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Preparation for the project can be led by many players but generally comes from the
user/client who identifies the need for building on the basis of quantifiable requirements
for space and budgetary capacity to undertake the activity. A needs assessment often
accompanies this planning activityit can describe existing space use; develop realistic
estimates of requirements, both spatial and technical; and arrive at a space program
around which design activity can develop. For larger projects, a construction manager
or a general contractor may be engaged at this point. See also WBDG Project
Management and Programming.
Once the Pre-design activities are complete, the architect or other prime consultant, in
consultation with his or her team of sub-consultants, may produce initial graphic
suggestions for the project or portions of it. Such suggestions are meant to stimulate
thought and discussion, not necessarily to describe the final outcome. Involvement of
sub-consultants is a critical part of the process at this stage - their individual insights
made at this point can prevent costly changes further along in the process. Gradually a
design emerges which embodies the interests and requirements of all participants while
also meeting the overall area requirements which the project budget will have
established during Pre-Design activities. The resulting Schematic Designs produced at
this stage show site location and organization, general building shape, space allocation,
and an outline specification which makes an initial list of components and systems to be
designed and/or specified for the final result. Depending on the size of the project, it is
often useful to have a cost estimate performed by a professional cost estimator at this
point. For smaller projects, one or more possible builders may perform this service as
part of a preliminary bidding arrangementselection can be made on the basis of an
estimate at this stage. On larger projects, a cost estimate can be part of the selection
process for a builder, assuming other prerequisites like bonding capacity, experience
with the type, and satisfactory references are met.
Design Development enlarges the scale of considerationgreater detail is developed
for all aspects of the buildingthe collaborative process continues with the architect
providing graphic focus for the various contributors. Greater detail is considered for all
aspects of the building. The conclusion of this phase is a detailed design on which all
players agree and may be asked to sign off.
The Development of Contract Documents involves translating the Design
Development information into formats suitable for pricing, permitting, and construction.
No set of contract documents can ever be perfect, but high quality can be achieved by
scrutiny, accountability to the initial program needs by the design team and the client,
along with careful coordination among the technical consultants on the design team.
Decisions continue to be made with the appropriate contributions of all players.
Changes in scopes during this phase will become more expensive once pricing has
begun. Changes to the contract documents invite confusion, errors, and added costs.
Cost estimates by an estimator may be made at this point, prior to or simultaneous with
bidding, in order to assure compliance with the budget and to check the bids. Bids
taken at this point may be used as a basis for selecting a builder.
After the general contractor is selected and during the Construction Phase, the
designers and other members of the team must remain fully involved. Decisions
previously made may require clarification; suppliers' information must be reviewed for
compliance with the Contract Documents; and substitutions must be evaluated.
Contract Documents are never perfectclarifications will be required. If changes affect
the operation of the building, it is especially important that the user/client be involved.
User requirements may change, necessitating changes in the buildingthese changes
require broad consultation among the consultants and sub-consultants, pricing, and
incorporation into the contract documents and the building.
The design team is responsible for assuring that the building meets the requirements of
the Contract Documents, but the building's success at meeting the requirements of the
original program can be assessed by the construction management team or third parties
in a process known as Commissioning. Here the full range of functions in the building
is evaluated and the design and construction team can be called upon to make changes
and adjustments as needed.
After the building is fully operational, it is often useful to conduct a Post-Occupancy
Evaluation to assess how the building meets the original and emerging requirements
for its use. Such information is especially useful when further construction of the same
type is contemplated by the same user. Mistakes can be prevented and successes
repeated.
This summary describes the standard operation of the integrated project team. Such a
model is neither new nor exceptional. But it depends on:
1. clear and continuous communication
2. rigorous attention to detail
3. active collaboration among all team members
adherence to these principles will assure the best result.
Design Objectives Index > Aesthetics > - Engage the Appropriate Language and Elements of
Design
- Engage the Integrated Design Process
- Select Appropriate Design Professionals
- Design Awards
Related Resource Pages
OVERVIEW
The design of buildings requires the integration of many kinds of information into a
synthetic whole. An integrated process, or "whole building" design process, includes
the active and continuing participation of users, code officials, building technologists,
cost consultants, civil engineers, mechanical and electrical engineers, structural
engineers, specifications specialists, and consultants from many specialized fields. The
best buildings result from active, consistent, organized collaboration among all
players. (See the Design Disciplines branch of the WBDG to learn more about the role
construction. No set of contract documents can ever be perfect, but high quality can
be achieved by scrutiny, accountability to the initial program needs by the design
team and the client, along with careful coordination among the technical consultants
on the design team. Decisions continue to be made with the appropriate contributions
of all players. Changes in scopes during this phase will become more expensive once
pricing has begun. Changes to the contract documents invite confusion, errors, and
added costs. Cost estimates by an estimator may be made at this point, prior to or
simultaneous with bidding, in order to assure compliance with the budget and to
check the bids. Bids taken at this point may be used as a basis for selecting a builder.
After the general contractor is selected and during the Construction Phase, the
designers and other members of the team must remain fully involved. Decisions
previously made may require clarification; suppliers' information must be reviewed for
compliance with the Contract Documents; and substitutions must be evaluated.
Contract Documents are never perfectclarifications will be required. If changes affect
the operation of the building, it is especially important that the user/client be
involved. User requirements may change, necessitating changes in the buildingthese
changes require broad consultation among the consultants and sub-consultants,
pricing, and incorporation into the contract documents and the building.
The design team is responsible for assuring that the building meets the requirements
of the Contract Documents, but the building's success at meeting the requirements of
the original program can be assessed by the construction management team or third
parties in a process known as Commissioning. Here the full range of functions in the
building is evaluated and the design and construction team can be called upon to
make changes and adjustments as needed.
After the building is fully operational, it is often useful to conduct a Post-Occupancy
Evaluation to assess how the building meets the original and emerging requirements
for its use. Such information is especially useful when further construction of the same
type is contemplated by the same user. Mistakes can be prevented and successes
repeated.
This summary describes the standard operation of the integrated project team. Such a
model is neither new nor exceptional. But it depends on:
1. clear and continuous communication
2. rigorous attention to detail
3. active collaboration among all team members
adherence to these principles will assure the best result.
the architect as part of his work or, on larger or more complex projects, may be
engaged separately by the owner. They are responsible for the structural, heating,
ventilating and air-conditioning and the power, signal, and illumination aspects of the
project. Each produces his or her own portions of the contract documents and should
be involved in assessing their part of the work for compliance with those documents.
Specialized Consultants should be involved as needed by the special requirements
of the project. These may include specifications writers, materials and component
specialists, sustainability consultants, and technical specialists like kitchen, audiovisual, materials handling, and parking. The size, complexity, and specialization of the
project will suggest the kinds of additional experts who will be needed. Like all
contributors to the integrated design process, they should be involved early enough to
include their suggestions and requirements in the design, not so late that their
contributions must be remedial.
C. Results
The best buildings in history are the result of high degrees of consistency at all levels
of their realization. The simplicity in massing of the Seagram Building by Mies van der
Rohe in New York City, for example, is supported by the building's subtle and spare
details at every level. Design attention is applied to the massing and the drinking
fountains, the site plan, and the door details. Good buildings result from an
appreciation by all involved of the importance of formal consistency throughout the
design.
