Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Markus Klein
Linkping 2007
markus.s.klein@gmail.com
http://www.fs.isy.liu.se/
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Linkping University,
SE581 83 Linkping,
Sweden.
ISBN 978-91-85831-12-8
ISSN 0345-7524
Abstract
Cylinder pressure modeling and heat release analysis are today important and standard tools for engineers and researchers, when developing
and tuning new engines. Being able to accurately model and extract information from the cylinder pressure is important for the interpretation
and validity of the result.
The rst part of the thesis treats single-zone cylinder pressure modeling, where the specic heat ratio model constitutes a key part. This
model component is therefore investigated more thoroughly. For the
purpose of reference, the specic heat ratio is calculated for burned
and unburned gases, assuming that the unburned mixture is frozen and
that the burned mixture is at chemical equilibrium. Use of the reference
model in heat release analysis is too time consuming and therefore a set
of simpler models, both existing and newly developed, are compared to
the reference model.
A two-zone mean temperature model and the Vibe function are used
to parameterize the mass fraction burned. The mass fraction burned is
used to interpolate the specic heats for the unburned and burned mixture, and to form the specic heat ratio, which renders a cylinder pressure modeling error in the same order as the measurement noise, and
fteen times smaller than the model originally suggested in Gatowski
et al. (1984). The computational time is increased with 40 % compared
to the original setting, but reduced by a factor 70 compared to precomputed tables from the full equilibrium program. The specic heats for
the unburned mixture are captured within 0.2 % by linear functions,
i
ii
and the specic heats for the burned mixture are captured within 1 %
by higher-order polynomials for the major operating range of a spark
ignited (SI) engine.
In the second part, four methods for compression ratio estimation
based on cylinder pressure traces are developed and evaluated for both
simulated and experimental cycles. Three methods rely upon a model
of polytropic compression for the cylinder pressure. It is shown that
they give a good estimate of the compression ratio at low compression ratios, although the estimates are biased. A method based on a
variable projection algorithm with a logarithmic norm of the cylinder
pressure yields the smallest condence intervals and shortest computational time for these three methods. This method is recommended
when computational time is an important issue. The polytropic pressure model lacks information about heat transfer and therefore the estimation bias increases with the compression ratio. The fourth method
includes heat transfer, crevice eects, and a commonly used heat release model for ring cycles. This method estimates the compression
ratio more accurately in terms of bias and variance.
The method is
more computationally demanding and thus recommended when estimation accuracy is the most important property. In order to estimate
the compression ratio as accurately as possible, motored cycles with as
high initial pressure as possible should be used.
The objective in part 3 is to develop an estimation tool for heat
release analysis that is accurate, systematic and ecient. Two methods that incorporate prior knowledge of the parameter nominal value
and uncertainty in a systematic manner are presented and evaluated.
Method 1 is based on using a singular value decomposition of the estimated hessian, to reduce the number of estimated parameters oneby-one. Then the suggested number of parameters to use is found as
the one minimizing the Akaike nal prediction error. Method 2 uses a
regularization technique to include the prior knowledge in the criterion
function.
Method 2 gives more accurate estimates than method 1. For method
2, prior knowledge with individually set parameter uncertainties yields
more accurate and robust estimates. Once a choice of parameter uncertainty has been done, no user interaction is needed. Method 2 is then
formulated for three dierent versions, which dier in how they determine how strong the regularization should be. The quickest version is
based on ad-hoc tuning and should be used when computational time
is important. Another version is more accurate and exible to changing
operating conditions, but is more computationally demanding.
Svenskt referat
1 Egentligen
tndstiftsmotorer
iii
iv
frigjorda vrmen genom att anpassa den valda modellen till cylindertrycksmtningen.
Sensorerna fr att mta trycket i cylindern har den senaste tiden
blivit bde noggrannare och robustare mot den extrema milj och de
snabba tryck- och temperaturfrndringar som sensorn utstts fr under varje cykel. Idag anvnds cylindertryckssensorer enbart i labb- och
testmilj, mest beroende p att sensorn r relativt dyr, men det pgr en teknikutveckling av sensorerna som siktar p att de i framtida
fordon ven skall sitta i produktionsmotorer.
Matematiska modeller av cylindertrycksutvecklingen och metoder
fr att berkna den frigjorda vrmen behandlas i denna avhandling.
Acknowledgments
This work has been carried out at the department of Electrical Engineering, division of Vehicular Systems at Linkpings Universitet, Sweden. It was nancially funded by the Swedish Agency for Innovation
Systems (VINNOVA) through the excellence center ISIS (Information
Systems for Industrial control and Supervision), and by the Swedish
Foundation for Strategic Research SSF through the research center
MOVII. Their support is gratefully acknowledged.
I would also like to thank my supervisors Dr. Lars Eriksson and Professor Lars Nielsen for their guidance and for letting me join the research group of Vehicular Systems. Dr. Eriksson has inspired me greatly
through interesting discussions and through his true enthusiasm for engine research. I have enjoyed working with you. My co-authors Prof.
Lars Nielsen, Ylva Nilsson and Dr. Jan slund are also acknowledged
for fruitful collaborations. They have, as well as Dr. Ingemar Andersson, Dr. Per Andersson, Dr. Gunnar Cedersund, Dr. Erik Frisk, Martin
Gunnarsson, Per berg and many others, contributed to my research
by insightful discussions and creative eorts. Martin Gunnarsson is also
acknowledged for keeping the engine lab running, as well as Carolina
Frberg for making administrative stu work smoothly. Dr. Erik Frisk
v
vi
Markus Klein
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1
Outline
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling
11
2.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2
Rassweiler-Withrow model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.3
2.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.6
24
2.7
Summary
26
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
27
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
p .
Kp .
27
3.1.1
. .
3.1.2
. .
28
3.1.3
29
3.1.4
28
30
31
vii
viii
3.2.1
3.3
Temperature models
3.3.2
3.3.3
IVC pIV C
32
33
33
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
35
Vcr
3.4.1
3.4.2
Tw
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
36
Combustion model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.5.1
Vibe function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.5.2
3.5.3
d , b }
. .
