Leadership Styles

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing

plans, and motivating people. There are normally three styles of leadership (U.S.
Army Handbook, 1973) :
o
Authoritarian or autocratic
o

Participative or democratic

Delegative or Free Reign

Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominate, bad
leaders tend to stick with one style.
Authoritarian (autocratic)
This style is used when the leader tells her employees what she wants done and
how she wants it done, without getting the advice of her followers. Some of the
appropriate conditions to use it is when you have all the information to solve the
problem, you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated.
Some people tend to think of this style as a vehicle for yelling, using demeaning
language, and leading by threats and abusing their power. This is not the
authoritarian style...rather it is an abusive, unprofessional style called bossing
people around. it has no place in a leaders repertoire.
The authoritarian style should normally only be used on rare occasions. If you have
the time and want to gain more commitment and motivation from your employees,
then you should use the participative style.
Participative (democratic)
This type of style involves the leader including one or more employees in on the
decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the
leader maintains the final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of
weakness, rather it is a sign of strength that your employees will respect.
This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees
have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything -- this is why
you employ k n o w l e d g e a b l e and s k i l l f u l employees. Using this style is of
mutual benefit -- it allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make
better decisions.

Delegative (free reign)

In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decision. However,
the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used
when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine what
needs to be done and how to do it. You cannot do everything! You must
set priorities and delegate certain tasks .
This is not a style to use so that you can blame others when things go wrong, rather
this is a style to be used when you have the full trust and confidence in the people
below you. Do not be afraid to use it, however, use it wisely!
Forces
A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between
the followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples include:
o
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the
job. The leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to
learn a new skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job. The

leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The
employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team.
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than

you. You cannot do everything! The employee needs to take ownership of her
job. Also, the situation might call for you to be at other places, doing other
things.
Using all three: Telling your employees that a procedure is not working

correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their
ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in
order to implement the new procedure (delegative).
o

Forces that influence the style to be used included: task.

Internal conflicts.

Stress levels Type of task. Is it structured, unstructured, complicated, or

simple?

Laws or established procedures such as OSHA or training plans.

P os it ive a nd Ne ga tive Appr oa c hes

There is a difference in ways leaders approach their employee. Positive leaders use
rewards, such as education, independence, etc. to motivate employees. While
negative employees emphasize penalties. While the negative approach has a place
in a leader's repertoire of tools, it must be used carefully due to its high cost on the
human spirit.
Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only
way to get things done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay,
reprimand employees in front of others, etc. They believe their authority is increased
by freighting everyone into higher lever of productivity. Yet what always happens
when this approach is used wrongly is that morale falls; which of course leads to
lower productivity.
Also note that most leaders do not strictly use one or another, but are somewhere on
a continuum ranging from extremely positive to extremely negative. People who
continuously work out of the negative are bosses while those who primarily work out
of the positive are considered real leaders.
Use of Consideration and Structure
Two other approaches that leaders use are:
Consideration (employee orientation) - Leaders are concerned about the human
needs of their employees. They build teamwork, help employees with their problems,
and provide psychological support.
Structure (task orientation) - Leaders believe that they get results by consistently
keeping people busy and urging them to produce.
There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style are
higher performers and are more satisfied with their job.
Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other, thus they
should not be viewed on opposite ends of a continuum. For example, a leader who
becomes more considerate, does not necessarily mean that she has become less
structured.
Paternalism

Paternalism has at times been equated with leadership styles. Yet most definitions of
leadership normally state or imply that one of the actions within leadership is that of
influencing.
Leadership is influencing people -- by providing purpose, direction, and
motivation -- while operating to accomplish the mission and improving
the organization."
The Army further goes on by defining 'influence' as a:
means of getting people to do what you want them to do. It is the means or
method to achieve two ends: operating and improving. But theres
more to influencing than simply passing along orders. The example
you set is just as important as the words you speak. And you set an
example -- good or bad -- with every action you take and word you
utter, on or off duty. Through your words and example, you must
communicate purpose, direction, and motivation.
While 'paternalism' is defined as (Webster):
a system under which an authority undertakes to supply needs or regulate
conduct of those under its control in matters affecting them as
individuals as well as in their relationships to authority and to each
other.
o

Thus paternalism supplies needs for those under its protection or control,
while leadership gets things done. The first is directed inwards, while the.
Latter is directed outwards.

It seems that some picture paternalistic behavior as almost a barbaric way of

getting things accomplished. Yet, leadership is all about getting things done for the
organization. And in some situations, a paternalistic style of decision-making might
be required; indeed, in some cultures and individuals, it may also be expected by not
only those in charge, but also the followers. That is what makes leadership styles
quite interesting -- they basically run along the same continuum as Hofstede's PDI,
ranging from paternalistic to consultive styles of decision making. This allows a wide
range of individual behaviors to be dealt with, ranging from beginners to peak
performers. In addition, it accounts for the fact that not everyone is the same.

However, when paternalistic or autocratic styles are relied upon too much and the employees
are ready and/or willing to react to a more consultive type of leadership style, then it
normally becomes quite damaging to the performance of the organization.
Leadership styles
Charismatic Leadership
Assumptions
Charm and grace are all that is needed to create followers.
Self-belief is a fundamental need of leaders.
People follow others that they personally admire.
Style
The Charismatic Leader gathers followers through dint of personality and charm,
rather than any form of external power or authority.
The searchlight of attention
It is interesting to watch a Charismatic Leader 'working the room' as they move
from person to person. They pay much attention to the person they are talking to at
any one moment, making that person feel like they are, for that time, the most
important person in the world.
Charismatic Leaders pay a great deal of attention in scanning and reading their
environment, and are good at picking up the moods and concerns of both
individuals and larger audiences. They then will hone their actions and words to
suit the situation.
Pulling all of the strings
Charismatic Leaders use a wide range of methods to manage their image and, if
they are not naturally charismatic, may practice assiduously at developing their
skills. They may engender trust through visible self-sacrifice and taking personal
risks in the name of their beliefs. They will show great confidence in their followers.
They are very persuasive and make very effective use of body language as well as
verbal language.
Deliberate charisma is played out in a theatrical sense, where the leader is 'playing
to the house' to create a desired effect. They also make effective use of
storytelling, including the use of symbolism and metaphor.

Many politicians use a charismatic style, as they need to gather a large number of
followers. If you want to increase your charisma, studying videos of their speeches
and the way they interact with others is a great source of learning. Religious
leaders, too, may well use charisma, as do cult leaders.
Leading the team
Charismatic Leaders who are building a group, whether it is a political party, a cult
or a business team, will often focus strongly on making the group very clear and
distinct, separating it from other groups. They will then build the image of the
group, in particular in the minds of their followers, as being far superior to all
others.
The Charismatic Leader will typically attach themselves firmly to the identify of the
group, such that to join the group is to become one with the leader. In doing so,
they create an unchallengeable position for themselves.
Alternative views
The description above is purely based on charisma and takes into account varying
moral positions. Other descriptions tend to assume a more benevolent approach.
Conger & Kanungo (1998) describe five behavioral attributes of Charismatic
Leaders that indicate a more transformational viewpoint:

Vision and articulation;

Sensitivity to the environment;
Sensitivity to member needs;
Personal risk taking;
Performing unconventional behaviour.

Musser (1987) notes that charismatic leaders seek to instil both commitment to
ideological goals and also devotion to themselves. The extent to which either of
these two goals is dominant depends on the underlying motivations and needs of
the leader.
Discussion
The Charismatic Leader and the Transformational Leader can have many
similarities, in that the Transformational Leader may well be charismatic. Their
main difference is in their basic focus. Whereas the Transformational Leader has a
basic focus of transforming the organization and, quite possibly, their followers, the
Charismatic Leader may not want to change anything.
Despite their charm and apparent concern, the Charismatic Leader may well be
somewhat more concerned with themselves than anyone else. A typical experience
with them is that whilst you are talking with them, it is like being bathed in a warm
and pleasant glow, in which they are very convincing. Yet afterwards, ask the

sunbeam of their attention is moved elsewhere, you may begin to question what
they said (or even whether they said anything of significance at all).
The values of the Charismatic Leader are highly significant. If they are wellintentioned towards others, they can elevate and transform an entire company. If
they are selfish and Machiavellian, they can create cults and effectively rape the
minds (and potentially the bodies) of the followers.
Their self-belief is so high, they can easily believe that they are infallible, and
hence lead their followers into an abyss, even when they have received adequate
warning from others. The self-belief can also lead them into psychotic narcissism,
where their self-absorption or need for admiration and worship can lead to their
followers questioning their leadership.
They may also be intolerant of challengers and their irreplaceability (intentional or
otherwise) can mean that there are no successors when they leave.
Participative Leadership

Assumptions
Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved
by those who must carry out the decisions.
People are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant
decision-making.
People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint
goals.
When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is
greater and thus increases their commitment to the decision.
Several people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone.
Style
A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve
other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and
other stakeholders. Often, however, as it is within the managers' whim to give or
deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the
immediate team. The question of how much influence others are given thus may
vary on the manager's preferences and beliefs, and a whole spectrum of
participation is possible, as in the table below.

