i n t h e r e g i o n over a
number o f y e a r s . Such d a t a a r e , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , u n a v a i l a b l e
t o t r a c e t h e a c t u a l t r e n d i n t h e p a s t and p r o j e c t i t i n t o
t h e f u t u r e . However, t h e f u t u r e o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n g r o w t h r a t e s and t r e n d s i n t h e Qassim, as elsewhere i n
Saudi A r a b i a , w i l l , u n d o u b t e d l y , depend e n t i r e l y on v a r i o u s
d e f i n i t e f a c t o r s such as governmental a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y ,
c o s t s , p r i c e s , markets c o n d i t i o n s and e f f i c i e n c i e s , i m p o r t
p o l i c y , a g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t scope and terms, e x t e n s i o n
s e r v i c e s e f f i c i e n c y , as w e l l as on o t h e r l e s s d e f i n a b l e f a c t o r s
w h i c h w i l l bear d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y on t h e f a r m e r ' s d e c i s i o n
t o produce more, o r l e s s , o f one c r o p o r a n o t h e r .

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CONCLUSION
I n accordance w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g theme o f t h i s s t u d y ,
w h i c h was t o c o r r e l a t e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l s e t t i n g o f t h e
Qassim r e g i o n t o i t s l a n d use p a t t e r n and problems, a t t e m p t s
were made t h r o u g h o u t t o r e l a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t f a c e t s o f t h e
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , m a i n l y s o i l and w a t e r , t o each o t h e r and
i n t u r n t o the a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e , w i t h the view t o
evaluating the region's a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l i t y .
One o f t h e most v i t a l c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t ,
w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f Saudi A r a b i a , the' r e g i o n possesses a
considerable a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l i t y . This p o t e n t i a l i t y ,
i f r a t i o n a l l y planned and managed, c o u l d r e s u l t i n r e m a r k a b l y
b e n e f i c i a l r e t u r n s t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l economy o f t h e r e g i o n
i n p a r t i c u l a r and Saudi Arabia" i n g e n e r a l . The e x t e n t t o
which the proper e x p l o i t a t i o n of the region's a g r i c u l t u r a l
p o t e n t i a l w i l l a f f e c t t h e b a l a n c e o f payment o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l f a r m , t h e r e g i o n , and t h e c o u n t r y as a whole
w o u l d need, however, a c l o s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f many s t a t i s t i c a l
data and i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h a r e u n a v a i l a b l e . N o n e t h e l e s s ,
t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y c o u l d be assessed i n two ways; f i r s t l y ,
t h e i n c r e a s e o f p r o d u c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e a r e a l expansion o f
t h e c u l t i v a t e d area where o n l y 38 per c e n t o f t h e c u l t i v a b l e X
l a n d i s under c u l t i v a t i o n . Secondly, by i n c r e a s e s t h r o u g h
t h e improvement o f t h e p r e s e n t low y i e l d arid q u a l i t y per u n i t .
I t i s c l e a r , however, t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e o f p r o d u c t i o n i s , a t
t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , and w i l l remain f o r many years t o come,
concentrated through the a r e a l expansion of c u l t i v a t e d lands.
The p r e s e n t low s t a n d a r d o f f a r m i n g and t h e d e l e t e r i o u s
e f f e c t s o f the present a g r i c u l t u r a l problems, i , e . f e r t i l i z a t i o n , i r r i g a t i o n method and a p p l i c a t i o n , p l a n t p r o t e c t i o n ,

168

e t c . g i v e l i t t l e hope f o r i n c r e a s e s i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n

in

t h e immediate f u t u r e .
W i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y , o f t h e a r t e s i a n w a t e r i n 1953,
huge f l o w i n g q u a n t i t i e s and r e a s o n a b l y good q u a l i t i e s

in
for

i r r i g a t i o n , w a t e r c e a s e d t o he a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r f o r t h e
expansion

o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s i n t h e e a s t e r n , the

m i d d l e , and most o f t h e w e s t e r n p a r t s of the r e g i o n .

The

s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n has s h i f t e d t o t h e s o i l f a c t o r , and a l l
p r e s e n t and

f u t u r e a g r i c u l t u r a l development p l a n s h a v e t o

"be c o r r e l a t e d to s o i l s u i t a b i l i t y .

I t i s concluded

s u c c e s s of a l l expansion

l a r g e l y depend on

plans w i l l

a v a i l a b i l i t y of s u i t a b l e s o i l to c u l t i v a t e .

activities

n e v e r t h e l e s s , and

due

the

eliminated

t h e most r i g i d l i m i t i n g f a c t o r w h i c h c h e c k e d t h e
and

agricultural

i n the area f o r c e n t u r i e s .

to l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,

the

Undoubtedly,

t h e abundance o f w a t e r a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e h a s
expansion

that

But,

the s w i f t

f r o m an a g r i c u l t u r a l economy b a s e d on w a t e r s h o r t a g e

shift

to

one

b a s e d on w a t e r s u r p l u s has b r o u g h t a complex of problems

r e l a t i n g t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n and

u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e

artesian

water, i . e . s o i l water logging,

s o i l s a l i n i t y , and

drainage

problems.

In fact,

s u c h problems c o u l d have b e e n a v o i d e d i f

the farmers were taught

advice.

The

and g i v e n t h e p r o p e r i n f o r m a t i o n

s o u r c e of s u c h m i s u s e o f w a t e r and i t s

consequences l i e s

i n t h e poor s t a n d a r d

of G o v e r n m e n t a l

a g r i c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e s , c o n t r o l , and p o l i c y .
t h e p r e s e n t time t h e r e a r e two
development and
prevention

Therefore,

use i n t h e r e g i o n .

The

first

i s the

of f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n e x i s t i n g a r e a s

the development o f new

at

main a s p e c t s of w a t e r
of

w a t e r m i s u s e ; t h e s e c o n d i s the improvement o f e x i s t i n g
and

and

a r e a s on a n a t i o n a l and

areas

scientific

basis.
The

main o u t l i n e s o f t h e r e g i o n ' s

i n t h i s study.

s o i l s have b e e n s e t out

S u c h p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s c a n n e v e r be

f o r a d e t a i l e d development p l a n where much s p e c i f i c

and

adequate

169.

d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e need f o r
comprehensive r e s e a r c h on t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s , and s u i t a b i l i t i e s i s acute and d e s p e r a t e . The p r o p e r \ s e o f t h e v a r i o u s
s o i l t y p e s and t h e c o r r e c t measures f o r t h e i r c o n s e r v a t i o n
depends e n t i r e l y on such d e t a i l e d f i n d i n g s . Many s p e c i f i c
and i m p o r t a n t f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e p r o b l e m s , i . e . i r r i g a t i o n ,
d r a i n a g e , f e r t i l i z a t i o n , e t c . are r e l a t e d and s t r o n g l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e 3 o i l c o n d i t i o n s and, u n l e s s ample i n f o r m a t i o n
on t h e s o i l s o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d areas i s a v a i l a b l e , such
problems cannot be s o l v e d e c o n o m i c a l l y and c o r r e c t l y .
Many a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s i n t h e r e g i o n a t t h e p r e s e n t
t i m e a r e n e c e s s a r i l y c a r r i e d out w i t h a b l i n d approach based
on t r a d i t i o n a l knowledge passed down f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o
g e n e r a t i o n . I n f u t u r e , emphasis and more s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s h o u l d be p l a c e d on t h e r o l e o f s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n and
r e s e a r c h as t h e main theme o f a g r i c u l t u r a l development p o l i c y .
T h i s s t u d y shows t h a t t h e wadi s o i l a s s o c i a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s i l t loam, c l a y e y , and sandy loam s e r i e s are t h e most p r o m i s i n g t y p e s o f s o i l i n al-Qassim. Hence,
s h o u l d a sound and r e w a r d i n g expansion be g a i n e d t h e f i r s t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and s o i l r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s s h o u l d be c o n f i n e d
t o these s o i l s and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e assignment o f t h e
a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o j e c t s t o them.
The s t u d y o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e r e v e a l s many
i n t e r c a l a t e d problems w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e x i s t i n g
c o n d i t i o n o f low net r e t u r n . I t has been i m p o s s i b l e , however,
t o t r a c e the e x t e n t , t h e n a t u r e , and t h e t r e n d o f many o f
t h e s e a g r i c u l t u r a l problems and t o r e v e a l any s t r u c t u r a l
changes, p a t t e r n s , and t r e n d s i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r e o f t h e
r e g i o n , because o f t h e l a c k o f s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a c o n c e r n i n g
the v a r i o u s a s p e c t s . I t i s e v i d e n t , however, t h a t i n o r d e r
t o know p r e c i s e l y t h e causes and t h e t r e n d o f : c o n d i t i o n s i t
i s necessary as a f i r s t s t e p t o e v o l v e a s y s t e m a t i c system
o f d e c i m a l censuses supplemented w i t h p e r i o d i c seasonal d a t a