38
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
39
42
Thermodynamic properties
3.7.1
Qin
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IVC TIV C
ters {ig ,
3.6
. . . . . . . . . .
32
Crevice model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
perature
3.5
3.3.1
ture at
3.4
Vc
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parameter initialization
300
and
. . . . . . .
42
42
3.8
43
3.9
45
Outline
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
4.2
Chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
4.3
Existing models of
4.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear model in
4.3.2
. . . . . . . . . . .
52
4.3.3
Polynomial model in
. . . . . . . . . . .
53
Unburned mixture
4.4.1
Modeling
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
4.3.1
T
p and T
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-dependence
. . . .
52
54
57
4.5
Burned mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
4.6
63
63
4.6.1
Reference model
4.6.2
Grouping of
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
4.6.3
Evaluation criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.6.4
68
4.6.5
72
4.6.6
Inuence of
4.6.7
. . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.6.8
79
4.6.9
82
-models
-models
76
ix
4.7
II
83
85
Outline
5.2
5.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1
Polytropic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
Standard model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
5.2.3
90
Estimation methods
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
91
92
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
Summary of methods
model
model
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simulation results
5.4.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6
93
94
94
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
95
96
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
. . . . . . . . . . . .
101
5.4.5
103
OP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5
88
89
5.2.2
5.3.1
5.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
Experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
5.5.1
103
5.5.2
105
5.5.3
108
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112
Outline
6.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
120
6.2.1
Standard model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
6.2.2
120
6.3
Problem illustration
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
6.4
Estimation methods
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
6.4.1
. .
6.4.2
6.4.3
. . . . .
139
6.4.4
141
7.2
7.3
143
8.2
143
7.1.1
143
7.1.2
144
7.1.3
. . . . . . . .
146
7.1.4
. . . . . . . .
157
7.1.5
169
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
174
7.2.1
174
7.2.2
175
7.2.3
. . . . . . . .
175
7.2.4
. . . . . . . .
176
184
. . . . . . . . . . . .
124
187
187
8.1.1
187
8.1.2
188
8.1.3
. . . . . . . .
189
8.1.4
. . . . . . . .
193
8.1.5
208
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
209
8.2.1
209
8.2.2
209
8.2.3
. . . . . . . .
211
8.2.4
. . . . . . . .
213
8.3
8.4
Future Work
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
220
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
221
223
9.1
223
9.2
224
9.3
Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
226
229
xi
Temperature models
237
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
237
A.1.1
. . . . . . . . . .
237
A.1.2
238
A.2
239
A.3
240
A.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
242
A.5
245
A.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.6.1
A.6.2
246
. . . . . . . . .
246
. . . . . . . . . . . .
247
A.6.3
Unburned mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
250
A.6.4
250
A.7
. . . . .
253
A.8
254
263
B.1
B.2
264
B.3
265
B.4
265
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
267
Levenberg-Marquardt method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.1
263
267
Linear example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
272
C.2.1
274
. . . . . . .
C.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
275
C.4
279
C.5
279
C.6
279
C.7
282
D Notation
D.1
289
Parameters
D.1.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
289
Heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
289
D.1.2
Engine geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
290
D.1.3
Engine cycle
290
D.1.4
D.1.5
Parameter estimation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
291
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
292
D.2
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
293
D.3
Evaluation criteria
294
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
1
Introduction
Internal combustion engines have been the primary machine for generating work in mobile applications for more than a century, they are
also continuing to be of high interest due to the high energy density
of the fuels and their possibility to give good total fuel consumption.
Continuous improvements and renements are made to meet the increasing performance demands from customers and legislators, where
both emissions and total system economy are important.
Emission regulations from the legislators provide a hard limit on
the designthey must be met.
for achieving low emissions from combustion engines, is the gasoline engine equipped with a three-way catalyst (TWC). Regulations for diesel
engines are also continuously being made stricter to reach those of the
gasoline engine with a TWC.
Development and competition between manufacturers strives to meet
the needs of customers and deliver products with better performance
both with respect to power and fuel consumption. Emerging technologies like the gas turbine and now the fuel cell pose possibilities and give
a healthy competition, which also drives the technology development
of combustion engines forward.
Engineers have met the challenges posed by stricter emission regulations through for example fundamental research on combustion, adding
new components to more complex systems, as well as optimization of
total system performance. Engine systems are becoming increasingly
complex as new technologies are developed, but systematic methods are
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
also required to handle and integrate these technologies. Some examples of promising techniques for spark ignited (SI) engines are variable
valve actuation and variable compression ratio. Both of these exemplify
technologies that control the development of the in-cylinder process directly and where it is of importance to get accurate knowledge about
the combustion process. The combustion process and other in-cylinder
processes are directly reected in the measured cylinder pressure, and
used as a standard tool for tuning and optimizing engine performance.
This is of course also important for conventional engines.
Being
data have to be analyzed eciently, systematically, and with good accuracy. in-cylinder pressure analysis, the most ecient models are the
single zone models, and the accuracy of these is the topic of the thesis.
The foundation for the analysis of the model is the rst law of thermodynamics where the relation between work, volume, pressure and
temperature is described through the ratio of specic heats. Analyses
that have been performed show that the specic heat ratio is of high importance for the model and therefore this model component is studied
in great detail. Therefore, the rst part of the thesis is on single-zone
heat release modeling, where the specic heat ratio model constitutes
a key part.
In-cylinder pressure models in general have a number of parameters, that have to be determined. For an accurate in-cylinder pressure
analysis it is necessary, but not sucient as will be shown later in the
thesis, that the dierence between the measured and modeled data is
small. To minimize this dierence, in a given measure, requires that
the parameters are estimated, and this is the estimation problem.
Whenever the parameters in a physical model have a physical mean-
1.1. OUTLINE
1.1 Outline
An outline of the thesis in terms of short summaries of each chapter is
given below and indicates the scope of each chapter. The notation used
is summarized in appendix D, where the parameters are given in appendix D.1, and the abbreviations are summarized in appendix D.2. In
the thesis various evaluation criteria are used, and they are summarized
in appendix D.3.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
els are presented. These are compared with respect to their computed
heat release trace given a cylinder pressure trace.