Select a multi-disciplinary team early in the process, including the building owner,
architects, energy consultants, engineers, proposed tenants, state and local government
officials, construction contractors, commissioning agent, and Operations & Maintenance
(O&M) staff.
Adopt an integrated design approach and educate the project team on goals, costs,
and benefits of the process. Use a front-loaded, research-intensive process to determine
strategies for creating buildings that achieve energy performance goals.
Pre-Design
The conventional design process usually introduces energy-efficient technologies during
design development. However, the greatest opportunity for cost-effective energy
measures occurs earlier in the design process. The pre-design stage is when the team
investigates energy-related design concepts that consider the environment, climate,
building orientation, and other features that will impact performance well into the
future.
Action Items
Have a facilitated charrette that includes addressing energy objectives pertinent to the
design. Identify synergies between design concepts and energy use. Develop a plan and
adopt a method for delivering a top performing energy-efficient building. Determine
requirements needed to start schematic design.
Develop scope of work, project budget, and schedule, which include energy-efficient
strategies and your performance target.
Schematic Design
As the team's ideas are taking form during schematic design, do preliminary simulations
of various energy options and technologies. Compare the results to your energy target
to know which strategies meet your goal.
Action Items
Analyze the site based on how it will affect energy and determine building orientation
that enhances energy performance. Use natural shading features to reduce cooling load.
Consider daylighting to reduce electrical lighting requirement and the air-conditioning load.
These contribute to quality of the space.
Use energy design guidance to select the technologies that help deliver superior
energy performance and indoor environmental quality. Right-size mechanical systems based
on anticipated systems performance and loads, rather than rules of thumb. Ensure
compliance with energy codes and standards during schematic design rather than tweaking
the design later in the process. Enhance code compliance by using the Advanced Building
Guidelines E-Benchmark at Building Design Links.
Include energy expert to review the selected energy strategies and provide preliminary
costs and benefits for various design options. Begin energy analysis of design concepts using
appropriate system design tools. Perform progressive analysis during schematic design to
determine the relative efficiency of energy strategies and make improvements to your design.
Compare estimated energy use to design target using Target Finder. Make
adjustments and integrate energy performance strategies in building design to achieve your
performance target.
Design Development
Refine the project in Design Development and confirm that your energy performance
target can be achieved. Include the energy performance goal in specification language.
Action Items
Include Statement of Energy Design Intent (SEDI) from Target Finder, which shows
the intended energy performance outcome for your design in final construction documents and
bid package.
Specify design team participation during construction to ensure that energy
performance features are incorporated and to help produce a more comprehensive set of asbuilt documents.
Include approval process for change orders to methods and materials prior to
construction, or require design team supervision during construction. Encourage building
owner or designee to hold all parties accountable for achieving your energy performance goal.
Document construction methods associated with specific energy-efficient products and
materials by including manufacturers' literature and contact information for local technical
reps. Include design team's summaries of energy-efficient features in specifications and
drawings. Explain anticipated functions of features to assist construction team in
understanding desired outcome.
Select qualified manufacturers and do not accept unapproved alternatives for
installing/constructing key energy-efficient features/systems. Be specific with explanations to
all manufacturers so that proposals are compatible with one another.
Seek incentives for meeting your energy performance goal. Local utility companies may
offer incentives to offset costs for the design team/owner to explore options that achieve the
desired energy performance target.
Communicate your superior energy design intent by placing the "Designed To Earn
The ENERGY STAR" graphic on final drawings that achieve 75 or better in Target Finder.
Commissioning is the process of verifying that a new building functions as intended and
communicating the intended performance to the building management team. This usually occurs
when the building is turned over for occupancy. In practice, commissioning costs aren't included
in design fees and often compete with other activities. As a result, it is seldom pursued properly. It
is critical that the building is commissioned to ensure that energy performance and operational
goals are met.
Action Items
Communicate your energy performance goal during commissioning to ensure that the
design target is met. Encourage energy-use tracking that will allow performance comparisons
to be made over time.
Hire experts that specialize in building commissioning. Include the commissioning firm
as part of the design team early in the project.
Finalize and transfer a set technical documents including manufacturers' literature for
systems and components. Supplement technical literature with summaries of intended
operation. Provide additional explanation for innovative design features.
Communicate the energy performance target (of your design) to the M&V team and
ensure they understand specific performance expectations for the new building.
Document how sustained energy performance compares to the design intent and best
practices from the project design.
Use EPA's Web-based Portfolio Manager, once the building has been operating for 12
months, to track and rate annual energy performance. To check a building's eligibility for
ENERGY STAR, see "Evaluate Building Performance" on the ENERGY STAR Web site.
The selection of the design team should be undertaken as early in the life of a project
as possible. Every design and construction project is unique, with a variety of services
required to transform the generalized concept into reality. A qualified design
professional can guide an owner through the intricacies of the design process; standard
phases include pre-design, concept design, design development, construction
documentation, bidding and negotiations, and construction. Building design
professionals can assist in defining the project at the outset in terms that provide
meaningful guidance for design. Pre-design services might include site selection,
existing facilities surveys, environmental studies and reports, feasibility and
programming studies. Design services, in addition to the standards phases of design,
might include Building Information Modeling, LEED certification, and commissioning. It
is important to begin the process of selecting design professionals with a consideration
of delivery method, and site, programmatic, schedule, and budget issues. These factors
contribute to defining the scope of work for projects, which in turn inform the selection
of appropriate design professionals and delivery team composition.
A. Selecting Design Professionals
When a building project is initiated by an agency representing the public, the selection
of a qualified building professional becomes a reflection of how tax dollars will be spent.
When selecting a design professional, a public owner's primary concerns are to get the
best available design services and outcome, and to conduct a fair and equitable
selection process. Once that selection has been made, it is then the responsibility of the
agency to negotiate the best value for those services; but first, the selection panel
should ensure the selection of the best available firm for the project. A building project
is a long-term investment, and the realized, built project will be a testament to how well
thought-out the selection process is.
For public projects, there are two main methods for selecting design professionals:
Qualifications-Based Selection and Design Competitions. In either method, the
individuals responsible for selecting the design professional should have an
understanding of the needs of a specific project and should be able to evaluate the
achievements of the potential firms. Selection panels evaluate firms on criteria such as
previous experience, past performance, portfolio review, awards and recognitions, level
of commitment to project, and overall customer service.
To ensure the selection panel will make a well informed choice, it is important that any
procurement for professional design services take into consideration:
The goals of the project. Solicitations for qualifications and requests for
proposals should be specific about the goals and parameters of the project, the
anticipated scope of work, and any specialty disciplines that will be required. Be
clear about what will be expected of the design team and what evaluation
factors will be used to select them.
The design team's suitability for the project. This does not mean an AE must
have done the same type of project, but that his/her experience demonstrates a
competency in projects of similar complexity or context.
Who is in charge. Complex needs may be addressed by a complex team; make
sure you know who is in charge and how the team is structured.
Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS)
Qualifications-Based Selection - When a building project is initiated by an agency
representing the public, the selection of a qualified building professional becomes even
more important. When selecting a design professional, a public owner's primary
concerns are to get the best available design services, and conduct a fair and equitable
selection process. Federal project solicitations are announced in FedBizOpps.gov, a
website that lists government-wide notices for all types of services.