170

on l a n d r a t e , l a b o u r wage, p r i c e s , cropped a r e a , y i e l d
c a p a c i t y p e r u n i t , annual v a r i a t i o n i n o u t p u t o f f a r m
p r o d u c t s and t o t a l crops p r o d u c t i o n . I t i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e s F i e l d Centres i n t h e
r e g i o n e l a b o r a t e s on t h i s l i n e o f r e s e a r c h i m m e d i a t e l y , so
t h a t f u t u r e development p l a n n e r s can base t h e i r judgments
and c o n c l u s i o n s on r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c a l m a t e r i a l s .
One o f t h e most s e r i o u s f i n d i n g s r e l a t i n g t o t h e s o c i o economic s t r u c t u r e i s t h e u r g e n t need f o r a g r a r i a n r e f o r m i n
terms o f r e g u l a t i n g , o r g a n i z i n g , and l e g i s l a t i n g f o r t h e
tenancy r e l a t i o n s h i p s which a r e necessary t o make f a r m i n g a
more a t t r a c t i v e o c c u p a t i o n f o r t h e more advanced s e c t i o n o f
t h e community. The m e c h a n i z a t i o n problem i n the r e g i o n has
two a s p e c t s ; t h e f i r s t i s t h e imbalance o f heavy machinery
a t t h e expense o f h a n d - t o o l s . Such a s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d be
r e v i e w e d and c o n s i d e r e d more c l o s e l y as t h e improvement o f
such t o o l s i s o f e q u a l importance as t h e many f a r m i n g
p r a c t i c e s c a r r i e d o u t b y them. The second i s t h e severe
s h o r t a g e o f s k i l l e d f a r m machinery t e c h n i c i a n s r e s u l t i n g i n
a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h c o s t o f r e p a i r i n terms o f t i m e and money,
a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h has a bad and f r u s t r a t i n g e f f e c t on t h e
f a r m concerned.
However, t h i s problem can be s o l v e d i n t h e
s h o r t term as a v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g c e n t r e was e s t a b l i s h e d a t
t h e town o f Braydah i n 1966. A s t u d y o f t h e l i s t o f courses
a t t h e c e n t r e shows t h a t l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been devoted t o
w a t e r pumping motors, and t o f a r m machinery r e p a i r i n g and
maintenance p r a c t i c e s . Such a s i t u a t i o n i s t o t a l l y wrong and
c l o s e r c o - o p e r a t i o n between t h e M i n i s t r y o f Labour and S o c i a l
A f f a i r s and t h e . M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e i s urged t o remedy
such an i n c o r r e c t p o l i c y ; t h e r e g i o n i s more desperate f o r
farm machinery t e c h n i c i a n s t h a n f o r e l e c t r i c i a n s o r
carpenters.
I t i s i n t h e w r i t e r ' s o p i n i o n t h a t t h e c r o p and l i v e s t o c k
disease p o l i c y i n t h e r e g i o n , a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , i s more a

matter of c o n t r o l than of s c i e n t i f i c research.

The
p r i n c i p a l need i s f o r s m a l l l a b o r a t o r i e s i n t h e E x t e n s i o n
F i e l d S e r v i c e s Centres t h a t would a s s i s t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e r s i n the proper i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of diseases
and t o a d v i s e them on t h e method o f c o n t r o l . The e v e r i n c r e a s i n g market f o r l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s makes r e s e a r c h on
improvement o f f a r m l i v e s t o c k q u a l i t y a m a t t e r o f g r e a t
economic i m p o r t a n c e . The improvement o f a n i m a l husbandry
i n t h e Qassim h i n g e s , however, on t h e problem o f f e e d i n g
b u t t h e development o f t h e l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y i s dependent
t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on a n i m a l h e a l t h c o n t r o l . Hence, t h o r o u g h
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u l d be c a r r i e d out on t h e t e c h n i c a l and
economic aspects o f f a t t e n i n g l i v e s t o c k under t h e l o c a l
conditions before marketing.
Marketing d i f f i c u l t i e s , too, l i e at the heart of the
a g r i c u l t u r a l development i n t h e Qassim. M a r k e t i n g f a c i l i t i e s
and o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e a r e i n e f f i c i e n t i n
f o r m i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l l i n k between i n c r e a s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n and i n c r e a s e d f a r m income. A f a i l u r e t o improve
the p r e s e n t m a r k e t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n would
f u r t h e r f r u s t r a t e investments t o increase a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n . The o b s t a c l e s t o improve m a r k e t i n g are many:
l o n g d i s t a n c e s t o t h e m a r k e t i n g c e n t r e s , poor and unpaved
r u r a l roads and unhygenic t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s , l a c k o f
p h y s i c a l and f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t i n g f a c i l i t i e s , slowness i n
t r a i n i n g f a r m e r s i n t h e modern t e c h n i q u e s o f h a r v e s t i n g ,
h a n d l i n g , and p a c k i n g , absence o f m a r k e t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
m a r k e t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v i c e s , and c o - o p e r a t i v e s o c i e t i e s .
The r e g i o n has a v e r y desperate need f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
co-operative s o c i e t i e s t o organize t h e marketing process,
the s u p p l y o f equipment, and s u p p l y o f seeds and p e s t i c i d e s
and r e l a t e d farm maintenance m a t e r i a l s . The response o f t h e
f a r m e r s t o t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e i d e a was v e r y d i s c o u r a g i n g i n d e e d
when t h e w r i t e r t e s t e d t h e m a t t e r d u r i n g t h e f i e l d work p e r i od,

172.

and many f a r m e r s even go f u r t h e r "by e x p r e s s i n g t o t a l

r e j e c t i o n and resentment t o t h e i d e a . T h i s u n f o r t u n a t e
a t t i t u d e i s a p p a r e n t l y due t o two main f a c t o r s . The f i r s t
i s t h e common i g n o r a n c e o f t h e f a r m e r s about t h e r e a l b e n e f i t s
of such o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f m i s c o n c e p t i o n s about
the f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e . The second f a c t o r i n t h e
g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e farmers i s t h a t t h e government i s t h e
o n l y r e s p o n s i b l e body which s h o u l d p r o v i d e s e r v i c e s f o r a l l
aspects o f development. T h i s concept Has been developed and
encouraged b y t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l governmental p o l i c y t h r o u g h o u t
the f i f t i e s and even t h e s i x t i e s .
I t i s v i t a l , however, t h a t every p o s s i b l e e f f o r t s h o u l d
be made t o encourage o r even push t h e f a r m e r s t o e s t a b l i s h
such an o r g a n i z a t i o n b y d e n y i n g a l l t h e governmental s e r v i c e s
and a i d s t o i n d i v i d u a l s and make them e x c l u s i v e t o members o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l co-operatives only. A t the establishment o f the
proposed a g r i c u l t u r a l c o - o p e r a t i v e s , f i n a n c i a l a i d from t h e
M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e w o u l d be a v e r y u s e f u l i n c e n t i v e .
T e c h n i c a l a i d i s v e r y necessary f o r r e g u l a t i n g and o r g a n i z i n g
the c o - o p e r a t i v e procedures and t h e M i n i s t r y o f Labour and
S o c i a l A f f a i r s s h o u l d be i n v i t e d t o s u p p l y such h e l p and
/'"
a d v i c e . When c o - o p e r a t i v e s a r e s e t up and w o r k i n g i n a
s a t i s f y i n g manner, t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e s h o u l d a r r a n g e
t o t r a n s f e r t h e machinery s e r v i c e s t o these c o - o p e r a t i v e s on
an i n s t a l m e n t t r a n s a c t i o n b a s i s . The A g r i c u l t u r a l Bank s h o u l d
add an i t e m t o i t s p r e s e n t code s t a t i n g t h a t l a r g e loans on
a l o n g t e r m b a s i s c o u l d be p r o v i d e d t o c o - o p e r a t i v e s o n l y .
Howeverj t h i s t r a n s f e r e n c e w o u l d r e l i e v e t h e E x t e n s i o n F i e l d \
S e r v i c e Centres f r o m a v e r y t i m e consuming and t i r i n g s e r v i c e
and any spare t i m e can be d e d i c a t e d t o one o f r e s e a r c h and
i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o deal w i t h the present a g r i c u l t u r a l development problems.
The E x t e n s i o n F i e l d S e r v i c e s Centres a r e p o o r l y o r g a n i z e d ,
equipped, and s t a f f e d . I t i s v e r y d o u b t f u l whether such