< Not participative

Highly participative >

Leader
Team
proposes
proposes
Autocratic
decision,
decision,
decision by listens
to
leader has
leader
feedback,
final
then
decision
decides

Joint
Full
decision
delegation
with team as of decision
equals
to team

There are many varieties on this spectrum, including stages where the leader sells
the idea to the team. Another variant is for the leader to describe the 'what' of
objectives or goals and let the team or individuals decide the 'how' of the process
by which the 'how' will be achieved (this is often called 'Management by
Objectives').
The level of participation may also depend on the type of decision being made.
Decisions on how to implement goals may be highly participative, whilst decisions
during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the
manager.
Discussion
There are many potential benefits of participative leadership, as indicated in the
assumptions, above.
This approach is also known as consultation, empowerment, joint decision-making,
democratic leadership, Management By Objective (MBO) and power-sharing.
Participative Leadership can be a sham when managers ask for opinions and then
ignore them. This is likely to lead to cynicism and feelings of betrayal.

Situational Leadership

Assumptions

The best action of the leader depends on a range of situational factors.

Style
When a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single
preferred style, such as using transactional or transformational methods. In
practice, as they say, things are not that simple.
Factors that affect situational decisions include motivation and capability of
followers. This, in turn, is affected by factors within the particular situation. The
relationship between followers and the leader may be another factor that affects
leader behavior as much as it does follower behavior.
The leaders' perception of the follower and the situation will affect what they do
rather than the truth of the situation. The leader's perception of themselves and
other factors such as stress and mood will also modify the leaders' behavior.
Yukl (1989) seeks to combine other approaches and identifies six variables:

Subordinate effort: the motivation and actual effort expended.

Subordinate ability and role clarity: followers knowing what to do and how to
do it.
Organization of the work: the structure of the work and utilization of
resources.
Cooperation and cohesiveness: of the group in working together.
Resources and support: the availability of tools, materials, people, etc.
External coordination: the need to collaborate with other groups.

Leaders here work on such factors as external relationships, acquisition of

resources, managing demands on the group and managing the structures and
culture of the group.
Discussion
Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) identified three forces that led to the leader's
action: the forces in the situation, the forces in then follower and also forces in the
leader. This recognizes that the leader's style is highly variable, and even such
distant events as a family argument can lead to the displacement activity of a more
aggressive stance in an argument than usual.
Maier (1963) noted that leaders not only consider the likelihood of a follower
accepting a suggestion, but also the overall importance of getting things done.
Thus in critical situations, a leader is more likely to be directive in style simply
because of the implications of failure.
Transactional Leadership

Assumptions
People are motivated by reward and punishment.
Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all
authority to their manager.
The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.
Style
The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear
what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following
orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood
and formal systems of discipline are usually in place.
The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby
the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by
implication the subordinate's manager) gets authority over the subordinate.
When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are
considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or
capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered
to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded
for succeeding).
The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the
principle that if something is operating to defined (and hence expected)
performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require
praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action
is applied for performance below expectation.
Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a 'selling' style, Transactional
Leadership, once the contract is in place, takes a 'telling' style.
Discussion
Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is
contingent upon performance.
Despite much research that highlights its limitations, Transactional Leadership is
still a popular approach with many managers. Indeed, in the Leadership vs.
Management spectrum, it is very much towards the management end of the scale.
The main limitation is the assumption of 'rational man', a person who is largely
motivated by money and simple reward, and hence whose behavior is predictable.
The underlying psychology is Behaviorism, including the Classical Conditioning of

Pavlov and Skinner's Operant Conditioning. These theories are largely based on
controlled laboratory experiments (often with animals) and ignore complex
emotional factors and social values.
In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional
approaches. This is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much
employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow's Hierarchy.
When the demand for a skill outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership
often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective.
Transformational Leadership

Assumptions
People will follow a person who inspires them.
A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.
Style
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting
experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and
want you to succeed.
Developing the vision
Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the
future that will excite and convert potential followers. This vision may be developed
by the leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of
discussions. The important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, line and sinker.
Selling the vision
The next step, which in fact never stops, is to constantly sell the vision. This takes
energy and commitment, as few people will immediately buy into a radical vision,
and some will join the show much more slowly than others. The Transformational
Leader thus takes every opportunity and will use whatever works to convince
others to climb on board the bandwagon.
In order to create followers, the Transformational Leader has to be very careful in
creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they
are selling. In effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision.
Finding the way forwards

In parallel with the selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some
Transformational Leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them.
Others do not have a ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of
possible routes to the promised land.
The route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with a
clear vision, the direction will always be known. Thus finding the way forward can
be an ongoing process of course correction, and the Transformational Leader will
accept that there will be failures and blind canyons along the way. As long as they
feel progress is being made, they will be happy.
Leading the charge
The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action. Transformational
Leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind
their troops. They show by their attitudes and actions how everyone else should
behave. They also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers,
constantly doing the rounds, listening, soothing and enthusing.
It is their unswerving commitment as much as anything else that keeps people
going, particularly through the darker times when some may question whether the
vision can ever be achieved. If the people do not believe that they can succeed,
then their efforts will flag. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect and reinfect
their followers with a high level of commitment to the vision.
One of the methods the Transformational Leader uses to sustain motivation is in
the use of ceremonies, rituals and other cultural symbolism. Small changes get big
hurrahs, pumping up their significance as indicators of real progress.
Overall, they balance their attention between action that creates progress and the
mental state of their followers. Perhaps more than other approaches, they are
people-oriented and believe that success comes first and last through deep and
sustained commitment.
Discussion
Whilst the Transformational Leader seeks overtly to transform the organization,
there is also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some
way, perhaps to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the
followers are the product of the transformation.
Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure
Charismatic Leaders, who succeed through a believe in themselves rather than a
believe in others.
One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence
can easily be mistaken for truth and reality. Whilst it is true that great things have
been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many passionate

people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm. Just
because someone believes they are right, it does not mean they are right.
Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up.
Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if
relentlessly applied, can wear out their followers.
Transformational Leaders also tend to see the big picture, but not the details,
where the devil often lurks. If they do not have people to take care of this level of
information, then they are usually doomed to fail.
Finally, Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the
organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then
such a leader will be frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right
situation they come into their own and can be personally responsible for saving
entire companies.
The Quiet Leader

Assumptions
The actions of a leader speak louder than his or her words.
People are motivated when you give them credit rather than take it yourself.
Ego and aggression are neither necessary nor constructive.
Style
The approach of quiet leaders is the antithesis of the classic charismatic (and often
transformational) leaders in that they base their success not on ego and force of
character but on their thoughts and actions. Although they are strongly taskfocused, they are neither bullies nor unnecessarily unkind and may persuade
people through rational argument and a form of benevolent Transactional
Leadership.
The 'Level 5' leader
In his book Good To Great, Jim Collins, identified five levels of effectiveness people
can take in organizations. At level four is the merely effective leader, whilst at level
five the leader who combines professional will with personal humility. The
'professional will' indicates how they are far from being timid wilting flowers and will
march against any advice if they believe it is the right thing to do. In 'personal
humility' they put the well-being of others before their own personal needs, for

example giving others credit after successes but taking personal responsibility for
failures.
Taoist w ritings
The quiet leader is not a modern invention and Lao Tzu, who, in the classic Taoist
text Tao Te Ching, was discussing the same characteristic around 500 BC:
The very highest is barely known by men,
Then comes that which they know and love,
Then that which is feared,
Then that which is despised.
He who does not trust enough will not be trusted.
When actions are performed
Without unnecessary speech,
People say We did it!
Here again, the highest level of leadership is virtually invisible.
Discussion
To some extent, the emphasis on the quiet leader is a reaction against the lauding
of charismatic leaders in the press. In particular during the heady days of the dotcom boom of the 1990s, some very verbal leaders got much coverage. Meanwhile,
the quiet leaders were getting on with the job.
Being quiet, of course, is not the secret of the universe, and leaders still need to
see the way forwards. Their job can be harder when they are faced with people of
a more external character.
For people accustomed to an extraverted charismatic style, a quiet style can be
very confusing and they may downplay the person, which is usually a mistake.
Successful quiet leaders often play the values card to persuade others, showing
selfishness and lack of emotional control as being unworthy characteristics. Again
there is a trap in this and leadership teams can fall into patterns of behavior where
peace and harmony are prized over any form of challenge and conflict.