Recognizing the need for a qualifications-based approach to procuring design services,
the U.S. Congress established as federal law in 1972 (P.L. 92-582), commonly referred
to as the "Brooks Act", that requires that architects and engineers be selected for
projects on the basis of their qualifications subject to negotiation of fair and reasonable
compensation. Selection panel members must be highly qualified professionals with
experience in design and construction related fields. Most states and numerous local
jurisdictions also use Brooks Act procedures.
Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS) usually involve the following steps:
1. The owner prepares a description of the project to be built or problem to be
solved, referred to as a preliminary scope of services.
2. The owner invites design professionals to submit statements of qualifications for
the project at hand.
3. Statements of qualifications are evaluated and several individuals or firms are
selected, or "short-listed," for further consideration.
4. The individuals or firms are then interviewed and ranked according to an
evaluative scoring system.
Design Competitions
A design competition is a method of awarding a design contract based on design
excellence and is a permitted selection method allowed by FAR 36.602-1b. When the
use of a design competition is approved by the agency head or designee, the agency
may evaluate firms based on their conceptual design of a project. Design competitions
are typically used for significant Federal projects, such as monuments or those of
unusual national significance. Since selection of the design firm takes longer when a
competition is used as the selection method, there must be sufficient time in the project
schedule to produce and evaluate conceptual designs. There must also be a significant
benefit to the project to use a competition as this selection vehicle also costs more.
There are two types of federal design competitions:
Open design competitions are open to all design professionals. These are usually
design teams headed by an architectural firm with a registered architect at the
helm. An example of this is the World War II Memorial Competition, won by
Freidrich St. Florian.
Invited design competitions are competitions where a selected group of design
professionals, usually highly regarded or recognized architects, are invited to
submit a design on a project. This is often the last stage of a qualificationsbased selection process. An example of this is the proposed Federal Courthouse
in Rockford, IL, won by Koetter Kim Architects.
Project coordination/communication
RFIs
Change order management
Conflict resolution
Inspections
Submittal reviews
Schedules
Payments
Building Commissioning
Commissioning (Cx) is a systematic process of ensuring that building systems perform
interactively according to the design intent and the owner's operational needs. This is
achieved by documenting the owner's requirements and assuring those requirements
are met throughout the entire delivery process. This involves actual verification of
systems performance and integration; comprehensive operation and maintenance
(O&M) documentation; and training of the operating personnel. Building Commissioning
procedures may include: Commissioning Plans, Total Building Commissioning, Systems
Commissioning, Pre-installation Performance Testing/Commissioning, ReCommissioning, Retro-Commissioning, and LEED Certification.
Related Resource Pages
INTRODUCTION
Accurately forecasting the cost of future projects is vital to the survival of any business
or organization contemplating future construction. Cost estimators develop the cost
information that business owners or managers, professional design team members, and
DESCRIPTION
common sense when preparing estimates. Proper use of judgment may mean
the difference between profit and loss for the company or client.
Attitude: Estimators should approach each estimate with a professional attitude
and examine in thorough detail all areas of the work. They will set aside specific
times each day for entry of estimate quantities and data without interruption.
Total mental concentration is a basic requirement for preparing accurate cost
estimates.
Thoroughness: An estimator will allow enough time to research and become
familiar with the background and details of the project and then promptly
complete the quantity survey. They will review the various aspects of the project
with the other disciplines involved. The estimator with the most thorough
knowledge of a project best serves the owner and project team, and has the
best competitive advantage when preparing a bid.
Awareness: The estimator should firstly consider the project scope and the
level of effort and resources needed to complete the task ahead; the
organization's financial capability, staff, and plant capacity (if working as an
estimator for a construction company) to complete the project.
Consider the time allotted for the construction of the project in
coordination with the owner's schedule needs.
Examine the general and special conditions of the contract and
determine the effect these requirements have on indirect costs.
Consider alternate methods of construction for the projects.
Review all sections of the drawings and division specifications to
ascertain an accurate perspective of the total project scope, level of
design discipline coordination, adequacy of details, and project
constructability.
Make other members of the project team aware of any problems with
the project documents.
Communicate and coordinate information to other project team
members in a timely manner.
Uniformity: The estimator should develop a good system of estimating forms
and procedures that exactly meet the requirements of the project, and that is
understood and accessible by all team members. This system should provide the
ability to define material, labor hour and equipment hour quantities required for
the project. Material, labor, and equipment unit costs are then applied to the
quantities as developed in the quantity survey. Apply amounts for overhead and
profit, escalation, and contingency in the final summaries.
Consistency: Use methods for quantity surveys that are in logical order and
consistent with industry standard classification systems such as the UniFormat
or CSI MasterFormat systems. These methods also must meet the specific
need of the company or client. Use of consistent methods allows several
estimators to complete various parts of the quantity survey, or be continued
later by another estimator. Consistency also aids the identification of cost
increases and decreases in certain areas as the project progresses through the
design stages. Combine these surveys into the final account summaries.
Verification: The method and logic employed in the quantity survey must be in
a form, which can provide independent method of proof of the accuracy of any
portion of the survey.
Documentation: Document all portions of the estimate in a logical, consistent,
and legible manner. Estimators and other personnel may need to review the
original estimate when the specific details are vague. The documentation must
be clear and logical or it will be of little valve to the reader. Such instances may
occur in change order preparation, settlements of claims, and review of past
estimates as preparation for new estimates on similar projects.
Evaluation: When the estimate involves the use of bids from subcontractors,
check the bids for scope and responsiveness to the project. Investigate the past
performance records of subcontractors submitting bids. Determine the level of
competence and quality of performance.
Labor Hours: The detailed application of labor hours to a quantity is primary in
governing the accuracy and sufficiency of an estimate. The accuracy of the
project's schedule and work force requirements are dependent on the evaluation
and definition of the hours. The combined costs for worker's compensation,
unemployment insurance and social security taxes are significant factors in the
project costs. The most accurate method for including these costs is to define
labor hours and wage rates; then apply percentages to the labor costs.
Valve Engineering: Structure the estimate to aid in researching and
developing alternative methods that will result in cost optimization. These
alternative methods can include different construction methodology,
replacement materials, etc. Using the same level of detail in both the value
engineering studies and the base estimate is extremely important. This provides
a more precise comparison of costs for proposed alternate methods.
Final Summaries: Provide methods for listing and calculating indirect costs.
Project scope governs the costs of overhead items such as insurance, home
office plant, and administrative personnel. Determine these costs in a manner
consistent with quantity survey applications. Consider other work in progress,
and/or owner occupancy of existing space that may have a bearing on projected
overhead costs. Determine amounts for performance bonding, profits,
escalation, and contingencies.
Analysis:
than the MasterFormat system, which allows the design team to easily and quickly
evaluate alternative building systems and assemblies in order to make informed
alternatives analysis decisions to advance the design progress. The Level 2 estimate is
based on the previous level of information available at Level 1, in addition to more
developed schematic design criteria such as a detailed building program, schematic
drawings, sketches, renderings, diagrams, conceptual plans, elevations, sections and
preliminary specifications. Information is typically supplemented with descriptions of soil
and geotechnical conditions, utility requirements, foundation requirements, construction
type/size determinations, and any other information that may have an impact on the
estimated construction cost.
Design Development
Estimates prepared at Level 3 are used to verify budget conformance as the scope and
design are finalized and final materials are selected. Information required for this level
typically includes not less than 25% complete drawings showing floor plans, elevations,
sections, typical details, preliminary schedules (finishes, partitions, doors, and hardware
etc.), engineering design criteria, system single line diagrams, equipment layouts, and
outline specifications.