The objective is
-model
and in
1.1. OUTLINE
Four methods
edited version of Klein et al. (2006), which itself is based on Klein et al.
(2004) and Klein and Eriksson (2005b).
Chapter 68: Using prior knowledge for single-zone heat release analysis
Two methods that take parameter prior knowledge into account, when
performing parameter estimation on the Gatowski et al.
model, are
presented. The application in mind is a tool for cylinder pressure estimation that is accurate, systematic and ecient. The methods are
described in detail, and it is shown how to incorporate the prior knowledge in a systematic manner. Guidelines of how to determine the prior
knowledge for a specic application are then given. The performance
of the two methods is evaluated for both simulated and experimentally measured cylinder pressure traces.
in chapter 7: Results and evaluation for motored cycles and in chapter 8: Results and evaluation for red cycles.
Appendix C contains
2.3L
2.0L
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 Contributions
The following list summarizes the main contributions of this thesis:
It is shown that the specic heat ratio model is the most important component in cylinder pressure modeling.
The importance of using the cylinder pressure error as a measure
of how well a specic heat ratio model performs is pinpointed.
A new specic heat ratio model to be used primarily in singlezone heat release models. This model can easily be incorporated
with the Gatowski et al.-model, and reduces the modeling error
to be of the same order as the cylinder pressure measurement
noise.
mended for its accuracy, while another is preferable when computational eciency is important.
1.3 Publications
In the research work leading to this thesis, the author has published a
licentiate thesis and the following papers:
Journal papers:
SAE
2002 Transactions Journal of Engines, 2002-01-0843, 111(3), 2003.
of Engines, 2004-01-1464,
2005.
Practice,
14(3):197211.
Control Engineering
1.3. PUBLICATIONS
Conference papers:
Compression es-
Elec-
Modeling of SI engines,
SP-
In proceedings of
M. Klein (2004).
M. Klein and L. Nielsen (2000). Evaluating some Gain Scheduling Strategies in Diagnosis of a Tank System. In proceedings of
IFAC symposium on Fault Detection, Supervision and Safety for
Technical Processes, Budapest, Hungary, 2000.
trol,
SAE World
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Part I
Modeling
2
An overview of single-zone
heat-release models
change, heat transfer, and mass loss on the cylinder pressure is called
heat-release analysis
of thermodynamics.
gine cycle when the intake and exhaust valves are closed.
common approach is to regard the cylinder contents as a
The most
single zone,
whose thermodynamic state and properties are modeled as being uniform throughout the cylinder and represented by average values. No
spatial variations are considered, and the model is therefore referred to
as zero-dimensional. Models for heat transfer and crevice eects can
easily be included in this framework. Another approach is to do a more
detailed thermodynamic analysis by using a multi-zone model, where
the cylinder is divided into a number of zones, diering in composition
and properties. Each zone being uniform in composition and temper11
12
ature, and the pressure is the same for all zones, see for e.g. (Nilsson
and Eriksson, 2001).
The goal of this chapter is to show the
structure
of dierent
single-
The dis-
For a
For an open
dU = Q W +
where
dU
hi dmi ,
(2.1)
system and
injection of fuel into the cylinder; 3) ows in and out of crevice regions;
4) piston ring blow-by. The mass ow
into the system and
that
hi
hi
dmi
i.
Note
leaves.
As mentioned earlier, single-zone models is our focus at the moment,
so we will now look into those in more detail. Some commonly made
assumptions for the single-zone models are:
entire chamber.
13
Spark plug
Burned gas
Qht
Unburned
gas
Mcr
Qhr
Wp
Piston
chamber.
= Qch Qht .
Note that
the heat transfer cools the gases at most times, but in some instances
it heats the air-fuel mixture.
Wp
fore W
= Wp .
rewritten as
Qch
= dUs + Wp
hi dmi + Qht .
(2.2)
= pdV .
dUs
is
only, thus:
Us = mtot u(T ),
(2.3)
14
where
cv =
u
T
(2.4)
dT =
R to be constant.
cp , cv and is often
assuming
of
in
1
(V dp + pdV RT dmtot ),
mtot R
(2.5)
Qch
X
cv
cv + R
V dp +
p dV + (u cv T )dmtot
hi dmi + Qht ,
R
R
i
(2.6)
using equations (2.4) and (2.5). The specic heat ratio is dened as
c
= cp and with the assumption of an ideal gas the mass specic gas
v
constant
cv =
R
.
1
(2.7)
The mass specic heat is the amount of energy that must be added
or removed from the mixture to change its temperature by 1 K at a
given temperature and pressure.
thermodynamic state variables
T,
part of the heat release modeling. Inserting (2.7) into (2.6) results in
Qch
X
1
RT
V dp+
p dV +(u
)dmtot
hi dmi + Qht .
1
1
1
i
(2.8)
From this equation, four dierent single-zone models with various levels
of complexity will be derived. To begin with the isentropic relation is
derived, then the polytropic model is formulated and this model forms
the basis for calculating the mass fraction burned with the RassweilerWithrow method (Rassweiler and Withrow, 1938). Secondly, a model
for computing the apparent heat release rst proposed in Krieger and
Borman (1967) will be derived. Thirdly, the pressure ratio developed
by Matekunas (1983) is shortly summarized. Finally, a model including
heat transfer and crevice eects (Gatowski et al., 1984) will be given.
15
dmtot = dmi = 0.
= 0,
=0
is constant.
The rst two assumptions yield that (2.8) can be expressed as:
dp =
p
dV.
V
(2.9)
isentropic relation
is
found by integrating as
pV = C =
by noting that
constant
(2.10)
is considered to be constant.
Qch ()
in the interval [0, 1]. The relation between the mass fraction burned
and the amount of heat released can be justied by noting that the
energy released from a system is proportional to the mass of fuel that
is burned. The input to the method is a pressure trace
crank angle
at each sample
p(j ) where
the
is known at each sample) and the output is the mass fraction burned
trace
xb,RW (j ).