Servant leadership

Assumptions
The leader has responsibility for the followers.
Leaders have a responsibility towards society and those who are disadvantaged.
People who want to help others best do this by leading them.
Style
The servant leader serves others, rather than others serving the leader. Serving
others thus comes by helping them to achieve and improve.
There are two criteria of servant leadership:
The people served grow as individuals, becoming 'healthier, wiser, more
autonomous and more likely themselves to become servants' (Greenleaf,
1977).
The extent to which the leadership benefits those who are least advantaged
in society (or at least does not disadvantage them).

Principles of servant leadership defined by the Alliance for Servant Leadership are:
Transformation as a vehicle for personal and institutional growth.
Personal growth as a route to better serve others.
Enabling environments that empower and encourage service.
Service as a fundamental goals.
Trusting relationships as a basic platform for collaboration and service.
Creating commitment as a way to collaborative activity.
Community building as a way to create environments in which people can
trust each other and work together.
Nurturing the spirit as a way to provide joy and fulfilment in meaningful work.

Spears (2002) lists: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion,

conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to growth of people, and
building community.
An excellent example of a servant leader is Ernest Shackleton, the early 20th
century explorer who, after his ship became frozen in the Antarctic life, brought
every one of his 27 crew home alive, including an 800 mile journey in open boats
across the winter Antarctic seas. It took two years, but Shackleton's sense of
responsibility towards his men never wavered.
Discussion
Greenleaf says that true leadership "emerges from those whose primary motivation
is a deep desire to help others." Servant leadership is a very moral position, putting
the well-being of the followers before other goals.

It is easy to dismiss servant leadership as soft and easy, though this is not
necessarily so, as individual followers may be expected to make sacrifices for the
good of the whole, in the way of the servant leader.
The focus on the less privileged in society shows the servant leader as serving not
just their followers but also the whole of society.
Servant leadership is a natural model for working in the public sector. It requires
more careful interpretation in the private sector lest the needs of the shareholders
and customers and the rigors of market competition are lost.
A challenge to servant leadership is in the assumption of the leader that the
followers want to change. There is also the question of what 'better' is and who
decides this.
Servant leadership aligns closely with religious morals and has been adopted by
several Christian organizations.
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Managerial Leadership
Managing styles by creating Resonance:

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Comparing autocratic vs. democratic leaders.

Explanation

of

Leadership

Continuum

Tannebaum and Schmidt. ('73)

model

of

What is the Leadership Continuum? Description

According to the Leadership Continuum model of R. Tannebaum and W.H. Schmidt
(1973) an autocratic leader will likely make his own decisions. He will not delegate
to his subordinates. Whereas a more democratic leader (laissez-faire manager)
gives subordinates a greater degree of delegation in decision-making.

In 1938, Lewin and Lippitt proposed classifications of leaders. These were based on
how much involvement leaders placed onto task and relationship needs. These
types of leadership behavior were expressed in 1973 along a continuum by
Tannebaum & Schmidt. The spectrum ranges from boss-centered (task) to
subordinate-centered (relationship).

Forces to consider for Leaders

To choose the most appropriate style and use of authority, the leader should take
into consideration:
1.
Forces in the manager: belief in team member participation and
confidence in capabilities of members. Compare: Theory of Needs
2.
Forces in the subordinate person: subordinates who are independent,
tolerant of ambiguity, competent, identify with organizational goals.
3.
Forces in the situation:
o
the team has requisite knowledge.
o
the team has organizational values and traditions.
o
the team works effectively.
4.
Time pressure: need for immediate decision under pressure. Mitigates
against participation.
Advantages

of

the

Leadership

Continuum

Model.

Benefits
Gives managers a range of choices for involvement.

Presents criteria for involvement and delegation.

Focuses the decision maker on relevant criteria (e.g. forces & time).

Emphasizes employee development and empowerment.

Is heuristic. Encourages research to see how effective delegation may

be under the model.

Limitations of the Leadership Continuum.

Disadvantages
Involves only the initial step of assigning a task to someone, not the
following processes that may determine the effectiveness of the outcome.

Assumes that the manager has sufficient information to determine the

disposition to himself or to the team.

Assumes "neutral" environment without social bonds or politics.

Simplifies complex decisions towards a two-polar dimension; more

simple than the reality is.

Non-cognitive aspects of intelligence.

Explanation of Emotional Intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence history

When psychologists began to write and think about intelligence, they initially focused
on cognitive aspects, such as memory and problem-solving. However, some
researchers recognized the importance of non-cognitive aspects early on:
Robert Thorndike was writing about social intelligence in 1937,

David Wechsler defined intelligence as the aggregate or global

capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with his environment (Wechsler, 1958, p. 7). Already in 1940
Wechsler referred to non-intellective as well as intellective elements
(Wechsler, 1940), by which he meant affective, personal, and social factors.
Furthermore, already in 1943 Wechsler was proposing that the nonintellective abilities are essential for predicting ones ability to succeed in life.

Howard Gardner began to write about multiple intelligence in 1983. He

proposed that intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences and the type of
intelligence (typically measured by IQ and related tests) are equally
important.

Salovey and Mayer actually coined the term emotional intelligence in

1990. They described emotional intelligence as "a form of social intelligence
that involves the ability to monitor own and others feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide ones thinking
and action" (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Salovey and Mayer also initiated a
research program intended to develop valid measures of emotional
intelligence and to explore its significance.

In doing the research for his first book, Daniel Goleman became aware of Salovey
and Mayers work in the early 1990s. Being trained as a psychologist at Harvard,
where he worked with David McClelland, Goleman wrote the popular bestseller
"Emotional Intelligence" (1995), in which he offered the first ' proof' that emotional
and social factors are important.

Five Domains of Emotional Intelligence

Goleman in 1995 agrees with Salovey's Five Main Domains of Emotional Intelligence
(p. 43)
Knowing one's emotions. Self-awareness, recognizing a feeling while it
happens.

Managing emotions. The ability of handling feelings so they are

appropriate.

Motivating oneself. Marshalling emotions in the service of a goal.

Recognizing emotions in others. Empathy, social awareness.
Handling relationships. Skill in managing emotions in others.

Four domains of Emotional Intelligence

More recently, Goleman favors only Four Domains of EI. The 4 domains have 19
categories, as described in his 2002-book "Primal Leadership". 2 extra categories
were added by the Hay Group:
Self-awareness (Emotional Self-Awareness. Accurate Self-Assessment
and Self Confidence)

Self-management
(Emotional
Self-Control.
Transparency
(Trustworthiness). Adaptability. Achievement Orientation. Initiative. Optimism.
Conscientiousness)

Social awareness (Empathy. Organizational Awareness. Service

Orientation)

Relationship management (Inspirational Leadership. Influence.

Developing Others. Change Catalyst. Conflict Management. Building Bonds.
Teamwork and Collaboration. Communication)

An important thing to understand is that - according to Goleman - these EI

competencies are not innate talents. They are learned abilities.

IQ or EI?
According to some scientists, IQ by itself is not a very good predictor of job
performance. Hunter and Hunter (1984) estimated that at best IQ accounts for about
25 percent of the variance. Sternberg (1996) has pointed out that studies vary and
that 10 percent may be a more realistic estimate. In some studies, IQ accounts for as
little as 4 percent of the variance. In a recent meta-analysis examining the correlation
and predictive validity of EI when compared to IQ or general mental ability, Van Rooy
and Viswesvaran (2004) found IQ to be a better predictor of work and academic
performance than EI. However, when it comes to the question of whether a person
will become a "star performer" (in the top ten percent, however such performance is
appropriately assessed) within that role, or be an outstanding leader, IQ may be a
less powerful predictor than emotional intelligence (Goleman 1998, 2001, 2002).

IQ and EI: pure types

According to Goleman, IQ and EI should not be regarded as competencies with an

opposite direction. They are rather separate competencies. People with a high IQ but
low EI (or the opposite) are, despite the stereotypes, relatively rare. There is a
correlation between IQ and some aspects of EI. The stereotypes (pure types) are:
(Pure) High-IQ male. He is typified - no surprise - by a wide range of
intellectual interest and abilities. He is ambitious and productive. Predictable
and dogged. And untroubled by concerns about himself. He also tends to be
critical and condescending. Fastidious and inhibited. Uneasy with sexuality
and sensual experience. Unexpressive and detached. And emotionally bland
and cold.

(Pure) High-EI male. He is socially poised. Outgoing and cheerful. Not

prone to fearfulness or worried rumination. He has a notable capacity for
commitment to people or causes, for taking responsibility, and for having an
ethical outlook. He is sympathetic and caring in his relationships. His
emotional life is rich, but appropriate. He is comfortable with himself, others,
and the social universe he lives in.