173
"bodies w i l l be c a p a b l e

o f h a n d l i n g and

a g r i c u l t u r a l development programme.
and

c a r r y i n g out any

A l l procedures

sound

o f work

s e r v i c e s , of w h a t e v e r u r g e n c y , a r e d e a l t w i t h t h r o u g h

n o r m a l g o v e r n m e n t a l r o u t i n e , w h i c h was
v e r y s l o w and
w o r s e by

inefficient.

the f a c t

of confidence
officials

the

p r o v e d , beyond doubt,

Moreover, t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s made

t h a t t h e r e i s , i n one way

or another,

i n t h e h e a d s o f t h e s e c e n t r e s from t h e

i n the M i n i s t r y Headquarters.

a lack

senior

S u c h a phenomenon h a s

l e d t o v e r y s e r i o u s f r u s t r a t i o n s amongst t h e s t a f f o f

the

c e n t r e s as t h e i r requirements

always

neglected.

and recommendations a r e

Another aspect of t h i s p o l i c y i s t h a t

t h e H e a d q u a r t e r s ' top o f f i c i a l s

always

although

have the tendency t o

t u r n down s u c h a p p r o a c h e s from t h e f i e l d c e n t r e s , t h e y

are

r e l u c t a n t t o i n s p e c t p e r i o d i c a l l y t h e r e l a t e d problems i n t h e
field.

I n s t e a d , they o f t e n a s k the c e n t r e s to apply a

theore-

t i c a l s y n t h e s i s t o t h e problem c o n c e r n e d d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e
l o c a l circumstances,

and

thus o f t e n g i v i n g i n c o r r e c t

remedies.

I t would be more' b e n e f i c i a l i f problems w e r e more o f t e n

dis-

cussed i n the f i e l d r a t h e r than i n a i r - c o n d i t i o n e d o f f i c e s .

The

r e c e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n of t e l e v i s i o n

broadcasting

s e r v i c e s i n t h e r e g i o n p r e s e n t s a v e r y v a l u a b l e medium f o r
d e m o n s t r a t i o n and
information,
w a t e r , and

illustrated

g u i d a n c e , and a d v i c e on a l l a s p e c t s o f a g r i c u l t u r e ,

s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s and p r a c t i c e s on a r e g i o n

wide b a s i s .
t h e T.V.

t e a c h i n g t h e f a r m e r s by c o n v e y i n g

I t would be

u s e f u l and

s e r v i c e s to the f u l l

c o n d u c t e d by

even n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l o i t

e x t e n t p o s s i b l e f o r programmes

the v a r i o u s experts i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l

S u c h w e l l o u t l i n e d , p l a n n e d , and

simply presented

w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y speed up t h e r i s e o f s t a n d a r d s
every r e s p e c t .

Therefore,

field.

programmes

of farming

in

i t i s necessary f o r the M i n i s t r y of

Water and A g r i c u l t u r e t o e s t a b l i s h a v e r y
w i t h t h e M i n i s t r y of I n f o r m a t i o n

close-co-operation

t o work on s u c h a p l a n .

A region-wide t e l e v i s i o n broadcasting
o p e r a t i o n i n December, 1967

s e r v i c e was

put

into

References

1 .

Abul-Ezz, S.

Report on t h e p r o j e c t e d A g r i c u l t u r a l Bank. Saudi A r a b i a

M i n i s t r y o f Water and A g r i c u l t u r e
A r Riyadh, 1 9 6 2 .

2.

Abul-Nasr, S.

P l a n t P r o t e c t i o n Development.
Saudi A r a b i a
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA r e p o r t
No.2077, P.A.O. Rome, 1 9 6 5 .

3.

A s f o u r , E. Y.

Long-term p r o j e c t i o n o f s u p p l y
and demand f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t s . Saudi Arabia*
( u n p u b l i s h e d mimeograph)
Economic Research I n s t i t u t e ,
American U n i v e r s i t y o f B e i r u t ,
Beirut, 1965.

1+.

A s f o u r , E. Y.

P r e l i m i n a r y estimates o f gross
n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t s of: Saudi A r a b i a
i n 1 9 6 0 - 6 1 ".

(.Unpublished mimeograph).
Economic Research I n s t i t u t e ,
American U n i v e r s i t y o f B e i r u t ,
B e i r u t , 1961 .
5.

C r a r y , D. D.

Recent a g r i c u l t u r a l development i n
Saudi A r a b i a
The American G e o g r a p h i c a l Review,
V o l . X L I , 1951 .

6.

Dowson, V. W.

The dates and t h e A r a b .

The j o u r n a l o f t h e Royal
Economist, I n t e l l i g e n c e U n i t , L t d .
Annual Supplement, Iraq., 1 9 5 7 .

)<

7. F.A.O.

A g r i c u l t u r a l development p l a n n i n g
methods and o r g a n i z a t i o n . Wear East
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n ,
Rome, 1 9 6 0 .

8.

P.A.O.

A g r i c u l t u r a l Commodities,
t i o n f o r 1970
Rome, 1 9 6 2 .

9.

P.A.O.

Date C u l t i v a t i o n i n Saudi A r a b i a
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA r e p o r t
No.1669, Rome, 1 9 6 3 .

10.

P.A.O.

A g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n i n Saudi
Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA r e p o r t
No.518, Rome, 1 9 5 8 .

projec-

1 1 . Habl.tt.zel, H.

Farm m e c h a n i z a t i o n problems and

s e r v i c e s . Saudi A r a b i a
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA r e p o r t
No.1611, P.A.O., Rome, 1963.-

12.

L a t e e f , N. A.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and problems o f
a g r i c u l t u r e i n Saudi A r a h i a
(Background c o u n t r y s t u d i e s ) .
P r e p a r e d i n programme
a n a l y s i s s e r v i c e , P.A.O.
Rome, 1 9 5 6 .

13.

Medawar, G. S.

P r o d u c t i o n o f dates i n Saudi A r a h i a
( U n p u b l i s h e d mimeograph).
Economic Research I n s t i t u t e ,
American U n i v e r s i t y o f B e i r u t ,
Beirut, 1963.

1U.

Medawar, G. S.

A g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . Saudi
Arabia
( U n p u b l i s h e d mimeograph).
Economic Research I n s t i t u t e ,
American U n i v e r s i t y o f B e i r u t ,
B e i r u t , 196I+.

15.

Ogata, G. and o t h e r s

Transpiration o f a l f a l f a
determined from s o i l water
c o n t e n t changes
S o i l S c i e n c e , V o l . 3 9 , 1960.
R u g t e r s U n i v e r s i t y , N.J., U.S.A.

16.

S a l e h , M. W.

C o n t r o l o f A n i m a l Diseases.
Saudi A r a b i a
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA r e p o r t
No.1311. F.A.O., Rome, 1 9 6 1 .

17.

Statistics Staff

B u l l e t i n of A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i s t i c s
and Economics. Saudi A r a b i a
Quarterly periodical.
S e r i e s No.1-12, 1965-66-67.
Department o f S t a t i s t i c s and
A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics,
M i n i s t r y o f Water and
A g r i c u l t u r e , Ar Riyadh.

18.

Statistics Staff

The a g r i c u l t u r a l s u r v e y o f t h e
Qassim. Saudi A r a b i a 1380-1381H
Department o f S t a t i s t i c s and
A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics,
M i n i s t r y o f Water and
A g r i c u l t u r e , A r R i y a d h , 1965.

19.

Statistics Staff

S t a t i s t i c a l Year Book. Saudi A r a b i a

S e r i e s No.1 - 1965
2 - 1966
3 - 1967
The C e n t r a l Department o f
S t a t i s t i c s , M i n i s t r y o f Finance
and N a t i o n a l Economy, A r R i y a d h .

2 0 . T o t h i l , J . D.

A g r i c u l t u r a l development. Saudi
Arabia
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , r e p o r t No.76.
F.A.O., Rome, 1953.

21.

T w i t c h e l l , W. H.

Report o f t h e U.S. A g r i c u l t u r a l
M i s s i o n t o Saudi A r a b i a
( U n p u b l i s h e d mimeograph).
M i n i s t r y o f Water and A g r i c u l t u r e ,
A r Riyadh, 19U3.

22.

U.S.D.A.

Notes on t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l economy
o f Saudi A r a h i a
( U n p u b l i s h e d mimeograph).
Foreign a g r i c u l t u r a l services,
Washington, Government P r i n t i n g
O f f i c e , 1957.