The Level 3 estimate provides a greater amount of accuracy, made possible by better
defined and detailed design documentation. Estimates at this phase may be used for
value engineering applications before the completion of specifications and design
drawings.
Level 4 - Construction Documents
Level 4 estimates are used to confirm funding allocations, to again verify the
construction cost as design is being completed, for assessment of potential value
engineering opportunities before publication of the final project design documentation
for bids, and to identify any possible "design creep" items, and their costs, caused by
modifications during the completion of the construction documents. This final
construction document cost estimate will be used to evaluate the subcontract pricing
during the bid phase. Level 4 estimates are typically based on construction documents
not less than 90% complete.
Level 5 - Bid Phase
The purpose of this level estimate is to develop probable costs in the preparation and
submittal of bids for contract with an Owner. In the traditional "design-bid-build"
delivery system, this would be with 100% completed and coordinated documents. The
Level 5 estimate will be used to evaluate sub-contractor bids and change orders during
the construction process.
In other delivery systems, becoming more widely used, such as design-build or
guaranteed maximum price, the bid could actually be prepared at an earlier level, often
Level 3 or Level 4. In such an instance estimates are prepared as previously described
along with progressive estimates as the design is completed. It should be stressed that
when preparing a bid at a prior estimate level, it is very important to include a complete
and thorough "Scope of Estimate" statement that would state clearly such items
assumptions, allowances, documents used for the estimate, and contingency amounts
included.
For a discussion of project delivery systems.
the price variations and the timing of the buying cycle. Material prices may be affected
by:
purchase at a peak or slack time of the year for the manufacturer
material availability
the size of the order
the delivery timeframe requirement
physical requirements for delivery, such as distance, road size, or site access
payment terms and history on previous purchases
sole-source items
exchange rates (if the material will be imported into the U.S.)
Equipment Costs: Equipment rates depend on the project conditions to determine the
correct size or capacity of equipment required to perform the work. When interfacing
with other equipment, cycle times and equipment capacity control the costs on the
project. Costs will also differ if the equipment is owned by the contractor as opposed to
rented.
Subcontractor Quotes: A subcontractor quote, like the general estimate, contains
labor, material, equipment, indirect costs, and profit. It is dependent upon having the
quantities, labor hours, hourly rate, etc., prepared in a reliable manner just like any
other part of an estimate. The amount of the subcontractor quote is also dependent
upon the payment terms of the contract, and previous payment history between the
subcontractor and general contractor. Bonding costs should also be considered.
Indirect Costs: Indirect costs consist of labor, material, and equipment items required
to support the overall project.
For the owner: design fees, permits, land acquisition costs, legal fees,
administration costs, etc.
For the contractor and subcontractor: mobilization, staffing, on-site job office,
temporary construction, temporary heat/cooling, and temporary utilities,
equipment, small tools and consumables, etc.
Profit Amount: Apply appropriate or contracted profit rate uniformly to all contractors
and to original bid and change orders.
EMERGING ISSUES
to encourage, even implicitly force, architects to limit activities to design. For example,
"construction supervision" became "construction observation," moving the architect
further away from the risks associated with construction activities.
According to some industry analysts, such as Carl Sapers, the architect's role has been
further limited by the idea that buildings are commodities, consisting of assemblies of
standard materials and systems best understood by their suppliers and constructors.
New forms of project delivery, including "design/build", "bridging", and "construction
management", come out of a belief that architects are no longer able to stay abreast of
complex information in order to lead the design process on the owner's behalf. (Carl
Sapers, "Toward Architectural Practice in the 21st Century," in Harvard Design
Magazine, Fall 2003/Winter 2004)
However, this standardized approach to efficient building design is not necessarily
synonymous with the requirements for whole building design. Integrated, highperformance design requires both efficiency and innovation. It requires a design process
in which the users, owners, and project participants are all integral team members.
The Composite Master Builder
With whole building design, the project team can be guided once again by a collective
vision. This structure, along with the process by which the design team works together,
has been termed by Bill Reed as the "Composite Master Builder". The term recasts the
historical single Master Builder as a diverse group of professionals working together
towards a common end. The intention is to bring all of the specialists together, allowing
them to function as if they were one mind. The process avoids, as Mario Salvadori says,
the "reciprocal ignorance" of the specialists in the design and building field.
The cast of specialists is potentially quite large, and depending on the complexity of the
project, can include:
site professionals, such as planners, civil and environmental engineers, and
landscape architects;
design team members such as programmers, architects, and interior designers;
building systems experts, such as structural, mechanical, fire protection, and
building science and performance engineers;
construction professionals, including cost estimators, project managers,
tradespeople, and craftspeople;
workshop facilitation, is not yet common. However, critical skills are needed to assume
this role, which was addressed in a recent article in Environmental Building News.
Current practitioners of integrated design, such as Terry Brennan of Camroden
Associates, observe that architects have the intention to become cooperative but lack
the skills. "The lead designer must be skilled in nurturing and giving form to the
collective vision, rather than expressing his or her own vision. Not all architects are
comfortable with this role, which is more akin to that of a midwife than to that of an
individual artist." (EBN, November 2004, "Integrated Design" feature article)
In daily practice, early and regular, structured interaction of the "Composite Master
Builder," is critical to establishing a project vision and maintaining momentum
throughout the design and construction process. Activities might include charrettes,
workshops, peer review, and post-occupancy review.
Until recently, most building codes have been prescriptive, effectively casting design
professionals in the role of negotiators between the owner's ideas and the realities of
codes. High-performance, integrated building design recently started leading design
teams away from this "just barely legal" approach. As a tool to aid in this process, the
new performance-based building codes give the design team more flexibility in meeting
requirements.
1. List of Codes
The international Code Council (ICC) was formed from the joining of publishers of
National and Standard Building Codes, Building Officials and Code Administrators
International, the Southern Building Code Congress International, and the International
Conference of Building Officials. The result of their merging was the International Code
Seriespart of the U.S.'s first unified comprehensive and coordinated building codes.
A. U.S. Code Organizations:
International Code Council (ICC)
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), member of ICC
Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), member of ICC
International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
B. Codes:
Americans with Disabilities Act Guidelines (ADAAG)
CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code
International Code Series:
International Building Code (IBC)
International Energy Conservation Code (IECC)
International Fire Code (IFC)
International Fuel Gas Code (IFGC)
International Mechanical Code (IMC)
International Plumbing Code (IPC)
International Property Maintenance Code (IPMC)
International Residential Code (IRC)
National Building Code (BOCA NBC)
National Fire Protection Association codes (NFPA)
National Electric Codes (NEC)
Uniform Building Code (UBC)
Professional Associations
Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ASCA)
The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS)
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB)
National Architectural Accrediting Board, Inc. (NAAB)
Related Organizations
Architecture Research Institute, Inc.
Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA)
Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA)
Once the facility thermal issues are identified, the MER will be faced with application
decisions to find appropriate, constructible, controllable, affordable, and maintainable
HVAC&R solutions. These solutions must be integrated and coordinated with parallel
design and planning activities of fellow design team members. While not totally
encompassing, the following discipline considerations need fundamental attention:
Architectural Interaction:
Impacts By
Impacts To
Location of equipment
distribution devices
Impacts To
Seismic criteria
Civil Engineering Interaction:
Impacts By
Impacts To
Impacts To
Layout of design
Location of electrical
infrastructure: switchboards, panels,
feeders, etc.