(Pure) High-IQ female. She has the expected intellectual confidence. Is

fluent in expressing her thoughts. Values intellectual matters. And has a wide
range of intellectual and aesthetic interests. She tends to be introspective.
Prone to anxiety, rumination, and guilt. And hesitates to express her anger
openly.

(Pure) High-EI female. She tend to be assertive and expresses her

feelings directly. And feels positive about herself. Life holds meaning for her.
She is outgoing and gregarious. And expresses her feelings appropriately.
She adapts well to stress. Her social poise lets her easily reach out to new
people. She is comfortable enough with herself to be playful, spontaneous,
and open to sensual experience. She rarely feels guilty, or sinks into
rumination.

Assessing and measuring Emotional Intelligence

Instruments used for measuring Emotional Intelligence
EQ-I (Bar-On, 1997): a self-report instrument to assess those personal
qualities that enabled some people to possess better emotional well-being
than others.

Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey,

1998): a test of ability where the test-taker performs a series of tasks that
are designed to assess the persons ability to perceive, identify, understand,
and work with emotion.

Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) (Goleman, 1998): a 360

degree instrument, where people evaluate the individuals within an
organization (Individual Feedback Reports). Or the organization as a whole
(Work Force Audits). These audits can provide an organizational profile for
any size group within the company. The Emotional Competence Inventory
works with the 19/21 competencies described above (See under Four
Domains of EI).

(Book: Daniel Goleman - Emotional Intelligence)

Building,

developing

skilled,

prepared

and

maintaining

leaders

from

pipeline
within

of
the

c om pa ny.
Explanation

of

the

Leadership

Pipeline

of

Stephen

Drotter, Jam es Noel and Ram Charan. (2001)

What is the Leadership Pipeline? Description

Sometimes hiring an executive from the outside can be the only available short term
option. However Drotter, Noel and Charan argue that for the long term,
management should build, develop and maintain a pipeline of skilled, prepared
leaders from within the firm. Their Leadership Pipeline model helps to create such
a funnel of future management talent by explaining what changes in time application,
skills and work values are essential for making the transition from one leadership
stage to the next. Also their model helps to understand the different demands of
various
management
levels.
Origin of the Leadership Pipeline. History
The Leadership Pipeline idea was based on work originally done at General Electric
in the 1970s by Walt Mahler, a HR consultant and teacher. Mahler set out to identify
all the changes that were required to be successful at different leadership levels. He
concluded that the most important change involved work values: what one believes
is important in the new job. Mahler also developed the Crossroads Model,
suggesting that there were specific leadership crossroads in every organization,
each with its own specific requirements. Drotter was a student and later a friend of
Mahler and refined and adjusted the crossroads model into the leadership pipeline
model. Executive Development and Coaching Consultant James Noel and Top-level
Succession Planning Consultant and Professor Ram Charan also contributed later.

6 Passages in the Leadership Pipeline. Stages

1.
From Managing Self to Managing Others. People enter this stage
when they demonstrate they are skilled individual contributors and they have
the ability to collaborate with others.
o
Change in Time Application: These people must learn how to
reallocate their time so that not only their own assigned work is
completed, but also they help others perform effectively.
o
Change of Skills: Shift from doing work to getting work done
through others.
o
Change of Work Values: From valuing their individual work to
valuing managerial work.
2.
From Managing Others to Managing Managers.
o
Change in Time Application: In this phase, managers must only
manage. They need to divest themselves of individual tasks.
o
Change of Skills: The key skills they must master during this
transition include selecting people to turn passage 1, assigning
managerial and leadership work to them, measuring their progress as
managers, and Coaching them.
o
Change of Work Values: Learn to hold first-line managers
accountable for managerial work rather than technical work.
3.
From Managing Managers to Functional Manager.
o
Change in Time Application: Participating in business-team
meetings and working with other functional managers. Creating a
functional strategy that enables them to do something better than the
competition. Develop a sustainable Competitive Advantage within
their function.
o
Change of Skills: Develop new Communication Skills and being
able to manage some areas that are unfamiliar. Learn to consider
other functional needs and concerns. Teamwork with other functional
managers and compete for resources based on business needs.
o
Change of Work Values: Adopt a broad, long-term perspective.
4.
From Functional Manager to Business Manager.
o
Change in Time Application: Allocating time to think is a major
requirement at this level: Managers need to stop doing something
every second of the day and reserve time to reflect and analyze.
o
Change of Skills: Business managers are responsible for the
bottom line. Rather than consider the feasibility of an activity, a

5.

6.

business manager must examine it from a short- and long-term profit

perspective.
o
Change of Work Values: Value the success of their own
business.
From Business Manager to Group Manager.
o
Change in Time Application: From running their own business to
succeeding indirectly by managing and developing several
businesses and business managers.
o
Change of Skills: Be able to:

Evaluate strategy in order to allocate and deploy capital.

Develop business managers.

Develop and implement a Portfolio Strategy.

Assess whether businesses have the right core

capabilities to win.
o
Change of Work Values: Derive satisfaction from the success of
other peoples businesses. Appreciate managing a portfolio of
business.
From Group Manager to Enterprise Manager.
o
Change in Time Application: Set direction and develop operating
mechanisms to know and drive quarter-by-quarter performance that is
in tune with longer term strategy. A subtle shift from strategic to
visionary thinking, and from an operating to a global perspective. Let
go of the pieces, and focus on the Whole. Assemble a team of highachieving, ambitious direct reports, knowing that some of them want
his job.
o
Change of Skills: Ability to manage a long list of external
constituencies proactively.
o
Change of Work Values: Learn to value Trade-offs. Appreciate
managing one entity.

Strengths of the Leadership Pipeline. Benefits

Helps to understand that management and leadership roles are not
the same on all levels of an organization, because of many differences in
optimal time application, skills and work values.

Dynamic model. Facilitates individual performance improvement,

Coaching, Mentoring, training and experience assessments and planning.

Facilitates succession planning, leadership development. Helps to

identify and prevent potential pipeline failures.

Improves selection processes.

Facilitates more objective promotion decisions.

Helps HR to focus on specific skills, time application and work values,

rather than rely on generalized training and development programs.

Diagnostic tool to identify and remedy mismatches between individuals

capabilities and their leadership level.

Timing. The pipeline provides a system for identifying when someone is

ready to move to the next leadership level.

Efficiency. Little or no time is wasted on jobs that merely duplicate

skills.

Limitations

of

the

Leadership

Pipeline.

Disadvantages
Aimed at large organizations. Can however be used in medium-sized
businesses as well, by removing the group management level and
understanding that the business manager is also doing the work of the
enterprise manager.

It takes a long time and sustained commitment to implement the

framework.

As with any model, try to avoid a too mechanical implementation of the

concept. Think holistically and with complexity of people and organizations in
mind.
Book: Ram Charan, Stephen Drotter and James Noel - The Leadership Pipeline How to Build the Leadership-powered Company

Applying humility and strong professional willpower

to leadership. Explanation of Level 5 Leadership
of Jim Collins. ('01)

What is Level 5 Leadership? Description

Level Five Leadership is based on the idea that respect towards people, selflessness
by the leader, and a strong powerful commitment to achieve results, bring out the
best in subordinates. Level 5 leaders are a paradoxical blend of fierce will and
personal humility. They are stubborn and ruthless. Yet they are humble. They are
ambitious for their company, and rarely allow their ego to be an obstacle for the
success of their organization. Though they accomplish great things for their
organizations, they attribute their remarkable accomplishments to their people,
external factors and sheer luck. Level 5 Leaders lead with the help of disciplined
people,
disciplined
thought
and
disciplined
action.
Origin of Level 5 Leadership. History
The Level 5 Leadership theory evolved independently. It was "discovered" by Collins
and his researchers in the companies which had a high level of growth over fifteen
consecutive years. Compare: Servant-Leadership

Calculation of Level 5 Leadership. Formula

The Right People (culture, character rather than competence) + Humility + Strong
Professional Will (regarding the goal) = Success.

Usa ge of Le ve l 5 Lea de rship. App lic at ions

This method apparently works every time it is tried. It is more about character than
competence. A high competence is not absolutely required to be successful, but
character is a non-negotiable.

Steps in Level 5 Leadership. Process

1.
2.
3.

Hire the right people.

Deploy them in the jobs which they are "intended" to do.
Set a really high long-term goal. (BHAG).

Strengths of Level 5 Leadership. Benefits

You can achieve superb results, long-term, and lasting results.

Limitations of Level 5 Leadership. Disadvantages

It requires a lot of time and personal investment by the leader.

The leader does not receive personal credit.

Assumptions of Level 5 Leadership. Conditions

This leadership methodology is emerging, and it has until now not been discussed
extensively. But it appears sensible and strong.