23.

Z'erkavish, S. S.

A g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i s t i c s and
M u l t i - s u b j e c t Household Surveys
P.A.0., Monthly " b u l l e t i n o f
A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics and
S t a t i s t i c s . V o l . 1 1 , No.5,
May, 1 9 5 2 .

2k.

Y a s i h , S. A.

The C o n t r o l o f Animal Diseases.

Saudi A r a h i a
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA r e p o r t
No.1669, P.A.O. Rome, 1 9 6 3 .

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF ARABIC WORDS

17b

g l o s s a r y o f A r a b i c Words
Ain

Spring

bir
Dikaka

Well

eyun
Jabal
Khaehm
Khubra
Nufud
Sabkha
Shae * eb

Hummocky p l a i n d o t t e d w i t h bushes
Plural of A i n
M o u n t a i n or h i l l .
Promontory

P l u r a l - Jebal

S a l i n e o r s i l t f l a t w i t h bushes
Sand dunes
Salt f l a t

Wadi
Demal

I n t e r m i t t e n t stream channel
Valley
Organic manure

Zara
Heyalah

Wheat and b a r l e y
Fallow

Jut
Geh
Gero

Alfalfa
Water melon
Sweet melon

Bedaa
Nahl
Qantra
Teem
Khundaq

V i r g i n land
Cereal i r r i g a t i o n
Major channel o f i r r i g a t i o n
Minor c h a n n e l o f i r r i g a t i o n
Drainage c h a n n e l

APPENDIX B
CLIMATIC DATA

fB.

Table 1

Rainfall, - Aunayzah Area, October, 1958 - September 1967

figures i n mm.
Year
1958/59
1959/60
1960/61
1961/62
1962/63
1963/64

18.0

- 20.0

2.0

6.0

2.5

18.0

2.5

30.0

z
z
z

z
z
z

z
z

z
z

z
z

18.1
10.0

4.5

1964/65
1965/66

0.8
5.6

1966/67

2.5

M .

- - 8.2 - 10.0 -

z
z
z

z
z

z
z

z
z

z
z
z

z
z
z

- - - -

0.7 11.0 2.0

19.3 19.7 3.9
10.4 4.2 10.0

mm

S
33.0
36.7
56.0

z
z
z

69.9
66.6
37.1

Latitude 26 06" N
Longitude 43 57" E
Elevation 650 metres
z not recorded period
Source: Meteorological f i l e s , Meteorology Office.
Ministry of Water and Agriculture.
Table 2

Monthly Summary of climatic data - Aunayzah Area

August 1964 - December 1966. Temperatures C
Average
Maximum
Mean Maximum
AbBO. Minimum
Mean Minimum
Max. Average
Mean Average
AbBO.

J
29.9

30 36.2 40.3 43*2 44 43.2 44 44.1 38.1 33.5 26.9

22.3 22.3 28.3 31 39.6 42 41.2 43

0.8

3.6

3.3

8 10.8

20

17

19

41 33.5 28.2 21.1

19

8.4

4.1 -3.6

7.3 8 11 14.7 21.6 25.3 22 23.2 23 14.8 10.7 4.7

21.8 22.7 26 30.7 3 4 . 36 34.7 36 34 28.8 25.3 18.5
14.8 15.2 19.7 22.6 30.6 33 32 33 32.1 2& 19.5 12.9

179.

Table 2 (Continued)
Monthly Summary of climatic data - Aunaisah Area
August 1964. - December 1966. Relative Humidity %
Average

Absolute Mad. 97.5 93 94.1 82

Mean MHniimim
68 59.5 49 44
Absolute Mizu
8
9.5 10,5
5

48

37
Maximum Average 70

35 27.5
78 58.5

Mean Average

43

48

21

23
6.5
13.5

54 31
34 22.2 17

42 59 93 88
15
21.5 23 30 .53 59.5
2
6.5 - 3 7 11 12
3
6
8 10.5 12 13 25 25
1
18
7 25 30 16 67 68
10 12.5 16.2 17 22 39 42
23

25
19

33

Table 2 (Continued)
Monthly Summary of climatic data - Aunaisah Area
August 1964 - March 1967. Rainfall and Evaporation
from Fan
Figures i n mm.
Average
Rainfall

26.2 11.7 4.9 7.4 2.0

2.5

5.2

D j
7.6

Evaporation

186.8 175 280.6 330 482.2 500.4 502 495.1 433.1 329.3 207.2 161.7

Sources: This table been compiled and computed from

data given i n the:
Hydrological Information Monthly Series 1-10
Hydrology Division
Department of Water Resources Development
Ministry of Water and Agriculture

;l
jj
jj
j

180

Table 3
Evaporation and Water Balance - Aunayaah
October 1964 - March 1965
October
I

I I

November

HI

I I

December
HI

I I

III

Mean Daily
Temperature C

24-6

21.1

18.7 21.0

17.3

15.9

11.2

11.7

11.2

Radiation .
gm, oaVcm/day

540

Relative Humidity
per cent
18.6
Wind, kpd
94
Open Water
Evaporation, mm
(Modified Penman) 56.5
Rainfall, mm
-

512
21.4
55

490
20.6
51

40.5 41.9
- -

399
21.8
87

374
33.8
57

340
49.0
95

36.9 33.2
- -

340
35.0
83

32.0 23.7
- -

342

340

67.4- 52.5
115
91
22.8
-

19.6
5.2

Actual Evapotranspiration,
ran

Moisture surplus,
mm

5.2

Nil

181 .

Table 3 (Continued)
October 1964 - March 1965
January

11

12.1

11.6

324

294

111

February

zi

March

ni

in

21.5

19-4

22.9

450

480

450

64.8 54-5 30.7

142
130
139

35.6 35.0 30.8

154 100
177

46.6
139

25.0

28.0

41.8

34.6

30.1

56.O

60.5

17.1

19.6

23-9 24.0 35.0

38.5

41.0

50.2

16.2

34.0

Mean Daily
Ten5>erature 0

15.2 12.1

17-9 17.0

Radiation _
gm oal/cm /day

Relative Humidity
per cent
54-0 68.7
Wind, k p a
106 169
Open Water
Evaporation, ran
(Modified Penman) 22.2 27.0

238

304

368

370

Potential Evapotranapiration, mm
(desert dwarf
shrub)
Rainfall, mm

15.0

18.5

0.7

Actual evapotranspiration, mm
Moisture surplus,
mm

0.7
Nil

182

Table 3 (Continued)
Evaporation and Water Balance - Aunaisah
April 1965 - September 1965
April
I

IH

May

June

I I I I I I

III

Mean Daily
Tenperature C

19.1 22.6 25-5

27.0 28.4 32.4

33.3 32.6 33.0

Radiation .
gm cal/cm /day

46O

490

320

342

563

586

618

615

590

25.4 18.8 23.5

8.3

8.1

11.2

33

31

42

Relative Humidity
per cent
Wind, kpd

39: 43.8 26.8

131

130

64

Open Water
Evaporation, mm 55.2 62.7 64.8,
(Modified Penman)
Potential Evapo(dltel^diarf

3 7 , 5

67

62

49

67.4 69.4 80.2

4 5 , 6

4 7 # 0

65.7 64.8 70.4

4

shrub)
11.0

2.0

transpiration, mm 9*3

2.0

Nil z

Rainfall, mm.
Actual Evapo-

Moisture Surplus,
mm

1.7

183

Table 3 (Continued)
April 1963 - September 1965
July
I

August

HI

September

I I HI

IH

Mean Daily
31.1 31.7 32i5

Temperature C

32.9 33-4 34.2

33.0 33.2 30.6

Radiation
632

gm cal/can /day

650

640

600

590

56O

525

520

488

Relative Humidity
10.0 14.5 13.0

per cent
Wind, kpd

z::

z.

Open Water
Evaporation, mm 65.8 60.4 59*5
(Modified Penman)
Potential Evapo(de^S^Sarf
*
shrub)
Rainfall. DDL
Z
Z
Z
44

4 0 , 8

12.2 15.6 22.5

4 2 , 0

63.O 63.O 60.0

4 5 , 0

4 5 , 3

4 1 , 0

25.4 11.0 12.1

3 7 , 5

54.0 58.5 53.2

4 1 , 0

3 7 , 0

Actual Evapo.transpiration, m m z z z
Moisture Surplus,
mm

z
z

164.