Impacts To
Location of plumbing
infrastructure: equipment, piping, etc.
Impacts To
Location of duct, pipe, and air
distribution
EMERGING ISSUES
HVAC systems have increased in complexity over the years. While the fundamentals
track to the basics developed by the pioneers in the early 20th century, the MER has
many more collateral design issues and liability concerns to consider today.
A. Energy
The energy crisis of the 1970s initiated a new focus on energy efficiency and shift to
part-load design dynamics. Energy wasteful solutions have become obsolete. Designing
systems with a peak load only perspective has become obsolete. Managing peak loads
to reduce peak energy demand has become essential. The MER must understand the
impacts of equipment part-load performance and overall, integrated system
performance.
Energy codes and standards have aggressively forced equipment manufacturers to
improve the efficiency of equipment and integrated systems. Renewable energy
solutions have become, for some applications, economically feasible considerations.
Owners have become total ownership cost savvy and understand the bottom line impact
of energy budgets and energy consumption profiles. Dependence on fossil fuel based
energy solutions is becoming a concern. The MER must recognize the impact of the
energy issue and respond to energy efficient and renewable solutions.
B. Energy Modeling
Energy modeling is the process of using scientific methods and analytical tools to
estimate the energy consumption patterns of a given facility, constructed of given
materials, located in a given climate zone and operated according to given schedules.
These tools and methods range from simple hand calculations and spreadsheets to the
most sophisticated software packages designed to consider numerous building
configurations, denote multiple zones, model multiple systems with many varied hours
of operation, and integrate with/to Building Information Models.
Energy modeling should be utilized to help integrate and optimize a building's energy
consuming systems' performance over the expected life cycle of the facility. Those
systems include, but are not necessarily limited to, the building envelope, HVAC&R
systems, area lighting, water heating, pumping, elevators and personnel transportation
devices, process and plug type power loads. Plug type loads include items such as task
lights, computers, space heaters, appliances, TVs, etc.
Energy modeling may also be required if it becomes necessary to value engineer a
project after the design phase is complete. Simple substitutions of less costly materials,
products, equipment, or systems at this stage of a highly integrated building design
may have serious and profound negative effects on the building's future energy and
environmental performance if not properly analyzed prior to acceptance.
During the programming and/or schematic design phases the HVAC&R engineer should
be prepared to assist the architectural design professional and Owner in optimizing a
building's envelope and orientation design long before HVAC&R system selections and
equipment alternatives are considered. Simple shoe box type models considering the
buildings basic mass and scale may be quickly setup at this phase of design and zones
with similar thermal characteristics may be assigned within the building. Consideration
should be given to the building envelope materials (exterior wall cladding, wall
insulation, roof materials and insulation, fenestration materials), orientation, cost of
materials, and local climate. During this phase, a baseline model should be created with
which to compare any alternative or proposed designs. The baseline model may be a
code required minimum building, a building similar to one that the Owner is moving out
of, or a building similar to one that the Owner typically constructs.
Moisture Control
Moisture control has become a significant liability issue for the MER. A very negative
trend has been developing in the industry recently whereby buildings are making
occupants sick due to growth of mold. There is no one reason to explain why such a
proliferation of mold contamination cases has blossomed, but there are some
fundamental factors that the MER must keep in perspective while designing a facility,
such as:
All water generation sources inside the facility need to be understood and
minimized.
Construction of the building envelope must be properly applied to the climate
zone in question. The relationship of vapor retarders and air barriers needs to be
correctly understood.
All possible relative building air pressure relationships (internal and external)
need to be understood to avoid bringing undesirable, untreated moisture into
the facility.
D. Ventilation and Dedicated Outside Air Systems (DOAS)
Application of ASHRAE Standard 62.1 may create some difficult design challenges for
the MER. The correct outside air ventilation requirements for a given space/zone/facility
layout may very easily exceed the summation of the simple people and area factor
prescribed ventilation rates when ventilation effectiveness is taken into account. When
multiple spaces are included into the same zone, calculations must be performed to
identify the correct ventilation rate that ensures adequate distribution to all spaces and
zones for all operating conditions. Depending on the zoning configuration, the multiple
space calculation corrections can increase the minimum required outside air quantity.
The utilization of excessive outside air will have a significant impact on cooling/heating
loads and the sizing/selection of equipment and plant solutions. Additionally, depending
on the climate zone in question, an undesirable high quantity of moisture could be
coming into the building. As latent cooling requirements increase, sensible heat ratios
start to decrease. As sensible heat ratios drop, the proper application of equipment to
maintain space temperature and humidity becomes problematic.
The increased outside air quantities also impact the minimum setting on variable
volume terminal units. It is conceivable that the terminal unit minimums could be so
high that the need for constant reheat may be required and the benefit of having the all
air VAV system becomes an energy liability.
DOAS systems provide a creative solution that addresses multiple issues. For example:
The DOAS approach allows the outside air latent load to be decoupled from the
space sensible load. The outside air path can be conditioned based on dew point
control to deliver neutral or cold air to a parallel space sensible cooling system.
Space temperature can then independently be controlled by the sensible cooling
system.
The DOAS air path is 100% outside air, not mixed, and can be delivered at the
prescribed quantity directly to the space based on the people and area factor
ventilation rates. Multiple space calculations do not need to be considered.
Since no mixing is involved, ventilation rate delivery to the space/zone can
actually be verified and continuously monitored.
The new requirement in ASHRAE Standard 62.1 that requires occupied spaces
be held below 65% relative humidity now becomes achievable at part-load
cooling conditions.
The problems encountered with scroll compressor DX VAV units cycling off when
leaving air temperature is satisfied and raw outside air is pulled across a deactive coil, are minimized. Additionally, the phenomena of moisture on the coil
and in the drain pan being re-evaporated back into the unconditioned air path
can be eliminated.
Building Information Modeling (BIM)
BIM is the concept of using truly intelligent 3D modeling software to create optimized,
efficient, and environmentally friendly building designs. The concept has been around
since the advent of the first computer-aided drafting (CAD) system. However, the
industry is still a decade or more away from having commercially available software that
integrates the needs of every design and construction discipline as well as the
ownership, operation, and maintenance needs of the building owner throughout the
useful life of a facility.
For example, a complete BIM solution would allow the Architect to create an intelligent
3D model of a building, its site and location. That model would include the aesthetic,
physical, and thermal properties of each component as well as specification and cost
data. Then the Civil Engineer would use a software interface to allow the design of the
site and analysis of all utilities and drainage systems involved. Similarly, the Structural
Engineer's software would allow him to use the characteristics from the Architect's
model to size structural members and properly reinforce the structure based on each
component's physical characteristics and the project's geographic location. The MER
would interface with the Architect's model to seamlessly generate Energy Models and
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of the building's envelope and energy consuming systems, and
so on for all other disciplines involved. Finally, after all design is complete, the original
modeling software would compile the data from each discipline and generate a BIM and
a set of digital Construction Documents for use to construct the facility.
Use of the BIM would continue into the bidding phase by interface with a contractor's
cost estimating, scheduling, and project management software and manufacturers'
material, fabrication, and cost databases to generate optimized cost estimates and
construction schedules. During construction, the model would be continually updated to
as-built conditions including integration of manufacturers' complete operations and
maintenance data and instructions. At completion of construction the Building
Information Model would be turned over to the Owner for interface with facility
management software to optimize the operation and maintenance of the facility for the
duration of its life.