Book: Jim Collins - Good to Great - Why Some Companies Make the Leap and
Others Don't -

What is Charismatic Leadership? Description

Charismatic Leadership is defined by Max Weber as "resting on devotion to the

exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of
the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him". He defines Charisma
as "a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he is set apart
from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at
least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are such as are not
accessible to the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as
exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader
(...). How the quality in question would be ultimately judged from an ethical,
aesthetic, or other such point of view is naturally indifferent for the purpose of
definition".

Charismatic people have a remarkable ability to distill complex ideas into simple
messages ("I have a dream"); they communicate by using symbols, analogies,
metaphors and stories. Furthermore they relish risk and feel empty without it, they
are great optimists, they are rebels who fight convention, and they may seem
idiosyncratic.

Charismatic leaders are pictured as organizational heroes or magic leaders who

have the social power basis to orchestrate turnarounds, launch new enterprises,
inspire organizational renewal, and obtain extraordinary performance from
organizational members. These leaders inspire trust, faith and belief in themselves.
Of course none of this is a guarantee that the mission will be correct, ethical, or
successful.
Origin of the Charismatic Leadership model. History
German Sociologist Max Weber distinguished back in the 1920's three ideal types of
leadership, domination and authority:
1.
Charismatic domination (familial and religious),
2.
Feudal / Traditional domination (patriarchs, patrimonalism,
feudalism), and
3.
Bureaucratic / Legal domination (modern law and state,
bureaucracy).
Robert House (1977) used four phrases to define charismatic leadership:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Dominant.
Strong desire to influence others.
Self-confident.
Strong sense of ones own moral values.

Conger & Kanungo (1998) describe five behavioral attributes of Charismatic

Leaders:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Vision and articulation.

Sensitivity to the environment.
Sensitivity to member needs.
Personal risk taking.
Performing unconventional behavior.

Most recently charisma is being characterized as theatrical (Gardner & Alvolio,

1998): charismatic leadership is an impression management process enacted
theatrically in acts of framing, scripting, staging, and performing. Compare also:
EPIC ADVISERS.

Usage

of

the

Charismatic

Leadership

style.

Applications
In difficult times or circumstances, such as an urgent organizational
turnaround. Compare: Crisis Management.

Note that according to Weber, a charismatic leader does not have to be

a positive force. Both Mahatma Gandhi and Adolf Hitler could be reasonably
considered charismatic leaders. Compare: Servant-Leadership

See Core Groups theory for some of the mechanisms behind

charismatic leadership.

Steps in Charismatic Leadership approach. Process

Jay Conger (1989) proposed the following four-stage model of charismatic
leadership:
1.
Continual assessment of the environment and formulating a vision.
2.
Communication of vision, using motivational and persuasive
arguments.
3.
Building trust and commitment. subordinates must desire and
support the goals of the leader and this is likely to be accomplished by more
than coercion; rather the leader builds trust in the leader and the viability of
the goals; this is likely to be done through personal risk taking,
unconventional expertise, and self-sacrifice.
4.
Achieving the vision. Using Role modeling, empowerment, and
unconventional tactics.

Strengths of Charismatic Leadership style. Benefits

Results in relatively strong, unchallenged levels of obedience.

Useful in difficult times or circumstances, such as an urgent

organizational turnaround. Compare: Crisis Management.

Effective. If the charismatic leader's vision is right, this leadership style

can be extremely effective.

Rhetorical ability. Compare: Framing.

Energetic, inner clarity, visionary, unconventional, and exemplary.

Limitations

of

Charismatic

Leadership

style.

Disadvantages
Results in relatively strong, unchallenged levels of obedience.
Tendency of gathering weak "yes-men" around him. Poor delegation.

People possessing these skills and attributes are relatively rare.

Tendency to narcissism. Loosing reality. Insensitive to others.

Compare: Seven Signs Of Ethical Collapse

Lack of accountability. Freedom from inner (moral) conflicts. The values

of charismatic leaders are essential. If such leaders are well-intentioned
towards others, they can elevate and transform an entire company. But if they
are selfish or poor, they can create cults and effectively rape the minds of the
followers.
Unpredictable. Potentially dangerous.

W h a t i s E P I C AD V I S E R S ? D e s c r ip t i o n
The EPIC ADVISERS model from Stephen Banhegyi is an African leadership
framework based on attribution theory and self perception. Most of the models that
are used to teach principles of leadership were developed by Western consultants
and professors. According to Banhegyi, effective leadership requires the
understanding and exercise of certain personality and leadership traits by the person
that is playing the role of leader. All leaders surveyed in a major 2002 survey
suggested that they used these traits to some extent in their experience of
leadership. The model suggests that the making of myth, meaning and reality

through storytelling is one of the key skills of leadership. As is also a consultative,

coaching approach.

A clear and remarkable example of such leadership is that of King Shaka of the Zulu
nation in the early 19th century. Shaka appears to have been on of the first to realize
that if he invited leaders of his various regiments to discuss battle plans, they would
all have a better chance of success. A 'consultative' approach to war.
The behavior and style of Shaka was so different and unique that his people called
him unodumehlezi kaMenzi (meaning the one who gazes into the heavens). Shaka
would make time to sit, to meditate, to think and to contemplate. At the same time,
he was clearly a man of the people in that he would not only plan an offensive, but
he would join with, train and fight alongside his followers. The leadership style of
Shaka was a quantum leap from what had had been experienced in Africa up until
that time. Before Shaka, wars had been fought in other ways. These innovations
were the reason why the Zulu nation became so powerful.

EPIC ADVISERS serves as a descriptive acronym, since two vital functions of

leaders are: to advise other people and to create epics:
EPIC. An extended narrative poem in elevated or dignified language,
celebrating the feats of a legendary or traditional hero. It can also refer to a
literary or dramatic composition that resembles an extended narrative heroic
poem.

ADVISERS. People who advise, coach, mentor, counsel or educate

others in academic, professional or personal matters.

The model focuses not on the traditional "trait and situation" approaches but rather
on the things that successful leaders actually do and the things they know about
themselves. These actions and beliefs indicate underlying value systems and predict
certain behaviors. The 12 elements of the model are:

EPIC

E: Emotion
o
A state of mind that can arise spontaneously as well as through
conscious effort.
o
Emotions are often accompanied by changes in the body.
o
Emotions also refer to that part of consciousness that involves
feelings; excitement of the feelings (whether pleasing or painful);

disturbance or agitation of mind caused by a specific cause and

manifested by some effect on the body.
o
Leaders are able to stir up and project the emotional states of
the people around them. This is done by speaking, body language
and often by the leaders presence only.
P: Power
o
The ability or capacity to perform or act effectively.
o
The ability to exercise great influence or control over others.
o
A specific capacity, faculty, or aptitude.
o
Power also includes the ability to cause things to happen or stop
them from happening.
I: Inspiration
o
Inspiration means stimulation of the mind and emotions to a high
level of feeling or activity.
o
It can also mean divine guidance. Or influence exerted directly
on the mind and soul.
o
Leaders are able to expertly apply various techniques to inspire
their people.
o
One of the most important of these techniques appears to
simply be able to pay positive, focused attention to someone.
C: Charisma
o
Derived from the Greek word kharisma meaning divine favor.
o
Charisma refers to a rare personal quality (personal magnetism
or charm) attributed to leaders who arouse fervent popular devotion
and enthusiasm.
o
The result of charismatic powers is to manipulate the behavior,
values, beliefs and attitude of people.
o
As such, it can also have negative connotations. Compare:
Charismatic Leadership

ADVISERS

A: Authority
o
The power to enforce laws, exact obedience, to command, to
determine, or to judge.
o
People with authority include your parents, your peers, the
courts, the police, the church, popular culture etcetera.
Some
types
of
authority
include:
Charismatic
Traditional

Legal
Formal

Functional
D: Drama
o
A feeling of drama, ritual and occasion is vitally important to
create milestones in time.
o
The drama and ritual also allows everyone to experience the
same emotions at the same time.
o
Leaders have an instinct for knowing when drama ought to be
used to make a point, create an impression or mark a point in history.
o
Drama could be used to enliven otherwise mundane events.
Events such as when a new customer is acquired, a project is
completed or a new employee is hired.
V: Vision
o
The ability to see what does not yet exist.
o
And to be able to describe it in such a way, that others become
sufficiently excited and interested and the vision becomes a reality.
I: Intention
o
An action that a person intends to follow.
o
A desired outcome that someone sees and he wishes to achieve
it at the end of a process.
S: Storytelling & Journey Making
o
The ability to create a story or myth that is interesting and
persuasive enough to convince others to start using it as a way of
describing their reality.
o
The journey-making-component of story telling describes the
movement from where we are at the moment to where we are going.
E: Experience
o
An attitude of confidence expressed by the leader that whatever
must be done can be done and will be done by the role-players.
o
Irrespective of its complexity.
o
The leader here expresses faith in her followers. They respond
in return in a way that justifies this faith.
R: Role Modeling
o
Emulating the characteristics, behavior and language of
someone else. In order to capture a mood state and a way of being.
o
Role modeling is a crucial and often-unconscious mechanism
used by people to confirm their allegiance to a group or cause.
S: Self Perception

A strong and unambiguous self-perception appears to be a

common trait among leaders.
o
Leaders who have an unwavering impression of themselves and
of their worth are likely to be seen in the same light by those who
work with them.
o

O r i g i n o f t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S f r a m e w o r k . H is t o r y
Analysis by Banhegyi of interviews by 600 students from CIDA University in 2002
with hundreds of leaders of companies in (South-) Africa. It is necessary to
understand some of the principles and history of African culture, religion and
spirituality before trying to understand African leadership. This is because there are
certain subtle ways of organizing people, setting direction, motivating and creating
reality that can be better understood by looking at peoples spiritual and religious
heritage. Additionally, in studying organizations and communities throughout Africa, it
becomes apparent that leaders themselves are much closer in attitude and behavior
to priests and shamans than the commonly accepted stereotype of what a western
leader is.