16
A cornerstone for the method is the fact that pressure and volume
data during compression and expansion can be approximated by the
polytropic relation
pV n = constant.
(2.11)
n [1.25, 1.35].
is ex-
to give a good t to experimental data for both compression and expansion processes in an engine (Lancaster et al., 1975). The exponent
n is greater than b
dp =
where
dpc
n1
np
Q
dV = dpc + dpv ,
V
V
(2.12)
dp
dpv
in (2.9).
is the
In the
Rassweiler-Withrow method (Rassweiler and Withrow, 1938), the actual pressure change
p = pj+1 pj
= j+1 j ,
pc ,
pv ,
p = pc + pv ,
(2.13)
which gives
pv (j) = pj+1,v pj = pj
Applying
= j+1 j ,
Vj
Vj+1
n
1 .
(2.14)
due to combustion as
pc (j) = pj+1 pj
Vj
Vj+1
n
(2.15)
Figure 2.2:
17
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
0.5
Top:
where
pc (k)
is
found from (2.15). The result from a mass fraction burned analysis is
shown in gure 2.2, where the mass fraction burned prole is plotted
together with the corresponding pressure trace. In the upper plot two
cylinder pressure traces, one from a red cycle (solid) and one from a
motored cycle (dash-dotted) are displayed. When the pressure rise from
the combustion becomes visible, i.e. it rises above the motored pressure,
the mass fraction burned prole starts to increase above zero.
The
QRW (j) =
where the volume
Vj+1/2
pc (j),
n1
during interval
(2.17)
is approximated with
pc (j)
Vj+1/2
(the
The calcu-
lated heat release approximates the released chemical energy from the
fuel minus energy-consuming processes such as the heat transfer to the
cylinder walls and crevice eects.
400
200
18
Figure 2.3:
0
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
0.5
burned trace (lower), using the apparent heat release (solid) and
Rassweiler-Withrow (dash-dotted) methods.
The
method takes neither heat transfer nor crevice eects into account,
thus Qht is lumped into Q
= Qch Qht
and
dmtot = dmi = 0
QAHR
1
(T )
V dp +
p dV,
(T ) 1
(T ) 1
(2.18)
xb,AHR
(T ) = n.
R QAHR
d
QAHR ()
d
xb,AHR () =
=
.
max QAHR
max QAHR
QAHR ,
i.e.
(2.19)
19
Method
10
85
Rassweiler-Withrow
-6.4
50
9.8
26.9
33.3
-4.5
11.0
25.2
29.8
b = 85 10 ,
50 ,
which is 11.0
[deg ATDC] for the apparent heat release method and 9.8 [deg ATDC]
for the Rassweiler-Withrow method. Table 2.1 summarizes the crankangle positions for 10 %, 50 % and 85 % mfb as well as the rapid burn
angle duration
b ,
yields a shorter burn duration for this particular case. The rapid burn
angle duration is dened as
b = 85 10 .
The shorter burn duration is also reected in the heat release trace,
and the dierence is due to the assumptions on
and
Vj+1/2
in the
Rassweiler-Withrow method. The mass fraction burned prole is calculated assuming that the mass of burned mixture is proportional to
the amount of released chemical energy.
Pressure simulation
An ordinary dierential equation for the pressure can be simulated by
solving (2.18) for the pressure dierential
dp =
dp:
((T ) 1) Q (T ) p dV
.
V
(2.20)
that is needed for the computation is the initial value of the pressure.
20
p()
p0 ():
P R() =
p()
1.
p0 ()
(2.21)
P RN () =
P R()
,
max P R()
(2.22)
which produces traces that are similar to the mass fraction burned proles. The dierence between them has been investigated in Eriksson
(1999), and for the operating points used, the dierence in position for
P RN () = 0.5
xb,MP R .
P RN ()
The cylin-
der pressure in the upper plot of gure 2.4 yields the pressure ratio
PR (2.21) given in the middle plot, and an approximation of the mass
fraction burned in the lower plot.
Pressure [MPa]
21
2
1
0
100
50
50
100
100
50
50
100
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
PR []
3
2
1
xb,MPR []
0
1
0.5
0
Figure 2.4:
Top:
P R() (2.21).
1988, p.387). This has the result that during the closed phase a substantial amount of charge could be trapped in the crevices. According
to Gatowski et al. (1984), the crevice volumes constitute as much as
1-2 percent of the clearance volume in size. It is also shown that due to
the temperature dierence in the cylinder and in the crevices, as much
as 10 (mass) percent of the charge could then be trapped in crevices at
peak pressure.
The model in Gatowski et al. (1984) assumes that all crevices can
be modeled as a single aggregate constant volume
the
the
mcr =
where it is assumed that
p Vcr
Vcr
= dmcr =
dp,
R Tw
R Tw
Tw
and
(2.23)
are constant.
h = RT + u
(2.24)
22
=
=
1
1 V
1
1 V
dp +
dp +
1 p dV
1 p dV
Vcr
RT
+ ( 1
+ h0 u) RT
dp + Qht
w
0
T
u u Vcr
0
+ ( 1 + T + R ) Tw dp + Qht .
(2.25)
To get a cylinder pressure model, equation (2.25) can be solved for the
pressure dierential yielding the following expression:
Qch
dp =
The enthalpy
h0
1
1
V +
Vcr
Tw
p dV Qht
T
1
+ T0 +
u0 u
R
.
(2.26)
> 0),
otherwise.
Q ht = hc A T = hc A (T Tw ),
(2.27)
hc
ties ,
hc =
0.013B 0.2p0.8 C1 up +
T 0.55
(2.28)
d
should be used, where the
dt
60
= Q ht
dt d
2N
engine speed N [rpm]
Qht
(2.29)
is assumed constant
(T ) is
perature
(2.30)
In Gatowski et al. (1984) it is stated that this component is important, since it captures how the internal energy varies with temperature.
1 The value of the rst coecient diers from the one in (Woschni, 1967), since
it is recalculated to t the SI-unit system.
23
R
R
=
.