F. Commissioning
See Building Commissioning.
G. Performance-Based Building Codes
See Fire Protection Engineering in the Design Disciplines section for a discussion of
Performance-Based Building Codes.
H. Acoustics
The fundamentals of equipment sound power levels, transmission paths, and resulting
sound pressure readings go beyond the application and understanding of basic
thermodynamics. The MER should have sufficient understanding of acoustics to be able
to benchmark the sound quality of the equipment applied as the design solution and
attenuate sound paths accordingly to the acoustical criteria for the occupied spaces.
While acoustical design techniques really haven't changed, the issuance of ANSI 12.602002 has changed the integrated design dynamic. A standard of care document is now
in print that details sound quality features for school environments. Successful
compliance with this new standard will require a concentrated coordination effort
between mechanical and general construction interest. All sound transmission paths
(discharge, radiated, breakout, etc.) must be analyzed to show anticipated space sound
pressure based on equipment selection sound power source energy. Equipment
locations, equipment operating points, transmission path construction, end room
reflectance, and resulting sound pressure are all variables that the MER needs to
understand and manipulate.
I. High Density Data Servers
Facilities are becoming "smarter" and fully networked. This high-tech trend has created
a new challenge for the MER. Communication and data storage servers are adding
significant sensible cooling loads to the indoor environment. As server technology
improves to provide better speed and capacity, the sensible heat rejection load
component keeps rising. Recent studies show the heat rejection densities for server
equipment doubling, maybe even tripling, in just the next five year window. Rarely has
the MER been faced with a commercial design challenge wherein the HVAC
infrastructure may be obsolete so quickly. High density loads, hot/cold aisles, and
phased capacity methodology are new issues that the MER will have to address. See
Information Technologies Engineering.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
IAQ is a broad issue that requires a total team stewardship; it is not just an HVAC&R
issue. Addressing IAQ issues requires a holistic, integrated response from the owner,
the entire design team, and the operation/maintenance team. Occupant discomfort and
building related illness are frequent complaints that owners must respond to. Discomfort
factors can include: temperature, humidity, drafts, indoor pollutants, biological agents,
and non-biological particles and fibers. Building related illnesses can include
hypersensitivity, pneumonitis, and Legionnaire's disease. Common health complaints
can include eye/nose/throat irritation, headaches, fatigue and lethargy, upper
respiratory symptoms, and skin irritation and rashes. See Indoor Air Quality and Mold
Prevention of the Building Envelope.
The MER should be cognizant of the following issues:
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) pose a source challenge based on the variety
of source opportunities and possible chemical introductions to the building.
Sources can include: construction materials, furnishings, cleaning products,
copiers/printers, environmental tobacco smoke, people, personal hygiene
products, air fresheners, and outdoor air. Consideration should be given to
elimination, substitution, or containment of VOC generation sources.
Effective temperature and humidity control are achievable with the application of
appropriate systems, effective air distribution, and proper control sequences.
Humidity levels can negatively impact mucous membranes (too low) and upper
respiratory tracts (too high). The MER should also consider that high humidity
levels support the growth of mold and bacteria. An interesting new provision in
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 is the addition of a maximum humidity level of 65% for
occupied spaces.
The design of air systems must factor in the possible spread of airborne
infectious agents, such as viruses and bacteria, generated by the occupants
inside the building. As part of an appropriate risk management analysis,
infrastructure solutions such as extent of filtration, UV light treatment,
ventilation effectiveness, air changes, and building pressure control need to be
investigated.
The building or systems within it may be sources of infectious agents such as
fungus or bacteria. These sources can contribute to significant invasive diseases
such as aspergillosis, legionellosis, and histoplasmososis. Minimizing the
introduction of moisture into the building or ventilation system is critical to the
mitigation of these deadly diseases.
The growth and support of non-infectious biological agents (fungus, bacteria,
dander, and allergens) needs to be minimized. Locations of outside air ducts
need to be optimized with site dynamics. Sources of moisture generation and
intrusion need to be eliminated. Maintaining filtration and proper operation of
equipment become critical factors.
The "Green Building" movement has brought the MER to the forefront within the
building design team by emphasizing skills in Building Information and Energy Modeling.
The specialized knowledge of the MER is critically important to the success of the highperformance project as IAQ, energy, acoustical quality, building security/safety, and
environmental perspectives are constantly evaluated.
Specifications
With the release of MasterFormat 2004 Edition, the A/E community, constructors,
manufacturers, and owners have an entirely new organizational structure for preparing
project manual content. The old Division 1-16 specification system has been completely
replaced by a system that has 2 main Groups, 5 Subgroups, and 50 total Divisions.
The MER is significantly impacted by this change as the familiar Division 15 - Mechanical
does not exist anymore. The same can be said for the old Division 16 - Electrical.
Plumbing, mechanical, and electrical systems for facilities have been organized into a
new Group titled Specifications and a new Subgroup titled Facility Services. An excerpt
from MasterFormat 2004 Edition showing the facility oriented content is organized as
follows:
Facility Services Subgroup:
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division
Division 29 - (Future)
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
(Future)
Fire Protection
Plumbing
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
(Future)
Integrated Automation
Electrical
Communications
Electronic Safety and Security
This resource page examines both a description of a Building Information Model (BIM)
as well as the collaborative effort currently underway to develop a National BIM
Standard.
A BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As
such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a
reliable basis for decisions during its life-cycle from inception onward.
A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of
the life-cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to
support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. The BIM is a shared digital
representation founded on open standards for interoperability.
Some have identified BIM as only 3D modeling and visualization. While partially true,
this description is limiting. A more useful concept is that a BIM should access all
pertinent graphic and non-graphic information about a facility as an integrated resource.
A primary goal is to eliminate re-gathering or reformatting of facility information; which
is wasteful. BIM standards have many objectives but one of the most important is to
improve business functioning so that collection, use and maintenance of facility
information is a part of doing business by the authoritative source and not a separate
activity.
DESCRIPTION
This description contains two sections. The first section describes desirable BIM
characteristics and the second section describes the effort underway to develop a
standard for information sharing that will help weave all stakeholders into a common
fabric.
Section 1 - Building Information Model Ideals
The acronym "BIM," is historically linked in the minds of many to 3-dimensional and
now 4 (time) and 5 (cost) dimensional virtual modeling of buildings. BIM, however, has
the capability and even the responsibility to be much more.
"Building" in this usage is a noun referring to the structure more than the process and
accordingly, current BIM examples tend to be virtual models of individual or small
clusters of buildings executed in proprietary software for the purpose of supporting the
design, detailing and construction phases of the lifecycle. Used within this scope, BIM
speaks primarily to architects, architectural engineers, specifiers, estimators, scientists
interested in performance modeling, constructors and construction vendors, computer
application vendors interested in this business space, and owners as they participate in
the new-building development process. The future of BIM modeling is to expand the
information model to include more of the lifecycle phases (ie: real property commerce,
maintenance and operations, environmental simulation, etc.), to standardize lifecycle
process definitions and associated exchanges of information, and to standardize
information content so that meanings and granularity are clear and consistent. This
expanded scope definition will make BIM useful to a wider community including, for
example, real property managers, appraisers, brokers, mortgage bankers, facility
assessors, facility managers, maintenance and operations engineers, safety and security
personnel as incident responders, landscape architects, infrastructure engineers and
operators, and others outside the business verticals associated with new building design
and construction.