U s a g e o f E P I C AD V I S E R S . Ap p l i c a t i o n s

Development and training of leadership.

Developing personal narrative and storytelling skills.

S t e p s i n t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S m o d e l. P r o c e s s
1.
Read about a particular technique.
2.
Imagine using it.
3.
Feel whether the technique is right for you and what it is you are at the
moment.
4.
If the technique feels right, use it with all the passion you can muster.
5.
Test it.
6.
If you are happy with the result, allow the technique to become part of
you.
S t r e n g t h s o f t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S . B e n e f it s

Focus on values, self perception and self-development.

L im it a t io n s o f t h e E P I C AD V I S E R S . D is a d va n t a g e s

Based on African history and culture. It is uncertain to what extent the

model is applicable outside of Africa.

As s um pt ions of t he E PIC AD V IS E RS . Condit ions

Personality traits are not cast in stone. They are malleable.

The entire notion of leadership is being overhauled and rethought.

People have become increasingly interested in African leadership as it used to
be. And they are looking for ways to revive it

Leading

by

serving

first.

Explanation

of

Servant-

Leadership of Robert K. Greenleaf. (1970)

Contributed by: Ietze Oostinga MA MGM
What is Servant-Leadership? Description
Servant-Leadership is a practical altruistic philosophy which supports people who
choose to serve first, and then lead as a way of expanding service to individuals and
institutions. Servant-leaders may or may not hold formal leadership positions.
Servant-leadership encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening, and the
ethical use of power and empowerment.
In 1970, AT&T executive Robert K. Greenleaf (1904-1990) coined the term in a short
essay entitled: "The Servant As Leader". In the essay, Greenleaf describes some of
the characteristics and activities of servant-leaders:
The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to
serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. He or she is
sharply different from the person who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to
assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions. For such it will
be a later choice to serve - after leadership is established. The leader-first and the
servant-first are two extreme types. Between them there are shadings and blends
that
are
part
of
the
infinite
variety
of
human
nature.
The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that
other people's highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to
administer, is: do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served,
become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become
servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit,
or, at least, will they not be further deprived?

Origin of Servant-Leadership. History

In the East, Chanakya or Kautilya, a strategic thinker from ancient India, wrote in his
4th century book Arthashastra: "The King (leader) shall consider as good, not what
pleases himself but what pleases his subjects (followers)".
In the West, the concept of servant leadership can be traced back to Jesus, who
taught his disciples: "You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles
lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. Not so with
you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and
whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come
to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many." (Mark 10:4245)
Characteristics of Servant-Leaders. Traits
A servant-leader has ten characteristics (Greenleaf, R. K., 2003):
1.
Listening. The leader has a deep commitment to listening intently to
others. Listening also encompasses getting in touch with one's own inner
voice and seeking to understand what one's body, spirit and mind are
communicating. Listening, coupled with regular periods of reflection, is
essential to the growth of the servant-leader.
2.
Empathy. The servant-leader strives to understand and empathize
with others. People need to be accepted and recognized for their special and
unique spirits.
3.
Healing. Learning to heal is a powerful force for transformation and
integration. One of the great strengths of servant-leadership is the potential
for healing one's self and others.
4.
Awareness. General awareness and especially self-awareness,
strengthens the servant-leader.
5.
Persuasion. A servant-leader relies on persuasion, rather than using
one's positional authority.
6.
Conceptualization. Servant-leaders seek to nurture their abilities to
'dream great dreams'. The ability to look at a problem (or an organization)
from a conceptualizing perspective means that one must think beyond dayto-day realities.
7.
Foresight. The ability to understand the lessons from the past, the
realities of the present, and likely consequences of a decision for the future.
8.
Stewardship. Holding something in trust for another.
9.
Commitment to the growth of people. The servant-leader is deeply
committed to the growth of each individual within his or her institution.

10. Building community. Among those who work within a given

institution.
Strengths

of

the

Servant-Leadership

philosophy.

Benefits
Servant-leadership is a long-term, transformational approach to life and
work - in essence, a way of being - that has the potential for creating positive
change throughout society.

Servant-leadership is often compared with transformational leadership

approaches, which also emphasize collaboration. While transformational
leaders and servant-leaders both show concern for their followers, the
overriding focus of the servant-leaders is on service to their followers.
Transformational leaders have a greater concern for getting followers to
engage in and support organizational objectives. Compare: Appreciative
Inquiry. The extent to which the leader is able to shift the primary focus of this
or her leadership from the organization to the follower is the distinguishing
factor in determining whether the leader may be a transformational or
servant-leader.

Limitations

of

the

Servant-Leadership

concept.

Disadvantages
It is not a quick-fix approach. Nor is it something that can be quickly
instilled within an institution.

Can be perceived by some as rather 'soft'. Listening and empathizing

too much with others may lead to indecisiveness or a lack of vision.

Offering paths to achieve goals. Explanation of PathGoal Theory of Robert House. ('71)
What is the Path-Goal Theory? Description
This idea of Robert House holds that a leader can affect the performance,
satisfaction, and motivation of a group by:

Offering rewards for achieving performance goals,

Clarifying paths towards these goals,

Removing obstacles to performance.

However, whether leadership behavior can do so effectively also depends on

situational
factors.
Situational Factors of the Path-Goal Theory

Subordinates' Personality
o
Locus of Control. A participative leader is suitable for
subordinates with internal locus of control; A directive leader is
suitable for subordinates with external locus of control.
o
Self-perceived ability. Subordinates that believe they have a
high ability themselves, do not like directive leadership. Compare:
Attribution Theory
Characteristics of the environment:
o
When a group is working on a task that has a high structure,
directive leadership is redundant and less effective.
o
When a highly formal authority system is in place, directive
leadership can again reduce workers' satisfaction.
o
When subordinates are in a team environment offering great
social support, the supportive leadership style becomes less
necessary.

According to House, there are four different types of leadership styles depending on
the situation.

Four Leadership Styles (House)

1.
Directive Leadership. The leader gives specific guidance of
performance to subordinates. Compare: Theory of Needs
2.
Supportive Leadership. The leader is friendly and shows concern for
the subordinates.
3.
Participative Leadership. The leader consults with subordinates and
considers their suggestions.
4. Achievement-oriented Leadership. The leader sets high goals and expects
subordinates to have high-level performance

Hard

or

Soft

Theory

Management?
of

Explanation

McGregor.

('60).

of

Theory

Explanation

X
of

Theory Z by William Ouchi. ('81)

What is Theory X and Y? Description
Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous Theory X
and Theory Y models in his book 'The Human Side Of Enterprise' (1960).

Theory X
Theory Y
Assumptions
Humans inherently dislike working and will try to avoid it if they can.
People view work as being as natural as play and rest. Humans expend the same
amount of physical and mental effort in their work as in their private lives.
Because people dislike work they have to be coerced or controlled by management
and threatened so they work hard enough.
Provided people are motivated, they will be self-directing to the aims of the
organization. Control and punishment are not the only mechanisms to let people
perform.
Average employees want to be directed.
Job satisfaction is key to engaging employees and ensuring their commitment.
People don't like responsibility.
People learn to accept responsibility and seek responsibility. Average humans, under
the proper conditions, will not only accept, but even naturally seek responsibility.
Average humans are clear and unambiguous and want to feel secure at work.
People are imaginative and creative. Their ingenuity should be used to solve
problems at work.
Application
Shop Floor, Mass Manufacturing. Production workers.
Professional Services, Knowledge Workers. Managers and Professionals.

Conducive to
Large scale efficient operations.
Management of Professionals, Participative Complex Problem Solving.
Management Style
Authoritarian, Hard Management.
Participative, Soft Management.