(T ) 1
300 + b(T 300) 1
(2.31)
u0 u =
=
=
R T0
cv dT
T
R
0
{ln(
b
0300 +b (T
1
R
lin
b ln lin 1 ,
R
1
V dp +
p dV + Qht + (cv T + R T 0 + ln
1
1
b
0 1
Vcr
)
dp,
1 R Tw
(2.33)
which is reformulated as
V dp +
p dV +Qht +
1
1
|
{z
}
dQnet
0
1
1
1 Vcr
T + T 0 + ln
)
dp .
(
1
b
1
Tw
|
{z
}
Qch
(2.34)
dQcrevice
24
500
Qgross
450
ht
400
Qnet
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
Figure 2.5: Heat-release trace from the Gatowski model given the cylinder pressure in gure 2.2.
during the engine cycle. The dash-dotted line shows the heat released
if not considering the crevice eect, and the dashed line shows the
net heat release, i.e. when neither heat transfer nor crevice eects are
considered. For this particular case, the heat transfer is about 70 J and
the crevice eect is about 30 J, i.e. approximately 14 and 6 percent of
the total released energy respectively.
dp =
p dV Qht
1
0
.
1
Vcr
T
1
1
0
V
+
+
ln
+
T
1
Tw 1
b
1
Qch
(2.35)
Figure 2.6:
200
0
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
40
50
60
20
10
0
10
20
30
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
40
50
60
0.5
0
30
Upper:
Lower:
25
400
Qnet
Method
10
85
Rassweiler-Withrow
-6.4
50
9.8
26.9
33.3
-4.5
11.0
25.2
29.8
Matekunas
-6.9
9.2
24.0
30.9
Gatowski et.al.
-5.1
10.4
24.4
29.5
b = 85 10 ,
the mass fraction burned traces in the lower plot of gure 2.6.
26
2.7 Summary
A number of single-zone heat release models have been derived starting from the rst law of thermodynamics. The four models described
are then compared and their specic model assumptions are pointed
out. The most elaborate one is the Gatowski et al. model, which includes heat transfer described by Woschni's heat transfer correlation
and crevice eects.
3
Heat-release model
components
nents have already been introduced in section 2.5, but all components
will be more thoroughly explained and compared to other model components in sections 3.13.7. It is also described how to nd initial values
for all parameters. These values are used as initial values when using
the single-zone models for parameter estimation. In chapters 58 they
will also be used as nominal values for xed parameters, i.e. parameters
that are not estimated. The equations that form the complete Gatowski
et al. single-zone heat release model are emphasized by boxes, and the
model is summarized in section 3.8. In section 3.9 the cylinder pressure
sensitivity to the initial values of the parameters is briey investigated.
28
The charge amplier has a slow drift due to charge leakage. It is however assumed that this drift is slow, and a static model of the pressure
sensor can then be used:
pm () = Kp p() + p ,
where
pm
Kp
(3.1)
in the charge amplier and thermal shock of the sensor. Due to the
assumption of a slow drift in the charge amplier, the pressure oset
3.1.1
in the least
pman .
pman
p.
pm ()
pman
are the
same or have a constant dierence (Brunt and Pond, 1997). Figure 3.2
shows the cylinder pressure change for
[200, 160]
[deg ATDC]
pman
will however
3.1.2
The gain
rized in Johansson (1995): The rst is to determine the gain for each
component in the measurement chain and multiply them to get
Kp ;
29
12
x 10
11.5
11
10.5
IVC
10
p
9.5
man
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
240
220
200
180
160
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
140
120
Figure 3.1: Speed dependent eects in the intake runners like ram and
tuning eects, are clearly visible between -200 [deg ATDC] and IVC.
Kp
3.1.3
trace (2.34), or when simulating the cylinder pressure (2.35) to compare it with a measurement, the phasing of the pressure trace relative
to the volume trace will most denitively aect the outcome. According to Amann (1985); Morishita and Kushiyama (1997); Sta (2000),
this phasing need to be accurate within 0.1 CAD, in order to accurately
calculate the work (imep) from a specic cylinder. According to Brunt
and Emtage (1997) the phasing need to be within 0.2 CAD to nd an
imep accurate within 1 %, since typically a 1 CAD phase shift induce
a 4 % imep error with gasoline engines and the relationship between
imep error and crank angle error is linear (Brunt and Emtage, 1996).
In Andersson (2005), models for crank angle oset
in a multi-
cylinder engine are developed. The crank angle oset depends on the
cylinder number and the phase of the cycle, i.e.
30
6000
4000
2000
0
2000
1500rpm 0.5bar
1500rpm 1bar
3000rpm 0.5bar
3000rpm 1bar
4000
6000
8000
200
Figure 3.2:
195
190
165
160
can be modeled as
i,true ,
the crank
i + = i,true .
3.1.4
(3.2)
The determination of
An initial value of
is often referred to as
TDC determination.
would have its maximum at TDC if it were not for heat transfer and
crevice eects. Instead, the peak for the compression pressure occurs
31
before TDC. This dierence is referred to as thermodynamic loss angle (Hohenberg, 1979). Attempts to avoid the problem connected with
unknown heat transfer have been taken in Sta (1996); Morishita and
Kushiyama (1997); Nilsson and Eriksson (2004), by using the polytropic
relation to determine the position of TDC.
B,
crank radius
ar ,
Vid
(3.3)
,
xof f
and is given by
Vid (, xof f ) =
q
B 2 q
( (l + ar )2 x2of f ar cos l2 (ar sin xof f )2 )
4
(3.4)
for
direction of the crank angle revolution. Note that for an engine with
pin-o, the crank positions for BDC and TDC are aected. They are
given by:
T DC = arcsin
BDC = arcsin
xof f
,
l + ar
(3.5a)
x
of f
+ ,
l ar
(3.5b)
and are not symmetric, as in the case without pin-o. The impact of
pin-o on the cylinder volume is investigated in (Klein, 2004, pp. 149).