Although BIM applications and practices in current use are vastly superior to manual
and 2D-only CAD methodologies, current usage of BIM technologies and techniques
must be improved further. Currently, processes and content are locally negotiated on a
project-by-project basis and data sets (i.e.: models) are not necessarily capable of
being used for different purposes through unassisted machine-to-machine and
application-to-application exchanges. To realize needed end-to-end efficiencies in the
capital facilities industry these are the characteristics that are needed in BIM methods.
Ironically, many BIM applications are already capable of supporting standardized
interoperable processes and content if they existed. But in the absence of standards and
associated best practice definitions, this support is only utilized on an ad-hoc, projectby-project basis and often is re-negotiated and/or recreated for each services contract
and/or project.
It is true that associating BIM with the development and use of 3D virtual building
modeling techniques and technologies can yield very productive results. However, when
used in this context, BIM tends to be focused on data and technology standards during
design and construction and may not fully realize the potential for information-based,
interoperable business processes related to "building" (the verb).
Section 2 - Implementing BIM - The National BIM Standard
The work of the National BIM Standard Committee (NBIMS), a committee of the
National Institute for Building Sciences (NIBS), is to knit together the broadest and
deepest constituency ever assembled for the purpose of addressing the losses and
limitations associated with errors and inefficiencies in the building supply chain.
The current NBIMS Charter signatories (a list of which can be seen at the NBIMS web
site) represent most, of the active end-user constituencies as well as many of the
professional associations, consortia, and technical and associated services vendors who
support them.
Several organizations have initiatives underway to develop data technology (i.e.,
interfaces, encodings, schema, etc., that enable different technologies to "plug and
play"), generic business process workflows and content standards. One of the most
important tasks for NBIMS is to coordinate these efforts and harmonize work between
all organizations with similar products and interests. Many professional organizations
are actively endorsing NBIMS as well as providing subject matter expertise and
important development resources. In addition, over 300 applications now support IFC's
and most BIM application vendors have indicated their support for BIM standards and
are participating on the committee both in an advisory capacity and through
participation in test bed demonstrations. A list of the active organizations are found at
the end of this resource page.
NBIM standards will merge data interoperability standards, content values and
taxonomies, and process definitions to create standards which define
"business views" of information needed to accomplish a particular set of
functions as well as the information exchange standards between
stakeholders. This is significantly different than previous initiatives which have focused
primarily on data-centric approaches. Using business views as guides, NBIMS standards
will identify information needed to support these views, appropriate content standards,
and provide a technical description that developers can use to provide supporting
computer-based applications.
To illustrate this and to give readers a sense of what to expect, here are some of the
distinguishing characteristics of and goals for the Committee:
The scope and planned products are much more practice-oriented rather than
data-centric. Both the organization of and representation on the Committee
reflect this intent.
The Charter assumes and encourages participants from, and value propositions
for, all phases of the building process lifecycle.
A primary goal is to maximize value for all process participants involved in the
building lifecycle.
A primary strategy is to maximize existing research and development through
alliances, cross-representation, active testing and prototyping, and an open and
inclusive approach to both membership and results. NBIMS will, through
memorandums of understanding, recognize and harmonize its work with other
standards-development organizations.
One of the principal products of the Committee's work will be process standards describing
parties to a process and the contracted information exchange requirements between the
parties. It has been estimated that about 250 process definitions will eventually be
required to support an interoperable building supply chain. Through a spiral development
process, NBIMS plans to release developments in packages that will be immediately
useful even as each release adds additional and more mature concepts and practices. The
first packages are scheduled to be available in late 2006.
By now, readers should understand that the work of the National BIM Standards
Committee is the next logical step in transforming the building supply chain. The
Standard assumes that a paradigm change is required, since the definition of paradigm
change is "reforming the underlying pattern or model on which actions are based".
Participants in the building supply chain, through standards development and use of
existing BIM technologies are already well on the way to changing the underlying
patterns and operating practices used during the building lifecycle. But to realize the
greatest efficiencies, BIM approaches must be based on broad aggregations of best
practices rather than narrow, project-specific, proprietary solutions. By focusing now on
the business view of contracted information exchanges and best-use of interoperable
data sources, and by expanding the conceptual scope of BIM to include all phases of the
building lifecycle, we can realize promised new levels of quality and efficiency.
APPLICATION
The application of BIM is pertinent to at least all the following participants in the
facilities industry:
OwnersHigh level summary information about their facilities
PlannersExisting information about physical site(s) and corporate program
needs
RealtorsInformation about a site or facility to support purchase or sale
AppraisersInformation about the facility to support valuation
Mortgage BankersInformation about demographics, corporations, and
viability
DesignersPlanning and site information
EngineersElectronic model from which to import into design and analysis
software
Cost & Quantity EstimatorsElectronic model to obtain accurate quantities
SpecifiersIntelligent objects from which to specify and link to later phases
Contracts & LawyersMore accurate legal descriptions as well as more
accurate to defend or on which to base litigation
Construction ContractorsIntelligent objects for bidding and ordering and a
place to store gained information
Sub-ContractorsClearer communication and same support for contractors
FabricatorsCan use intelligent model for numerical controls for fabrication
Code OfficialsCode checking software can process model faster & more
accurately
Facility ManagersProvides product, warranty and maintenance information
Maintenance & SustainmentEasily identify products for repair parts or
replacement
Renovation & RestorationMinimizes unforeseen conditions and the resulting
cost
Disposal & RecyclingBetter knowledge of what is recycleable
Scoping, Testing, SimulationElectronically build facility and eliminate
conflicts
Safety & Occupational HealthKnowledge of what materials are in use and
MSDS
Environmental & NEPAImproved information for environmental impact
analysis
Plant Operations3D visualization of processes
Energy, LEEDOptimized energy analysis more easily accomplished allows for
more review of alternatives - impact of re-siteing by 5 degrees for example
Space & SecurityIntelligent objects in 3D provide better understanding of
vulnerabilities
Network Managers3D physical network plan is invaluable for troubleshooting
CIO'sBasis for better business decisions and information about existing
infrastructure
Risk ManagementBetter understanding of potential risks and how to avoid
on minimize
Occupant SupportVisualization of facility for finding places - people can't
read floor plans
First RespondersMinimize loss of life and property with timely and accurate
information
Each of the above requires information as well as creates information for others. The
optimized BIM would only contain the information needed by others, however since this
is currently an expanding concept it is likely better to err on the side of collecting too
much information.
EMERGING ISSUES
This entire effort is an emerging issue and is the primary subject of nearly every forum
and conference in the facility industry today. It stands to go down as one of the most
notable disruptive business concepts in the industry since its inception, if implemented
in its entirety. The development of the National BIM Standard will take years to
complete and will evolve in a series of more detailed versions over time. The initial
version will only touch on the overall scope of the issue and the associations and
practitioners will collaborate to develop common languages and business processes to
enhance each others activities over many years to come.