Table 3 (Continued)
Evaporation and Water Balance - Aunaizah
October 1965 - March 1966
October
I

November

I I III

I I

December

HI

I I

HI

Mean Daily
Temperature C

29.2 28.3 24.1

23.6 21.4 18.2

17.7 14.9

11.7

Radiation .
(gn cal/a /day)

448

46O

415

400

364

315

330

329

330

Relative Humidity
per cent
Wind, kpd

18.2 11.8 32.0

z

36.5 34.4 50.4

z

31.9 29*3 28.0

z

Open Water
Evaporation
Potential Evapo^(desert
T ^ ^ idwarf
^S

44.8 48.4 38.4

35.1 32.7 32.0

37.8 30.2 38.5

31.0 34.5 27.0 24.5 22.0 21.7 26.0 21.5 26.0

shrub)
Rainfall

transpiration

Moisture surplus

5.6

Actual Evapo-

5 . 6 Nil

185

Table 3 (Continued)
October 1965 - March 1966
January

i
Mean Daily
Temperature C

February

HI

March

111

11

in

8.4

11.2

0.5

16.6 13*6 19*3

Radiation .
(gh cal/cm /day) 325

342

350

Relative Humidity
per cent
24.6 34*4 40.3
Wind, kpd

Open Water
Evaporation

41*4 34*9 40.5

Potential Evaposhrub)
B.<nfn

13.2

4.9

Actual Evapotranspiration

12.2

4*9

Moisture surplus

17.6

1.1

1.0 N i l

Source: Intermediate Report on Surface Hydrology of Area 1.

Qassim. Janof-Sakakah and Wadi Sirfaam. Saudi Arabia.
August 1966.
Raika and Partners: Ministry of Water and
Agriculture.

APPENDIX C
GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY DATA

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Transm.
Storage hours

T.

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+

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43.0

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11.7 29.0

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Ltr.
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Water Level

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fc

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APPENDIX D
VEGETATION SPECIES TABLES

19$

E c o l o g i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f p l a n t s i n the
Qassim
TABLE 1. A.

Decreasers

S c i e n t i f i c Name

Arabic name
Grass

I
!

A r i s t i d a plumosa
Panicum turgidum
Cenchrus c i l i a r i s
Danthonia f o r a s k a h l e i
Lasiurus h i r s t u s

Nassi
Thamam
Subbat
Haifa
Dha ah
1

Shrubs
A r t e m i s i a herba-alba
Helianthemum kahiricum
Araebia h i s p i d i s s i m a
Scrophularia d e s e r t i
A t r i p l e x leucoclada
Convolvulus lanatus
Cornulaca monacantha
Salsola t e t r a n d r a

Source:

Geysum Orshih
Hashmah
Hamat
Algar
Rughi
Rakham
Hadh
Dabrrah

Range resources o f Area 1 ..

Qassim. Jwaf-Sakatah. and Wadi Sirham.
Saudi Arabia. A p r i l , 1967.
Parson-Basil. M i n i s t r y o f Water and A g r i c u l t u r e .

TABLE 2. B.

INCREASERS

S c i e n t i f i c name

Arabic name
Grass
Kigeel Sheitanni
Ikrish
Hashma
Rishad
Homra
Buz
Ansay'ah

Aeluropia lagopoid.es
Aeluropis l i t t o r a l i s
Cymbopogon schoenanthus
Cynodon dactylon
Eleusine compressa
Phragmites communis
Poa sinaioa
Shrubs
Acacia spp
Achillea fragrantissima
Alhagi maurorum
Anabasis s e t i f e r a
Anabasis a r t i c u l a t u m
A r t e m i s i a monosperma
Astragalus spinosus
A t r i p l e x halimus
Calligonum comosum
Gapparis f a r i n o s a
Ephedr a l a t a
Fagonia b r u g u i e r i
Haloxylon a r t i c u l a t u m
Haloxylon pericum
Haloxylon salicornicum

Salam
Gays um^Jabali
Agul
Sharan
Ageram
Adhir
Chidad
Qufaf
Arta
Shefellah
Alanda
Janb
Nikum
Gadha
Rimth

S c i e n t i f i c name
Leptadenia pyrotech nica
Lycium arabicum
Ochradenus baccatus
Rhanterium epapposum
Rhynchosia memmoina
Schanginia baccata
S e i d l i t z i a rosmarinus
Tamarix spp
Zizyphus nummularia
Zygophyllum coccineum

Source:

Same as Table 1 .

. Arabic name
Markh
Ausaj
Qurdhi
Arfa;j
Ragm
S uwwad-T ehamah
Shinan
Tarta or A t h l
Sidr
Harm

19$.

TABLE 3. C.
S c i e n t i f i c name
Anvillea garcini
C a l o t r o p i s procera
Centaurea s i n a i c a
Daemia cordata
C i t r u l l u a colocynthis
I r i s sisycrinchium
Orobanche l e g y p t i a c a
Pulicaria crispa
Salsola baryisma
Z i l l a apinosa

Source:

Same as Table 1

INVADING PERENNIALS
Arabic name
Iwad
Ushar
Moraar
Burrm
Ash Shery
Ansalan
Uwaithirrah
Sabat o r J a t h j a t h
Ghadh'arf
S hub ram

TABLE k.

D.

PROMINENT ANNUALS

S c i e n t i f i c name

Arabic name
Grass
Abu Sharib
Safir
Safir
Sha'irah
Sabal Abu Al-Hosain
Az Zaree'ah
Az Zaree'ah
As Sammaa

Aeigles t r i u n c i a l i s
Agropyron o r i e n t a l e
A r i s t i d a spp
Avena barbata
Bromus f a s c i c u l a t u s
Bromas tectorum
Hordeum spp.
Stipa t o r t i l l s
Ports ( 1 )
A l l i u m desertomum
Anastatifca hierochuntia
Asphodelus t e n u i f o l i u s
Calendula aegyptiaca
Erodium spp.
Malva f a r v i f l o r a
M a t r i c a r i a aurea
Medicago ascerseniana
Plantago albicans
PIantago undulata

Titah
K a f f Marian
Barwaq.
Hanuwa
Nafal
Khubbaiz
Az Z i f f e r a
Hasak
Ribl
Ribl

(1 )A.
, Porb i s a non-woody p l a n t t h a t dies t o the ground each
A

year.

Source:

Same as Table 1.

19a.

A. . Decreasers are species i n the p o t e n t i a l p l a n t community

t h a t decrease i n r e l a t i v e abundance under continued moderately
heavy t o heavy g r a z i n g . They g e n e r a l l y are perennials t h a t
are p a l a t a b l e t o l i v e s t o c k and f o r the most p a r t , are
dominant species i n the p o t e n t i a l p l a n t community.
B. Increasers are species i n the p o t e n t i a l p l a n t community
t h a t normally increase i n r e l a t i v e abundance as the decreasers
d e c l i n e . But Increasers do not always react i n t h i s simple
f a s h i o n . Species that, increase a t f i r s t may decrease l a t e r as
moderately-heavy grazing continues. Increasers commonly are
the less p r o d u c t i v e , sub dominant species i n the p o t e n t i a l
p l a n t community.
C. Invaders are species t h a t are not members of, the p o t e n t i a l
p l a n t community f o r the range s i t e , . s i n c e they cannot w i t h s t a n d
the competition f o r moisture, n u t r i e n t s , and l i g h t i n .the
climax v e g e t a t i o n . They come i n and grow along w i t h the
increasers a f t e r the climax v e g e t a t i o n has.been reduced by
grazing. They are not r e s t r i c t e d to' e x o t i c , since they may
be members o f the.climax p l a n t communities on other range
s i t e s i n the same general l o c a l i t y . Some are annual weeds and
herbaceous perennials and some are woody shrubs; many have
some grazing value but others have l i t t l e .
D. Annuals are species o f too unpredictable and undependable
a nature..^. They are dependent on a good moisture supply a t
the r i g h t y t i m e o f the year and they are a v a i l a b l e only p a r t
of theyear,.even when a reasonable amount o f moisture occurs.
Although they sometimes supply an important amount o f forage
f o r l i v e s t o c k they are not members o f the p o t e n t i a l p l a n t
community f o r determining the range s i t e .

APPENDIX E
SOIL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS DATA

g~

i
WN

e$ 8y

V O V O M S
T- T- O
O

o oo o

0.38
0.15
0.27
1.30

Gypsum Soluble
total
na
Meg/100 Meg/100
gnu soil gpusoil

206.

O
T- 1 - T- :

co i
CM. l>-_dON!
. . . I

3 33
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Field
texture

Particle siae %

Specific
S.M.F.
conduc.