McGregor sees Theory Y as the preferable model and management method,

however he thought Theory Y was difficult to use in large-scale operations.

Theory Z - Ouchi
In 1981, William Ouchi came up with a variant that combined American and
Japanese management practices together to form Theory Z, having the following
characteristics: long-term employment - collective decision-making - individual
responsibility - slow evaluation & promotion - implicit, informal control with explicit,
formalized measures - moderately specialized career paths - and a holistic concern
for the employee, including family

The

optimal
making
various

organization
style

is

internal

leadership

dependent
and

decision-

(contingent)

external

upon

constraints

( fac tors ). Expla na tion of C ontingenc y The or y.

Contingency Theory is a class of behavioral theory that claims that there is no
best way to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to make decisions. An
organizational / leadership / decision making style that is effective in some
situations, may be not successful in other situations. In other words: The optimal
organization / leadership / decision-making style depends upon various internal
and external constraints (factors).

Contingency Theory factors

Some examples of such constraints (factors) include:

The size of the organization.

How the firm adapts itself to its environment.
Differences among resources and operations activities.
Assumptions of managers about employees.
Strategies.
Technologies being used.
etc.

1. Contingency Theory on the organization

1.
There is no universal way or one best way to manage an organization.
2.
The design of an organization and its subsystems must 'fit' with the
environment.
3.
Effective organizations not only have a proper 'fit' with the environment,
but also between its subsystems.
4.
The needs of an organization are better satisfied when it is properly
designed and the management style is appropriate both to the tasks
undertaken and the nature of the work group.
2. Contingency Theory of leadership
In the Contingency Theory of leadership, the success of the leader is a function of
various factors in the form of subordinate, task, and/or group variables. The
effectiveness of a given pattern of leader behavior is contingent upon the demands
imposed by the situation. These theories stress using different styles of leadership
appropriate to the needs created by different organizational situations. Some of
these theories are:
Contingency Theory (Fiedler): Fiedler's theory is the earliest and
most extensively researched. Fiedler's approach departs from trait and
behavioral models by asserting that group performance is contingent on the
leader's psychological orientation and on three contextual variables: group
atmosphere, task structure, and leader's power position. This theory explains
that group performance is a result of interaction of two factors. These factors
are known as leadership style and situational favorableness. In Fiedler's
model, leadership effectiveness is the result of interaction between the style
of the leader and the characteristics of the environment in which the leader
works.

Situational Theory (Hersey & Blanchard). This theory is an extension

of Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid Model, and Reddin's 3-D
management style theory. This model expanded the notion of relationship
and task dimensions to leadership, and a readiness dimension was added.

Leadership Pipeline (Drotter)

3. Contingency Theory of decision-making

Vroom and Yetton's Decision Participation Contingency Theory or the Normative
Decision Theory: According to this model, the effectiveness of a decision procedure
depends upon a number of aspects of the situation:
The importance of the decision quality and acceptance.

The amount of relevant information possessed by the leader and

subordinates.

The likelihood that subordinates will accept an autocratic decision, or

the likelihood that subordinates will cooperate to make a good decision if they
may participate.

The amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their

alternatives.

Contingency Theory and Situational theory

Contingency Theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumption of
no simple way that is always right. The main difference is that situational theory
focuses more on the behaviors which the leader should use. Given situational factors
(often about follower behavior). Whereas Contingency Theory takes a broader view,
which includes contingent factors about leader capability, but also includes other
variables within the situation.

Analyzing

organizational

leadership

roles.

effectiveness

Explanation

of

and

Competing

Values Framework of Quinn and Rohrbaugh. ('83)

.

What

is

the

Competing

Values

Framework?

Explanation
The Competing Values Framework of Robert Quinn and Rohrbaugh is a theory that
was developed initially from research done on the major indicators of effective
organizations. Based on statistical analyses of a comprehensive list of effectiveness
indicators, Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) discovered two major dimensions
underlying conceptions of effectiveness

Competing Values in Organizational Effectiveness

The first dimension is related to organizational focus, from an internal
emphasis on the well-being and development of people in the organization
towards an external focus on the well-being and development of the
organization itself.

The second dimension differentiates the organizational preference

for structure and represents the contrast between stability and control and
flexibility and change. Together the two dimensions form four quadrants.

The Competing Values Framework got its name because the criteria within the four
models at first seem to carry conflicting messages. Organizations must be adaptable
and flexible, but we want them at the same time to be stable and controlled. A
paradox.
Each quadrant of the framework represents one of four major models of organization
and management theory (Quinn 1988):
1.
Human Relations Model. Places a lot of emphasis on flexibility and
internal focus. It stresses cohesion, morale, and human resources
development as criteria for effectiveness.
2.
Open Systems Model. Emphasizes flexibility and external focus, and
stresses readiness, growth, resource acquisition and external support.
3.
Rational Goal Model. Emphasizes control and an external focus. It
regards planning, goal setting, productivity and efficiency as being effective.
Internal Process Model. Emphasizes control and an internal focus, and stresses
the role of information management, communication, stability and control.

Competing Values in Leadership Roles

Another variant of the Competing Values Framework deals with leadership. Quinn
uses his competing values framework of organizational effectiveness to organize the
literature on leadership. Eight categories of leader behavior, or roles, emerge from
his review of the literature. The figure on the right plots these eight roles onto
the same framework as for the organizational effectiveness.
The resulting model of leadership was derived theoretically and represents "a
hypothetical rather than an empirical statement about the perceptual understructure
of leadership".

Quinn argues that more effective managers have the ability to play multiple, even
competing leadership roles. Managers are expected to play all of these roles. And
they should simultaneously consider and balance the competing demands that are
represented by each set of expectations.
The Competing Values Framework can be used in organizational context. It can be
used as a strategic tool to develop supervision and management programs. It can
also be used to help organizations diagnose their existing and desired cultures.
Furthermore, it can be seen as a tool to examine organizational gaps. Another
function might be to use it as a teaching tool for practicing managers. Or to help
interpret and understand various organizational functions and processes. Another
application is: to help organizational members better understand the similarities and
differences of managerial leadership roles.
Adopting
the

different
situation.

leadership

styles

Explanation

of

depending

on

Situational

Lea der ship M ode l of Bla nc ha rd and Herse y. ('68 )

What is Situational Leadership? Description
The Situational Leadership method from Kenneth Blanchard and Paul Hersey holds
that managers must use different leadership styles depending on the situation. The
model allows you to analyze the needs of the situation you're in, and then use the
most appropriate leadership style. Depending on employees' competences in their
task areas and commitment to their tasks, your leadership style should vary from one
person to another. You may even lead the same person one way sometimes, and
another
way
at
other
times.
Blanchard and Hersey characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of
direction and of support that the leader gives to his or her followers, and so created
a simple matrix (figure).

Leadership Behavior of the Leader

S1 - Telling / Directing - High task focus, low relationship focus leaders define the roles and tasks of the 'follower', and supervise them
closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication
is largely one-way. For people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and
committed. They need direction and supervision to get them started.

S2 - Selling / Coaching - High task focus, high relationship focus leaders still define roles and tasks, but seeks ideas and suggestions from the
follower. Decisions remain the leader's prerogative, but communication is
much more two-way. For people who have some competence but lack
commitment. They need direction and supervision because they are still

relatively inexperienced. They also need support and praise to build their selfesteem, and involvement in decision-making to restore their commitment.

S3 - Participating / Supporting - Low task focus, high relationship

focus - leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and
processes, to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions,
but control is with the follower. For people who have competence, but lack
confidence or motivation. They do not need much direction because of their
skills, but support is necessary to bolster their confidence and motivation.

S4 - Delegating - Low task focus, low relationship focus - leaders are

still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower.
The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved. For people
who have both competence and commitment. They are able and willing to
work on a project by themselves with little supervision or support.
Effective leaders are versatile in being able to move around the matrix according to
the situation, so there is no style that is always right. However, we tend to have a
preferred style, and in applying Situational Leadership you need to know which one
that is for you.

Likewise, the competence and commitment of the follower can also be distinguished
in 4 quadrants.

Development Level of the Follower

D4 - High Competence, High Commitment - Experienced at the job,
and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. May even be more skilled
than the leader.

D3 - High Competence, Variable Commitment - Experienced and

capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the motivation to do it
well / quickly.

D2 - Some Competence, Low Commitment - May have some

relevant skills, but won't be able to do the job without help. The task or the
situation may be new to them.

D1 - Low Competence, High Commitment - Generally lacking the

specific skills required for the job in hand, but has the confidence and / or
motivation to tackle it.

Similar to the leadership styles, the development levels are also situational. A person
could be skilled, confident and motivated for one part of his his job, but could be less
competent for another part of the job.