It is found, for the SVC engine with
V (, xof f )
is reduced to
less than 0.6 % in the worst case. Not accounting for pin-o therefore
contributes to the problem of TDC determination. Thus if the engine's
pin-o is unknown, the discrepancy in computing the cylinder volume
V (, 0)
V (, xof f )
V (, xof f )
xof f
32
When simulating either the heat release (2.34) or the cylinder pressure (2.35), it is necessary to know the dierential of the volume funcdV (,xof f )
tion
and it is given by
d
B 2 ar
dV (, xof f )
(ar sin xof f ) cos
=
sin + p
.
d
4
l2 (ar sin xof f )2
(3.6)
When computing the heat transfer rate (3.28), the instantaneous com-
(3.7)
where
Ach
Apc
surface area.
A(, xof f ) =
q
B 2
+ B
(l + ar )2 x2of f ar cos
2
+ Vc )
rc
(3.8)
rc =
3.2.1
q
l2 (ar sin xof f )2
Vd + Vc
Vd
=1+
.
Vc
Vc
(3.9)
Vc
perature and pressure through the compression ratio, and for heat release and pressure simulations it is therefore of great importance. Due
to geometric uncertainties in manufacturing, a spread of the actual
clearance volume from engine to engine and cylinder to cylinder is inherent (Amann, 1985). The compression ratio given from the manufacturer serves well as an initialization. It can also be initialized by using
a polytropic relation, an initialization that works better the lower the
real compression ratio is (Klein et al., 2003). This since the polytropic
relation does not take heat transfer and crevice eects into account
explicitly.
33
3.3.1
mtot
ref ,
is computed as
T () =
TIV C
p()V () .
pIV C VIV C
(3.10)
IV C
two other states at IVC (pIV C ,TIV C ) are considered unknown and have
to be estimated.
3.3.2
IVC p
The parameter
pm
IV C
pIV C
and gain
crank angle position for IVC, and the crank angle oset
Kp ,
the
by using
equations (3.1) and (3.2). It needs to be pointed out that the position
of IVC does not mean when the intake valve touches its seat, rather the
position where intake mass ow has stopped. Therefore in most cases
The parameter
pIV C is
3.3.3
The mean charge temperature at IVC diers from the gas temperature
in the intake manifold
Tman .
TIV C
Tman .
34
mr
mtot (Fox
et al., 1993; Ponti et al., 2004; Mladek and Onder, 2000) are compared.
models for computing the residual gas mass fraction
xr =
The rst model is based on a ow restriction model, and the other
models are based on energy balance at a reference point e.g. IVC and
require a cylinder pressure measurement. The last two methods also
compute the residual gas temperature
Tr
TIV C .
and
model in Ponti et al. (2004) but with the exclusion of external EGR, is
the best choice and it is therefore used here. It is described as follows;
Compute
maf ,
TIV C
using the ideal gas law, the mass of the air-fuel charge
and an estimate of
xr
according to:
mtot =
where
mtot
maf
,
1 xr
maf = ma (1 +
where
(3.11)
and
( FA )s
respectively, and
1
A
( F
)s
),
(3.12)
ma
pIV C VIV C
.
RIV C mtot
(3.14)
cv
(3.13)
and
xr =
(3.15)
Taf = Tman
pman
pIV C
Taf
af
1
af
is given by
(3.16)
Tr
Onder (2000) as
(3.17)
35
xr,used =
where
xr,new
xr
is updated according to
xr,new + xr,old
,
2
xr,old
(3.18)
previous iteration.
The algorithm for computing
xr
and
TIV C
as:
mtot
(3.11).
TIV C
5.Check if
xr,used
xr,used
6.Return
xr = xr,used
and
xr,new
using (3.15).
according to (3.18).
xr,old
r,old
| < 1 104 ,
| r,used
xr,used
= xr,used .
(3.14).
if
TIV C .
small part of the cylinder charge blows by the piston rings and ends up
in crank-case. Here this part is assumed to be zero and therefore not
modeled.
36
crevices:
mcr
Vcr T
=
.
mtot
V Tcr
(3.19)
Vcr
Vc
can con-
in size. The
Tcr
ap-
Vcr ,
and that the charge in the crevice assumes the average wall tem-
perature
Tw
Tw
and
Vcr
dp,
R Tw
R are constant.
(3.20)
points out that this model is not meant to account for each crevice, but
rather to account for the overall crevice eect.
3.4.1
Vcr
Vc ,
which is a reasonable
Vc
at
rc = 11,
Vcr
is set to
3.4.2
Tw
but also in the heat transfer model described in section 3.6. It varies
during the engine cycle due to heat transfer in the cylinder block, but
the surface temperature uctuations are locally relatively small (i.e. 510 K) suggesting that a constant surface temperature can be used (Anatone and Cipollone, 1996). Therefore an area-weighted mean value of
37
the temperatures of the exposed cylinder walls, the head and the piston crown for the closed part of the engine cycle is used.
Here
Tw
There ex-
ists other methods of estimating the cylinder wall temperature, see e.g.
Arsie et al. (1999).
3.5.1
Vibe function
xb ,
xb () = 1 e
m+1
a ig
cd
(3.21)
dxb ()
a (m + 1)
=
d
cd
where
ig
ig
cd
m
eters, and
cd
m+1
a ig
cd
(3.22)
is over-parameterized in
[a
= 1, cd = 1, m = 1]
a, m ,
and
and [a
The burn
and
cd ,
one of
cd
m=
(3.23a)
38
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Crank angle degree since ignition
70
80
Figure 3.3: Mass fraction burned prole with the ame development
angle
a = (
marked.
cd m+1
)
ln(1 0.1) ,
d
(3.23b)
The dierentiated Vibe function (3.22) is used to produce a mass fraction burned trace, i.e. a normalized heat-release trace.
dQch
value of the heat-release rate
d is given by
dQch
dxb
= Qin
,
d
d
where
Qin
The absolute
(3.24)
3.5.2
Qin , ig , d ,
and
b .
Qin
Qin = mf qHV f ,
where
mf
qHV
(3.25)
Qin ;
39
mf
is measured,
mf =
maf
(1 xr )mtot
=
,
A
1 + ( F )s
1 + ( FA )s
mtot
(3.26)
xr
by (3.15). So
Qin = mf f qHV =
Qin
is initialized as
(1 xr ) pIV C VIV C
f qHV ,
1 + ( FA )s RIV C TIV C
(3.27)
is assumed to be one.