CM T - V O K N

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t l OQ CQ

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31.0
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3-^

in

IftlftON

0.02
0.02
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gm.BOil

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na
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texture texture

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28.0
, 22.0

2.56

i i i i

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1.06
1.12

of
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I I I I

2.60

Exchangeable Cations
Mea/100 can. soil

IP

co
co
l*N
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...
m o

35.0
53.0
1256.0

T-

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29.5

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Cation
exchange
capacity
Meq/100
com. soil
2.80

ON KMTV CO

80.0

oluble

T" 1-

vo
o o mm o. o. o
o o. O. CM
o o o o O
.
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m C M JN m

22.7
18.80
2.50

05
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38.0

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r*N

m
r-o -4i*\ m -d- vo
q oo oo m
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vo
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m. T..
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mm
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1 1 1 1 11

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m.mi^. . r-m
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o o o o o c
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0.88

vo.O
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r-co . rON -r r*-

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1 1 1 1

l l l l

Nil
Nil
Nil

CM CM

o o
in
.
CM
CM CM
CM T- CO lf

14.0

l l l l

11.4

CO

^111

3.0
20.0

8"

CN ^

56.0
8.6
150.0

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. . . co .ma c
1- CM l*

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0.63
0.84

lublei Anion

. .

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meg/1
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IP

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KN, KN CM UN UN UNVO UN KN . . .
t- T*
TO

r-CM
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. . . . .

^- UN CM O i-

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UN
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CM KNr- i . . . . .

at

ExchangeableCations
Meq/iOO goo. soil

Cation
exchange
capacity
Meq/iOO
gm.soil

-J-4o

-J co r-

O VO

UN

o Syx ON
4oo 4 0 4 |0*N VO
T- T- T- T- T-

APPENDIX F
SUMMARY OP ARABLE LAMPS DATA

Summary of a r a b l e lands

Total
of
,
arable
lands/
hect.

Location

data

T o t a l Percentage T o t a l Percentage
of 2nd
of the
of the
of 3rd
total
class
total
class
arable
lands/
lands/
arable
lands
hect.
hect.
lands

The Wadi B a s i n
Zone
( a ) Buraidah
2615' 2530' N.
1^3 1+5'
10' E .
("b) Aunayzah
26 00 26 15'
U3 50 UU 10'
( c ) Ar R a r r of
B a l a eg
f

13,120

555

k.3%

12,565

95.7%

9,026

6U2

7.1%

8,381*

92.9%

13,926

13,926

100%

10,165

100%

2550' 2600
U325' U3k0 E .
( d ) Khahra of
Helalyah
%

2500' 26 15'
i+330' U3 50'
( e ) Ash Shayheyyq

10,165

1 ,khs

100%

2615' 2630*
i+325' k3k5' E .
Wadi T o t a l

U7,686 1,197

2.5%

k6,k&9

97.5%

20$.
Summary of a r a b l e lands data

Location

The Midhuab zone

6,586

25 30* 26 00

N.

30'

E .

44

00'

4 4

A l Asyah zone

8,892

26 30' 27 00'

N.

43 05'

E .

4 4

20'

Ash Shemassyah
zone

12,451*

26

30'

26

30'

N.

44

10'

4 4

25'

E .

30' 27 00'

43 05'

4 4

15'

Region t o t a l

3rd c l a s s
percentage
of the
total

824

12.5%

5,762

87.5%

1,178

13.2%

7,714

86.8%

12,409

99.6%

5,890

78.5%

45

7,50C 1,610

The Qusaiba.zone
26

Total
2nd c l a s s
3rd
2nd ' percentage
of
c
l
ass
c
l
a
s
s
of the
arable
t
o
t
a
l
t
o
tal
lands
total

0.4%

21 .5%

N
E .

83,11

4,854

5.8

78,264

94.2

Source: Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n study's f i l e . Parson-I3 a s i l

Headquarters. Ar Ryadh. Saudi A r a b i a .

APPENDIX Gr
SUMMARY OF LAND HOLDINGS
IN THE QAgSIM

Table 1.

Summary of Land Holdings! i n the,Qassim

Size of Owned Holding

Holding
%

1-5 D.
5.10 D.
10-15
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35^40

50-55
55-60
60-65
65-70

Total
-: -

341
190

13

2.2

1.

355

7.2

4.5

25

4.1

184

4.3

3.1

219
210

4.4
4.2

127
148

23
30

4.1
3.8
5

3.1

160

4.1

177

2.7
2.1

4.1
4.6

114

25
28

3.2
3.6

5.1

3.0

2.8

5.1

147
111

1.7
4.5
2.1

4.1

1.7

5
2

5.1
2

85
233
116

2.3

3
1

103
70

89

40-*5
45-50

Rented
Bent of
Holding Owned Holdings
95
9S

3.5

71
201

1.7

17
10

4.7

27

101

2.4

80

1.9

13
20

59
78

1.4
1.8

51

1.2
1

10

1.7

3
1

20
10

3.3

98

3
2
1

64

10

3
2
1

1.7

2.2
4.7
2.3
2.1
1.4
2.0

55

1.3
1.1

37

0.7

119

0.7
2.8

1.7
0.8

14

2.3

133

2.7

85-90

54

1.2

14

1.7
0.8

69

74

1
r-

90-95
95^100

2.3
0.8

79
38

1.4
1.6
0.8

70-75
75-80

43

80-85

31

Over 100

33
2072

Total

4260

4
281

0.7

46.5

51

51.2

2404

48.4

100 % 604

100 %

99

100 %

4963

100 %

48.6

Source: The Agricultural Survey of the Region

of al-Qassim. 1961-62.
Statistics Department, Ministry of Water and
Agriculture. (Arabic)

APPENDIX H
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

210.

Table tk \
Area and type of holdings i n the agricultural
districts of the Qassim.
Types of holdings
Owned
District

Total area Percentage

of .
of the
holdings
region's
i n hect.
total area.
269,574

Ar Buss

158,637

Braydah

'91,587

Aunayzah

19,345

100

58.8
34
7.2.

Rented

Area Percentage
of the
in
region's
hect.
total.
244,609

100

Area
in
hect.
24,962

Percentage
of the
region's
total.
100

147,061

60.1

11,576

46.3

81,126

33.1

10,460

42

6.8

2,926

: 16,422

11.7

Source: Data computed from figures given i n the

AflT-iciiitural Survey of the Region of
al-Qasaim. 1961 - 62.
Department of statistics and agricultural economics.
Ministry of Water and Agriculture. (Arabic)

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21B.

Table 3. Number and date production of

productive palm-trees i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l
d i s t r i c t s of al-Qassim
1961 -62

District

Braydah
Aunayzah
Ar Russ
Source:

No. of.
productive
palm-trees
556,558
329,35k
122,313
1 01+, 891

Percentage
of the
region s
total
number
1

100

Average
yield
kg/tree

22.2

1+1.3
1+5
1+2

18.8

37

59

Percentage
Total
of the
produc- region's
tion
total
in/tons production
27,568
ll+,9l+3
7,192
5,1+33

1 00
51+.2
26
19.8

A g r i c u l t u r a l survey of the r e g i o n of al-Qassim.

1961 -62
Department of S t a t i s t i c s and A g r i c u l t u r a l
Economics, M i n i s t r y of Water and A g r i c u l t u r e .
(Arabic).

21*

Table 4
TRENDS IN AGRICDIiTDRAL PRODUCTION
(Area i n hectares; Output i n tons; Value i n 196O S.R. Prices)
GRQEEED AREA

Crops

Relative
1949/50 Share

Relative
1960/63 Share_

Compound Early
Growth Rate
(per cent)

Field Crops
(excludes alfalfa)
Vegetables
Sates
Fruits

67,838

.71

175,929

.72

7.6

4,128"
21,752
2,226

.04
.23
.02

33,132
22,281
11,487

.14
.09
.05

17.4
.2
13.5

A l l Crops

95,944

1.00

242,829

1.00

7.5

0 U T P 1J T
71,300
Field Crops
(excludes alfalfa)
29,226
Vegetables
Dates
250,000
Fruits
5,565
A l l Crops

356,091

.20

236,235

.27

9.7

.08
.70
.02

345,485
257,606
34,461

.40
.29
.04

21.0
.2
15.1

1.00

873,787

1.00

7.2

VALUE OF PRODUCTION (SB. 000)

Field Crops
(excludes alfalfa)
Vegetables
Dates
Fruits
A l l Crops

25,303

.19

13,816
90,000
5,342
134,461

94,794

.24

10.7

.10
.67
..04

168,079
92,738
33,083

.43
.24
.09

21.2
.2

1.00

388,694

1.00

8.5

15.1

Source: Agricultural Production i n Saudi Arabia

by Ge&rge S. Medawar. July, 1964.
Economic Research Institute, American University,
of Beirut.