Blanchard and Hersey said that the Leadership Style (S1 - S4) of the leader must
correspond to the Development level (D1 - D4) of the follower - and it's the leader
who adapts. By adopting the right style to suit the follower's development level, work
gets done, relationships are built up, and most importantly, the follower's
development level will rise to D4, to everyone's benefit.

Steps in Situational Leadership. Process

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Make an overview per employee of his/her tasks

Assess the employee on each task (D1...D4)
Decide on the leadership (management) style per task (S1...S4)
Discuss the situation with the employee
Make a joint plan
Follow-up, check and correct

Strengths

of

the

Situational

Leadership

model.

Leadership

model.

Benefits

Easy to understand
Easy to use

Limitations

of

the

Situational

Disadvantages
Model fails to distinguish between leadership and management. What
is called leadership style is really management style. Compare also:
Leadership Pipeline

Leadership is not primarily about making decisions anyway - it is about

inspiring people to change direction.

Leaders may indeed vary the way they inspire people to change. But
this is when they have already decided on the need to change. Hence
leadership style does not reduce to decision making style.

Focuses too exclusively on what the person in charge does.

Of course both leaders and managers have to behave differently in

different situations. But that is just a trivial fact of life, rather than anything

profound in terms of our basic understanding of what it means to lead or

manage.
Assumptions of Situational Leadership. Conditions
Leaders should adapt their style to follower 'maturity', based on how
ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks (that is, their
competence and motivation).

There are four leadership styles that match the four combinations of
high/low readiness and willingness.

The four styles suggest that leaders should put greater or less focus on
the task in question and/or the relationship between the leader and the
follower.

Presumes that leadership is about how the boss makes decisions.

Book: Paul Hersey, Kenneth H. Blanchard, Dewey E. Johnson - Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading

Leadership

and

Management.

Explanation

of

Seven

Ha bits of S tephe n Cove y. (' 89)

The Seven Habits model of management and leadership guru Stephen
Covey is a theory that is applicable to our personal life, our social life and our
working life. However the Seven Habits framework is highly applicable for leaders
and managers. According to Covey, our paradigms affect how we interact with
others, which in turn affects how they interact with us. Therefore Covey argues that
any effective self-help program must begin with an "inside-out" approach, rather than
looking towards our problems as "being out there" (an outside-in approach). We
must start with examining our own character, paradigms, and motives.

The Seven Habits of Covey

1.
Be proactive. This is the ability to control one's environment, rather
than the opposite, as is so often the case. Managers need to control their
own environment, by using self-determination and the ability to respond to
various circumstances.
2.
Begin with the end in mind. This means that the manager must be
able to see the desired outcome, and to concentrate on activities which help
to achieve that end.

3.
Put first things first. A manager must manage his own person.
Personally. And managers should implement activities which aim to achieve
the second habit. Covey says that habit 2. is the first, or mental creation;
habit 3 is the second, or physical creation.
4.
Think win-win. This is the most important aspect of interpersonal
leadership, because most achievements are based on shared effort.
Therefore the aim needs to be win-win solutions for all.
5.
Seek first to understand and then to be understood. By developing
and maintaining positive relationships through good communications, the
manager is understood by others, and he can understand the subordinates.
6.
Synergize. This is the habit of creative cooperation: the principle that
collaborating towards attaining a purpose often achieves more, than could be
achieved by individuals working independently.
7.
Sharpen the saw. We should learn from our previous experiences.
And we should encourage others to do the same. Covey sees development
as one of the most important aspects for being able to cope with challenges,
and for aspiring towards higher levels of ability.
In his 2004 book: "The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness", Covey
introduces an additional eighth habit:
8.
Find your voice and inspire others to find theirs. Striving towards
"greatness", means to act with integrity as an individual and to help others to
do the same. According to Covey, this habit represents the 3rd dimension of
his model. Greatness is the overlap of:

Personal greatness. Applying the 7 habits in the forms of: vision,

discipline, passion and conscience.

Leadership greatness. Applying the 4 roles of leadership, which are

modeling the 7 habits:
o
Path finding. Creating the blueprint.
o
Aligning. Creating a technically elegant system of work.
o
Empowering. Releasing the talent, energy, and contribution of
people.
o
Modeling. To build trust with others. The heart of effective
leadership.

Organizational greatness. This is greatness turned into a vision,

mission and values. This brings clarity, commitment, translation, synergy, and
enables accountability.
Book: Stephen Covey: Seven Habits of Highly Effective People
Book: Stephen Covey: The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness

Emergenitics: personal profiling

The seven Emergenitic attributes:
Emergenitics is a way of describing people using four thinking attributes and three
Behavior attributes:
Thinking Attributes:

Analytical thinking is logical, rational, objective, factual and skeptical.

Structural thinking is practical, Cautious, predictable, and methodical.

Social thinking is sympathetic, connected, socially aware, and intuitive

about other people.

Conceptual thinking is imaginative, creative, innovative, visionary, and

intuitive about ideas

Behavior Attributes:
Expressiveness is our interest in others and in the world around us. People who
are expressive are reserved, quiet, private and self sufficient. People who are
Expressive like attracting attention. They are outgoing, affectionate and easy to talk
to.
Assertiveness is the energy we invest in communicating our thoughts, beliefs, and
feelings. People who are assertive are easy going, amiable and even passive.
People who are assertive are driving, competitive and even confrontational.
Flexibility is our willingness to accommodate the thoughts and actions of other
people and to meet their needs. People who arte flexible have strong opinions,
prefer defined situation, and can be stubborn. FLEXIBLE people are
accommodating, open to suggestions, and can be indecisive.
Emergenetics leadership:
What analytical brain bring to the table
People with strong preference for analytical thinking can be very good at helping to
define and analyse the problems. They are themselves as straightforward,clear and
purposeful. They must have facts, figures, directions , reasons to approach any task.
In a team situation they say lets check out our decision to see if its feasible to
implement

If we look over the shoulder of someone with an analytical profile, you might see
some thing like this:

1. Analysis
a. Mission?
b. Work break down structure
c. Financial analysis

Cost/benefits

Risk

Profitability

2. Project assignments
a. Change management
b. Roles and responsibilities
c. Success metrics
3. Work the plan
a. Communication
b. Road blocks/critical path
4. Review
a. Six- month efficiency evaluation
b. Retool
What structural brains bring to the table
People with a strong preference for structural thinking can be excellent in
defining the problem and assisting with implements. They see themselves as the
source for making systemic links to determine the scope of the problem. They

organize the components of the problem and the possible situations. In a team
situation they ask, How does this idea apply to our situation?
If you look over the shoulder of someone with a structural profile, yomigh see some
thing like this:

1. Define objectives
2. Develop process map
3. Indentify roles/responsibilities
4. Develop time line/ schedule
5. Establish milestones and checkpoints
6. Make communication plan
7. Determine success measures
8. Identify project control mechanism

What social brain brings to the table:

People with a strong preference for social thinking can be excellent facilitators in the
group process. They regard their interpersonal skills as their strongest contribution,
and they keep the group working harmoniously together they weigh all proposed
solutions equally. Although they may identify the best solution. Tjey may not know
how they did so. In a team situation they ask, what do you think of this idea
People with a strong social preference can be unsurpassed at making aiiances
and recognizing office politics. They know , or can find out , who the players are. If
you look over the shoulder of someone with a social profile, you might see
something with a social profile, you might see some thing like this .

Talk to Mary ASAP

Can we do a survey

CALL ROBB

What can we give out to go with this? Mugs, T-shirts?

Meet clark to discuss--- lay over at airport

What conceptual Brain bring to the table

People with a strong preference for conceptual thinking are usually quite good at
generating ideas and making the quantum leaps necessary to brainstorm and
creatively solve difficult problems. They enjoy he challenge and often plunge into the
problem solving process before considering what direction to take . They focus on
the importance of the outcome, not the details involved in getting there. They don t
mind mistakes. In a team situation they say , lets look at this problem in a different
way,
If you look over the shoulder of someone who is highly conceptual, you may not
even be able to understand what you are likely to see:
>>Vision<<
5 Years out?
{Possibilities for Japan}
**may be rework the master plan**
What Tri- modal or Quadra- modal Brains bring to the table
A multimodal thinker is needed to hold a WEteam together . while these
individuals usually are not in any one attribute, their gift is to recognize the unique
contributions of the other team members and then act as a translator, so the
analytical understands the structural ,and so on.
The ideal WE team also has a combination of different Behavioural
Attributes.people with different behavioral preferences don t just act differently, they
also bring differing degrees of energy to issues involving people (Expressiveness is
about communicating with others ),tasks(Assertiveness is associated with getting
things done ), and adaptability(flexibility has to do with accomadating other points of
view ).
(source :Emergenetics-the ground breaking way to know your personal profile and
achieve success; Author-Geil Browning)