QIV C
must be specied. It
is set to zero.
3.5.3
d , b }
ig
[-30 , 0]
[deg ATDC]
d
[15, 40]
b
[deg]
[10, 50]
[deg]
cylinder heat transfer and the rest from heat transfer in the exhaust
port.
40
Q ht ,
Q ht = hc A T = hc A (T Tw ) ,
A is the surface area of the body
T is the appropriate temperature
(3.28)
where
uid,
dierence, and
hc
hc
is the con-
and space, and since it is a composite of both microscopic and macroscopic phenomena, many factors must be taken into consideration for
a full description.
A full description of
hc
hc ,
Later
works (Shayler et al., 1993; Hayes et al., 1993; Pivec et al., 1998; Wimmer et al., 2000) experimentally veried the Woschni correlation to be
the better one for the closed part of the engine cycle.
(3.29)
not consistent with the prerequisites in the derivation, see (Klein, 2004,
pp. 37). Woschni states that the characteristic speed
depends on two
terms. One is due to piston motion and is modeled as the mean piston
2aN
speed up =
60 [m/s], where a [m] is the crank radius and N [rpm] is
the engine speed. The other term is due to swirl originating from the
41
Woschni
used the measured motored pressure, but later on Watson and Janota
(1982) proposed to use the polytropic process model (2.11) instead:
p0 = pref
where
V
ref
n
(pref , Vref )
(3.30)
are evaluated at
wcan
w = C1 up + C2 (T T0 ) = C1 up + C2
V TIV C
(p p0 ),
pIV C VIV C
(3.31)
where the rst term originates from convection caused by piston motion
and the second term from the combustion itself, where
T0 is the motored
mean gas temperature. This results in the following expression for the
heat transfer coecient
hc =
hc 1 :
0.013 B 0.2 p0.8 C1 up +
C2 (pp0 ) TIV C V
pIV C VIV C
T 0.55
0.8
(3.32)
where
p
p0
T
up
V
C1
C2
(pIV C ,VIV C ,TIV C )
[P a ]
[P a ]
[K ]
[m/s]
3
[m ]
constant
[-]
constant
[m/(s K)]
Q ht =
Qht
angle domain,
Qht
d
should be used where
Qht
dt
dt
60
= Q ht
d
2N
(3.33)
1 The numerical value of the rst coecient diers from the one in (Woschni,
1967), since it is calculated to t the SI-unit system.
42
3.6.1
Woschni found experimentally that during the closed part of the engine
3
cycle, the parameters C1 = 2.28 and C2 = 3.24 10
gave a good t,
and they therefore serve well as initial values. Woschni also pointed out
that the parameters
(C1 , C2 )
(T )
is mod-
(3.34)
in temperature
3.7.1
The initial values for the two parameters in the linear model of
(3.34)
Description
Unit
N
pexh
pman
Tman
IV C
EV O
air-fuel ratio
[-]
engine speed
[rpm]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[K]
[deg ATDC]
[deg ATDC]
Output
Description
Unit
p
pm
Qch
cylinder pressure
[Pa]
[Pa]
[J]
In heat release models a pressure trace is given as input and the heat
release is the output, while in pressure models a heat release trace is
the input and pressure is the output.
1
1 V
1 p dV
dp +
T
+ ( 1
+ T0 +
u0 u Vcr
R ) Tw dp
+ Qht
(3.35)
dp =
Qch
1
1
V +
Vcr
Tw
p dV Qht
T
1
+ T0 +
u0 u
R
(3.36)
pm = Kp p + p
(3.37)
i + = i,true
(3.38)
44
Cylinder volume
V (, xof f )
(3.39a)
q
p
2
2
2
Vid (, xof f ) = B
l2 (xof f + ar sin )2 )
4 ( (l + ar ) xof f ar cos
(3.39b)
B 2 ar
dV (, xof f )
(xof f + ar sin ) cos
=
sin + p
d
4
l2 (xof f + ar sin )2
(3.39c)
T =
TIV C
pV
pIV C VIV C
(3.40)
dmcr =
Vcr
dp
R Tw
(3.41)
dQch
dxb
= Qin
d
d
m
m+1
a (m + 1) ig
dxb ()
a ig
cd
=
e
d
cd
cd
m=
(3.42a)
(3.42b)
(3.42c)
(3.42d)
hc =
A(, xof f ) =
Qht
dt
dt
60
= Q ht
d
2N
Q ht = hc A T = hc A (T Tw )
0.8
C (pp ) T
V
0.013 B 0.2 p0.8 C1 up + 2 pref0Vrefref
T 0.55
B 2
2
(3.43a)
(3.43b)
(3.43c)
q
p
+ B
(l + ar )2 x2of f ar cos l2 (xof f + ar sin )2
(3.43d)
(3.44)
u0 u =
R 0 1
ln
b
1
(3.45)
300
b
C1
C2
p
Kp
pIV C
TIV C
Tw
Vc
Vcr
ig
d
b
Qin
45
Description
Value
Equation
1.3678
(3.34)
8.13 105
(3.34)
2.28
(3.32)
3.24 103
(3.32)
0.4
(3.2)
30
(3.1)
(3.1)
100
(3.10), (2.26)
340
(3.10)
440
(3.20),(3.28)
62.9
(3.3)
1.5
(3.20)
-20
(3.22)
15
(3.22)
30
(3.22)
1500
(3.24)
Vc ]
Table 3.1: Nominal values for the parameters in the Gatowski et al.
For red cycles, Tw = 440 K and
TIV C = 340 K, and for motored cycles, Tw = 400 K and TIV C = 310 K.
single-zone heat release model.
Unknown parameters
The parameters used in the Gatowski et al. single-zone model and an
example of nominal values is summarized in table 3.1.
The
The residual
46
Par.