APPENDIX I
IRRIGATION WATER DATA

21 .

Table 1.
Summary of Wells' Conditions i n the Qassim

Summary

Wells total
no.

Part of total
percent.

Source of Water:Flowing Artesian

Non-flowing Artesian
Unconfined (Phereatic)

202
717
803

12.0$
42.0%

Total

1722

100 fo

803
539
380

46.796
31.396

1722

100 %

Irrigation
Domestic & Irrigation
Domestic
Unused'
Abandoned

787
566
081
097
191

45.
32.9?6
4.79S
5.6)6
11.oj6

Total

1722

100 %

1227
0202
0005
288

71.396
11.7#
0.396
16.796

1722

100 96

ltB.0%

Type of Wells:Hand Dug

Dug Drilled
Drilled
Total

22.0$

Use of Water:-

Method of Producing Water:Pumping

Plowing
Hand Bucket
Unused
Total

Source: Wells Inventory F i l e s . Parson-Basil Headquarters, 1967.

Ar Bivadh. Saudi Arabia.

Table X.

Aquifer
Phreatic

J i l h and
Khuff

Tabuk

Sag.

Water c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the Qassim

region

TDS
PPM

SAR

B
PPM

Class
1+- 3

2880

3U80

3365
1+385
191+0

1+525
5955
2905

7.9
7.7
9.0
7.8

3860

1+755

7.7

1 .1
1.1+
3.3
0.9
1 .1

2890

3635

7.1+

0.1+

2014.0
1+01+0

2950
6208

11+.5
15.3

1 .1
1 .1

925
680
720

1500

0.8

1085
1220

1175
1060

1775
11+55

3.1+
5.7
1+.1+
7.3
3.2

0.5

825

111+0
1070

5.0
1+.8

0.35

1125
970
1310

3.5
3.2

V s3

V*
l+^3
*+ S

755
660
580
850
C, f o r s a l i n i t y .

EC ( '

EGX1 0

1+.1

0.3
0.1+
0.6

0.35
0.5
0.5
0.35

S. f o r sodium.

Source: Emergency area. Eighteen months report Area 1.

Qassim. Wadi Sirham. and Tabuk
M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and Water, 1965.

1+^1+
1^2
C

3 ^
c -s
3

3^1
c -s
3

3^1

3^1
c -s
3

3^2
C

3^1

APPENDIX J
SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION SHEETS

S o i l Survey
The r e g i o n of al-Qassim. Saudi A r a b i a , August 1967
D e s c r i p t i o n s of I n d i v i d u a l P r o f i l e s
I.

Information on the s i t e sampled

( a ) P r o f i l e number.
(b) S o i l and home.
( c ) Higher category c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Date of examination.
Location.
Elevation
Land - Form
( i ) - Physiography p o s i t i o n o f the s i t e ,
( i i ) - Land - Form of surrounding country.

(h)
(i)
(j)

Slope o f which p r o f i l e i s s i t e d .
Vegetation or land use.
Climate

I I . General information on t h e s o i l
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Parent m a t e r i a l
Drainage.
Moisture c o n d i t i o n s i n the s o i l .
Depth o f ground water t a b l e .

(e)
(f)
(g)

Presence of s u r f a c e stone or rock outcrops.

Evidence of e r o s i o n .
Presence of s a l t or a l k a l i .

(h)

Human i n f l u e n c e .

220.

I l l , D e s c r i p t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s o i l horizons
( a ) Horizon symbol.
( b ) Depth of top and bottom of h o r i z o n .
( c ) Colour
( i ) - Moist
( i i ) - Dry
( d ) Colour m o t t l i n g .
(e) Texture.
( f ) Structure.
(g) Consistance
( i ) - Wet
( i i ) - Moist
( i i i ) - Dry
( h ) Cutans
( i ) - Pet c o a t i n g , p r e s s u r e f a c e r e ,
sliekensider, etc.
( i ) Cementation, i f any.
(3) P o r e s .
( k ) Content
(m) Pans.
( n ) Content

of mineral nodules,
of carbonates, s a l t s , e t c .

(o) Artefacts.
(p) F e a t u r e s of b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n ,
( q ) Content of r o o t s .
( r ) Mature of boundary w i t h h o r i z o n below,
( s ) PH.
( t ) Number of sample taken f o r a n a l y s i s .

221.

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A.

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Geography of Saudi A r a b i a
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A r e s e a r c h on the economic
development p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
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Armstrong, H. C.

Land of A r a b i a
I c h a y a t ' s C o l l e g e Book
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A Handbook of Arabia
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Geography of Arabian P e n i n s u l a
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222

Keen, B. A.

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Palgraved, W. G.

N a r r a t i v e of a year's .journey
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P h i l b y , St.^T. B.

The Heart of A r a b i a
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Reiferiburg, A.

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and the sown: r i s e and f a l l of
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Geographical f a c t o r s i n Arabian
l i f e and h i s t o r y
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Shamma, S.

The law o f income t a x and zakat i n

Saudi A r a b i a
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Thomes, B.

Arabia F e l i x
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T w i t c h e l l , K. S. and
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Saudi Arabia, w i t h an account of

the development of i t s n a t u r a l
resources
N.J. P r i n c e t o n , 1953.

223

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ARTICLES AMD OTHERS

Amer, H.

The Oases of C e n t r a l A r a b i a , w i t h
s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to trade and
p i l g r i m routes
Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s ,
Department of Geography,
U n i v e r s i t y of L i v e r p o o l ,
May, 1 9 2 1 .

A l b r e c h t , W. A.

S o i l f e r t i l i t y and b i o t i c
geography
The American Geographical Review,
1957, Vol.XLVII (p.86-105).

Basinki, J . J .

The Russian approach to s o i l

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and i t s r e c e n t
development
The J o u r n a l of S o i l Science,
1959, Vol.10.

Beer, P. E . and others

A new system of s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
S o i l S c i e n c e , 1963, Vol.96
(p.p.1-37)
Rutgers U n i v e r s i t y , N.J., U.S.A.

Bennet, H. H.

The Geographical r e l a t i o n of s o i l
e r o s i o n to land p r o d u c t i v i t y
The Ameri.Geogr. Review, 1927,
Vol.XVIII.

Chisholm, M.

Problems i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and

use of farming - type regions
T r a n s a c t i o n s and papers, (pp.
91-103).
The I n s t i t u t e of B r i t i s h
Geographers, 196*4-.

Cornwell, P. B.

Ancient A r a b i a
The Geogr. J o u r n a l , 19*4-6,
V o l . C V I I , (pp.28-50).

22k.

Dan, J . and
Koyumedjisky

The s o i l s of I s r a e l and t h e i r
distribution
The J o u r n a l of S o i l S c i e n c e , 1963,
V0I.1I+.

Dan, J . and others

The s o i l s and, s o i l a s s o c i a t i o n map

of I s r a e l
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n ,
The Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y of
Jerusalem, 1962.

Dan, J . and
Koyumedjisky

P r i n c i p l e s of proposed c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
f o r the s o i l s of I s r a e l
S p e c i a l . B u l l e t i n , 24, 1959.
A g r i c u l t u r a l Research S t a t i o n
of Rehovat.

Davis, W. M.

Geomorphology of mountain
deserts
16th Inter.Geol.Congress, 1933.
Vol.11 (pp.703-71iO.

Dryan, K. and
La Rue, E . C.

P e r s i s t e n c e of f e a t u r e i n a r i d
landscape
The Amer.Geogr. Review, 1927m
Vol.XVII.

Glubb, J . B.

The bedouins of Northern A r a b i a

(misprinted as I r a q )
.
J o u r n a l of the Royal C e n t r a l
A s i a n S o c i e t y , 1939, V o l . X X I I .

Halm, H. M.

The a g r i c u l t u r a l resources of t h e
Arabian P e n i n s u l a
(Unpublished mimeograph).
U.S.D.A.
Washington, 1955.

Hatcher, J . J . and
Bower, C. A.

C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of s a l t a f f e c t e d
s o i l s w i t h r e s p e c t t o sodium
S o i l Science, 1962, Vol.93.
Rugters, U n i v e r s i t y , N.J., U.S.A.

225.

Hogarth, D. G.

Some recent Arabian e x p l o r a t i o n s

The Amer. Geogr. Review, 1921,
Vol. X I .

Johnson, D.

Rock p l a i n s of a r i d regions
The Amer. Geogr. Review, 1932,
Vol.XXII (pp.656-665).