This section will be completed later as the National BIM Standard is currently under
development and to get into detail prior to the consensus process would be
inappropriate. Save it to say that at the current time the following items, listed
alphabetically, are under consideration for inclusion in the National BIM Standard:
Integration of life-cycle data for process plants including oil and gas
production facilities (ISO 15926)
Framework for Information (ISO 12006)
Related Resource Pages
INTRODUCTION
Architecture and Urban Planning are related endeavors that focus on different
geographic scales. Architecture works at the scale of the individual building and
immediate site, while planning works at the scale of neighborhoods, municipalities, and
regions. In addition, planning has developed many specializations that focus on different
aspects of the larger built environment, such as affordable housing, transportation,
economic development, protection of natural resources, land use planning, and
community development.
Planning emerged from a need to overcome the disease, squalor, and poverty that were
urban side effects of the industrial revolution. Planners therefore are concerned with a
wide range of social, political, and economic factors beyond those that are the
immediate concerns of building owners.
An important function of planning is to engage citizens in the process of developing a
vision for how they want their community and its surrounding region to evolve over
time, what attributes are important to protect, and where new development should be
encouraged. The success of this process depends on listening, discovering shared
values, and recognizing how the parts of a neighborhood, a city, or a region relate to
one another and contribute to its overall vitality. Planners then work with a variety of
partners in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors to craft policies, land use
regulations, and incentives to help the community achieve its goals.
The Planner's Role in Whole Building Design
The architect, if designing from a whole building design perspective, will be looking
simultaneously at inside functional aspects, and how they might relate to the site
conditions such as sun/wind/view orientation. Architects, engineers, landscape
architects, and other design professionals will work in conjunction with the planner to
ensure that environmental, social, and economic issues directly affected by construction
or redevelopment are looked at. These include the building's effect on the natural
environment (increased impervious surface, runoff, elevated water tables, preservation
of wetlands and natural species, etc.), on the economy (increased tax base, more jobs,
costs of schools generated by houses, etc.), community infrastructure (cost and timing
of road and utility systems, different modes of transportation, etc.) and, in general, on
all factors that affect the quality of life or residents of the larger area within which the
individual building is situated.
Different constituencies within any given community often have differing opinions about
community goals. Hence, an important role of planners is to help manage the process
by which decisions can be made that best balance these differences. Planners are
trained in the use of a variety of engagement and consensus-building techniques,
ranging from interactive websites and electronic town meetings to more traditional
public meetings.
Increasingly, planners and other design professionals are using more collegial and
collaborative techniques to help community groups reach consensus on development
issues. One such technique is the "community charrette." A charrette is essentially a
design workshop where designers, residents, developers, city officials, planners, and
other interested parties come together to envision and plan an area as small as a
building site or as large as a neighborhood. It is a short-term, intense design tool to
flesh out a community's vision for the future.
In all regions of the United States and in all sizes and types of communities, when
citizens come together to discuss their hopes for their community, they often express a
desire that it be a place that is economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and
socially equitable. As they explore ways to achieve these goals and identify
impediments to that progress, concerned citizens often come face to face with the
regional dynamics that promote sprawl, use up irreplaceable farmland and open space,
and undermine long-standing community investments.
Planners can assist elected officials, civic leaders, and a variety of other stakeholders,
understand these dynamics and examine the costs and benefits of different
development and conservation options. At the same time, they can elucidate how
adhering to the principles of the Smart Growth and New Urbanism movements and
employing many of the techniques they espouse, can help communities achieve their
economic, environmental, and equity goals. In this way "whole building design" can
become part of a holistic approach to neighborhood, community, and regional design.
Sprawl and the Built Environment
Throughout America, urban sprawl has been a major contributor to the degradation of
the environment, increased commuting times, destruction of viable farmland, and loss
of community fabric and social cohesion. An average of 45.6 acres of U.S. farmland is
developed every hour, much of it for housing. In 1950, the average size of a newly built
home in the United States was 983 square feet. In 2000 that number increased to
2,265 square feet. The result of our building habits is that metropolitan land
consumption is vastly outpacing population growth. For example, between 1970 and
1990, metropolitan Chicago's population increased by 4% while the land consumed for
housing increased by 46%.
We can choose the way we grow. There are great social, economic, and environmental
benefits to compact and sustainable design as an alternative to current sprawling
development patterns. Often when cities try to stop sprawl, they encounter regulations
adopted in the past that have been adverse to smart growth. Regulations such as
minimum lot sizes, setbacks, and building footprints have had serious social
consequences in communities.
Unfortunately compactness and increased density are still seen in many suburban areas
as code words for mixing unequal economic or racial populations. Maintaining low
density is still used as a device to keep up land development costs, increase values, and
keep the "them" people out of an area. Smart growth is used as a tool for dismantling
exclusionary regulatory barriers that prevent compact and sustainable growth from
occurring and increasing environmental quality, economic development, and social
equity.
Smart Growth
transportation options, open space amenities, and retail and live/work opportunities.
New Urbanism can be new development or it can be integrated into an existing urban
context.
The Charter for New Urbanism highlights 27 principles necessary for achieving the
objective of a new urbanist community. New Urbanist communities encourage:
1. Mixed land uses, building types, and densities to promote diversity. Buildings
should respect local and regional character to promote a sense of place.
2. Infill and rehabilitation opportunities
3. Community design standards in order to allow a neighborhood to maintain its
local character to combat the "placelessness" associated with sprawl
4. Neighborhoods that promote walking and public transit
5. Neighborhood density coupled with regional preservation of farmland and
natural features
The health and character of a neighborhood are shaped by its diversity, walkability, and
access to public transportation. Effective building design can support these objectives. A
neighborhood with a wide range of housing optionswith regard to cost, size, and style
can be inhabited by various demographic groups. For example, accessory housing and
granny flats open a neighborhood to the elderly and others living on a small, fixed
income. Walkability and access to a variety of modes of transportation makes a
neighborhood accessible for more people, including people with disabilities and those
who can not afford, or choose not to own a car.
Complementary Approaches
In striving to create healthier communities, planners and designers draw upon a variety
of techniques including the following:
Historic PreservationCities may designate certain sections as "historic districts" and
require adherence to special design guidelines so that the historic character of existing
or renovated buildings is respected and new construction is compatible. Historic
preservation functions such as designation, design review, and technical assistance may
be housed in a separate public agency, but are often part of the planning department.
Historic preservation enhances the aesthetic character of a neighborhood and can
generate economic development in areas where tourism is a driving force in the local
economy. This is particularly true in older commercial downtown areas that are unable
to compete head-to-head with suburban, commercial strip development. The older
districts have to transform themselves and attract a tourist or day-trip oriented
customer with antique shops, restaurants, art shops, museums, entertainment, or other
unique activities. (See also WBDG Historic Preservation.)
Transit Oriented Development (TOD)TODs and other forms of development
(transit corridors, station area zones, and transit districts) are high density, mixed-use
and walkable areas built around transit nodes. TOD zones promote the use of many
means of transportation. Special development zones are often created within a quarter
mile radius of the transit stop, considered a comfortable walking distance for
pedestrians.
The Federal Transit Authority has created the Transportation Planning Capacity Building
Program, which serves as a clearinghouse for technical assistance and best case
practices on effective transportation planning initiatives.
MAJOR RESOURCES
The Congress for New UrbanismThe 27 principles that guide policy to make a city more
livable on a regional, neighborhood, and building scale
Land Use Law CenterPace University Land Use Law Center
National Highway Traffic Safety AdministrationNational Traffic Safety Facts
Overcoming Obstacles to Smart Growth through Code ReformLocal Government
Commission