Kedar, Y.

Water and s o i l from the desert

The Geogr. J o u r n a l , 1957.
Vol.CXXIII.

McNeal, B. L . and
S t a n s a t e r r a , T,

M i n e r a l o g i c a l examination of a r i d land s o i l s
S o i l Science, 19&4-, Vol.97
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Papadakis, J .

Some c o n s i d e r a t i o n on s o i l
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S o i l S c i e n c e , 1962, Vol.94

(pp.115-120).
Rugters U n i v e r s i t y , N.J., U.S.A.
P e e l , R. A.

The landscape i n a r i d i t y
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The I n s t i t u t e of B r i t i s h
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Denudational landforms of c e n t r a l
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P h i l b y , S t . J . B.

Southern Na.jd
The Geogr. J o u r n a l ,
Vol.LV.

P h i l b y , St . J . B,

1920,

Two notes from C e n t r a l Arabia

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Vol.CXI V.

226
Popence, P.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the dates-palm

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Changing A r a b i a : S i g n i f i c a n t , f a c t o r s
i n the impact upon Saudi Arabia
L i f e and Economy of s o i l development
Petroleum P r e s s S e r v i c e s B u l l e t i n
No.XX, New York, 1953.

P e p e l a s i s , A. A. and
Thompson, K.

A g r i c u l t u r e i n r e s t r i c t i v e environment
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Raswan, C. R.

T r i b a l areas and migration l i n e s

of the North Arabian Bedouins
The Amer. Geogr. Review, 1 9 3 0 ,
Vol.XX.

R a v i k o v i t c h , F . and
others

Desert s o i l s of Southern I s r a e l ;
the c e n t r a l and southern Negev
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A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s . S t a t i o n of
Rehavat.

Rutter, E .

A .journey to H a i l
"The Geogr. J o u r n a l , 1932,
Vol.LXXX.

S a n t i , S. P. .A.

S a n t i , S. P. A.

Sa.jir-Buraidah road, f i n a l p r o j e c t
General roads a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
M i n i s t r y of Communication,
Typed r e p o r t , Ar Riyadh, 1 9 6 4 .
Buraidah-Salbukh road
General roads a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
M i n i s t r y of Communication,
Typed r e p o r t , Ar Riyadh, June,
1965.

227.

Stoddard, P.

An economic survey of Saudi A r a b i a

T y p e s c r i p t i n the L i b r a r y of
the C e n t r a l Planning Organization,
Saudi A r a b i a , Ar Riyadh, 1951.

Tannous, A.

Land reform; Key to the development

and s t a b i l i t y of the Arab World
Middle E a s t J o u r n a l , No.1, 1951.

U.S.D.A.

Economic development i n Saudi

A r a b i a . 195U
Bureau of F o r e i g n Commerce,
World Trade Information S e r v i c e ,
Economic r e p o r t , P a r t 1, No.55-58,
Washington, Government P r i n t i n g
O f f i c e , 1955.

Wilson-Murrow Inc,

Report on;
al-Qurayn-Buraidah road.
Ar Russ-Riyadh a l Khabra road.
Qassim airport-Aunayzah road
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M i n i s t r y of Communication,
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Wright, J . K.

Northern A r a b i a
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228.

C.

UNITED NATIONS * AGENCIES PUBLICATIONS

P.A.O.

Mediterranean Development P r o j e c t
Rome, 1959.

P.A.O.

A g r i c u l t u r e i n the Middle E a s t :
Development and Outlook
Rome, 1956.

P.A.O.

. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and r a t i o n a l
u t i l i z a t i o n o f Soils. S y r i a
by L i e r e , W. J .
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA report
No.2075, Rome, 1965.

P.A.O.

Outline of great s o i l groups of

Syria
~
by L i e r e , W. J .
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , Report SYR/7,
Rome, 1953.

P.A.O.

The s o i l s of E a s t Jordan
by Moormann, P.
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , p r o j e c t
JOR/TE/LA, report No.1132,
Rome, 1959.

P.A.O.

Report on Saudi Arabia

(Unpublished mimeograph).
by Oedekoven, K. H.
Rome, 1960.

P.A.O.

Second report on Saudi A r a b i a

(Unpublished mimeograph)
by Oedekoven, K. H.
Rome, 1961 .

P.A.O.

S o i l of the a r i d zone o f C h i l e
S o i l s B u l l e t i n No.1,
Rome, 1965.

229.

P.A.O.

S o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l
engineering. I s r a e l
Typed p u b l i c a t i o n , EPTA r e p o r t
871, Rome, 1 9 5 8 .

I.B.R.D.

Approach to economic development

of Saudi A r a b i a
I n t e r . Bank f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
and development, New York, 1 9 6 0 .

UNESCO

A h i s t o r y of land use i n a r i d regions

. by Stamp, D.
Paris, 1964.

UNESCO

The problems of the a r i d zone

A r i d Zone Research,
Paris, 1962.

230.

Base M a t e r i a l s f o r F i g u r e s
Figure 1

Arabian P e n i n s u l a , map 1 -270 B-2

M i n i s t r y of P e t r o . and Miner. Resources,
1963.

Figure 2

( a ) Geographic map of the Wadi Ar Rmah

Quadrangle, Kingdom of Saudi A r a b i a .
Map No. 1-206B.
M i n i s t r y of P e t r o . and Miner. Resources,
1960.
( b ) Roads Map o f Najd, Map No.0-3-7
Research U n i t ,
M i n i s t r y of Communication, 1967.

Figure 3

lap of. Main Geologic S t r u c t u r e of Saudi

A r a b i a , Map N0.GS-R-6I+, M i n i s t r y of
P e t r o . and Miner. Resources, 1960.

Figure k

Modified from a f i g u r e showing the outcrop

sequence of Saudi A r a b i a , included i n a
report t i t l e d a s :
Sedimentary S e c t i o n of Geology
of Saudi A r a b i a .
Aramco, 1958.

Figure 5

Geologic Map of the Wadi Ar Rmah

Quadrangle, Kingdom o f Saudi A r a b i a .
Map No.1 -206A.
M i n i s t r y of P e t r o . and Miner. Resources,
1960.

Figure 6

Geographic map of the Wadi Ar Rmah

Quadrangle, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
Map No.1 -206B.
M i n i s t r y of P e t r o . and Miner. Resources,
1960.

F i g u r e s 7, 8, 9
and 10

C l i m a t i c data of Aunayzah's s t a t i o n

231

Figure: 11

Parsons B a s i l , W e l l s ' Inventory f i l e s , 1967.

F i g u r e 12

Compiled "by the w r i t e r .

J

F i g u r e s 13 and\k

An emergency report on Area 1, the Qassim,

Wadi Sirham, Sakakah, and a l - J a w f , 1965.

F i g u r e 15

Piezometric survey data, P a r s o n s - B a s i l ,

1967.

F i g u r e 16

( a ) Geographic map of the Wadi Ar Rmah

Quadrangle, Kingdom of Saudi A r a b i a .
Map No. 1-206B.
M i n i s t r y of P e t r o . and Miner. Resources,
1960.
( b ) A e r i a l photo-mosaic,.1 : 50,000.
( c ) F i e l d survey maps ( s k e t c h e s ) .

Figure 17

Progress report on response to f e r t i l i z e r s

a p p l i c a t i o n i n Saudi Arabia, F.A.O. 1967.

F i g u r e s 1 8 and 19

A e r i a l photo-mosaic, 1 : 50,000.

Figures 20, 21
and 22

Land c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s t u d i e s f i l e s f o r
Area 1. P a r s o n s - B a s i l 19^7.

F i g u r e s 2 3 , 22+,
25, 26 and 27

( a ) A e r i a l p h o t o - s t e r i o , 1 : 60,000.
( b ) A e r i a l photo-mosaic, 1 : 50,000.
( c ) F i e l d survey maps ( s k e t c h e s ) .

F i g u r e 28

( a ) Geographic map o f the Wadi Ar Rmah

Quadrangle, Kingdom of Saudi A r a b i a ,
Map No. 1-206B.
M i n i s t r y of P e t r o . and Miner. Resources,
1960.
( b ) A e r i a l photo-mosaic, 1 : 6,000.

232.

F i g u r e s 2 9 , 3 0 and
31

The A g r i c u l t u r a l survey of the Qassim,

1960/61 .

S t a t i s t i c s Department, M i n i s t r y
Agriculture,
1962.
F i g u r e s 32 and. 33

of

An emergency report on Area 1, Saudi

Arabia. Parsons-Basil, 1966.