300
d
ig
Vc
Kp
Tw
Qin
b
pIV C
TIV C
Vcr
b
p
C2
C1
1.3678
RMSE
Max Res
[kPa]
[kPa]
[-]
0.137
[-]
522.6
1407.3
15
[deg]
270.5
1029.2
0.58
-20
237.9
860.3
0.73
6.29
[deg ATDC]
3
[cm ]
210.3
603.7
1.76
0.1
[-]
184.9
465.0
1.55
[K]
110.1
285.4
0.88
[J]
101.7
263.7
0.81
62.9
1
5.25
440
44
1500
150
30
[deg]
101.6
397.4
0.45
100
10
[kPa]
95.7
217.9
0.77
340
44
[K]
63.7
176.7
0.36
1.5
1.5
[%
Vc ]
36.3
122.3
0.03
25.0
77.0
0.19
[deg]
10.3
31.4
0.02
[kPa]
10.0
10.0
0.02
[m/(s K)]
3.8
8.2
0.03
[-]
1.6
2.9
0.01
-8.13
0.4
105
30
-8.13
0.2
106
10
3.24
2.28
103
3.24
104
0.228
[K
S=
where
RMSE(p)
p
|x|
|x|
(3.46)
x is the nominal parameter value, x is the parameter perturbap is the mean cylinder pressure. The results are summarized
tion and
in table 3.2.
300 in the linear specic heat ratio model, the burn related
angles d and ig , and the clearance volume Vc show highest sensitiv-
constant
ity in the mean and are therefore more in need of a proper initialization
than the others. On the other hand, disturbances in the values of the
two Woschni parameters
C1
and
C2
47
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
48
4
A specific heat ratio model
for single-zone heat
release models
The accuracy with which the energy balance can be calculated for a
combustion chamber depends in part on how accurately changes in the
internal energy of the cylinder charge are represented. The most important thermodynamic property used when calculating the heat release
cp
rates in engines is the ratio of specic heats, (T, p, ) =
cv (Gatowski
et al., 1984; Chun and Heywood, 1987; Guezennec and Hamama, 1999).
Based on the rst law of thermodynamics, Gatowski et al. (1984)
developed a single-zone heat release model that has been widely used,
where the specic heat ratio is represented by a linear function in mean
charge temperature
T:
lin (T ) = 300 + b(T 300).
(4.1)
-model
300
and
in the linear
300
300 ,
for pure air. It has also been shown in table 3.2 that
49
50
300
(T, p, )
(T, p, )
4.1 Outline
In the following section three existing
-models
are described.
Then
i.e. for a partially burned mixture. This is done in section 4.6, where
a number of approximative models are proposed.
-model
inuence the models have on the cylinder pressure, and also in terms
of computational time.
51
C8 H18 ,
1
C8 H18 + (O2 + 3.773N2 )
(8 + 18/4)
y1 O + y2 O2 + y3 H + y4 H2 + y5 OH
+y6 H2 O + y7 CO + y8 CO2 + y9 N O + y10 N2 ,
(4.2)
where the products given on the right hand side are chosen by the
is the air-fuel ratio (AFR). The coecients yi are found by
x
i = Pyiyi of specie i that
i
the mixture consists of at a given temperature, pressure and air-fuel
user and
x
i , the
xi = xi /Mi .
ratio. From
Mi
as
mass fraction
xi
u(T, p, ) =
xi (T, p, )ui (T ),
(4.3)
where
ui
h(T, p, )
and
cv
is
cv =
u
T
cv (T, p) =
xi (T, p)cv,i (T ) + ui (T )
where
h
T
xi
(T, p),
T
(4.4)
cp =
cp (T, p) =
xi (T, p)cp,i (T ) + hi (T )
xi
(T, p).
T
(4.5)
is dened as
(T, p) =
cp (T, p)
.
cv (T, p)
(4.6)
52
4.3.1
Linear model in T
The specic heat ratio during the closed part of the cycle, i.e. when
both intake and exhaust valves are closed, is most frequently modeled
as either a constant, or as a linear function of temperature. The latter
model is used in (Gatowski et al., 1984), where it is stated that the
model approximation is in parity with the other approximations made
for this family of single-zone heat-release models. The linear function
in
(4.7)
and constant
300
the
in (4.7) have to
lin (T ).
example Brunt et al. (1998). Such an extension reduces the need for
having dierent values of
Later on,
lin (T )
300
and
4.3.2
According to Chun and Heywood (1987), the commonly made assumption that
(T )
the closed part of the engine cycle into three segments; compression,
combustion and post-combustion (expansion).
T,
while the
comp
300 + bcomp (T 300) xb < 0.01
seg (T, xb ) =
comb
0.01 xb 0.99
300
exp
300
+ bexp (T 300)
xb > 0.99
(4.8)
53
4.3.3
1),
for
u develCn H2n .
< 1.
The
is given by:
B(T )
+ ucorr (T, p, ),
(4.9)
A(T ) = a1 T + a2 T 2 + . . . + a5 T 5
(4.10a)
B(T ) = b0 + b1 T + . . . + b4 T 4 .
(4.10b)
R(T, p, ) = 0.287 +
0.020
+ Rcorr (T, p, ),
(4.11)
given in [kJ/(kg of original air) K]. Krieger and Borman suggested that
two correction terms
for dissociation,
(4.12a)
D() = d0 + d1 1 + d3 3
E(T, ) =
(4.12b)
e0 + e1 1 + e3 3
T
(4.12c)
f4 + f5 1
) ln(f6 p)
T
r1 + r2 /T + r3 ln(f6 p)
Rcorr (T, p, ) = cr exp r0 ln +
,
F (T, p, ) = (f0 + f1 1 + f3 3 +
where
(4.12d)
(4.13)
Cn H2n ,
the
54
0.692
a1
a2
39.17 106
b0
a3
a4
52.9 109 228.62 1013
a5
b1
b2
277.58 1017
3049.33
5.7 102 9.5 105
b3
b4
cu
cr
21.53 109 200.26 1014 2.32584
4.186 103
d0
d1
d3
e0
10.41066
7.85125
-3.71257
15.001 103
e1
e3
f0
f1
15.838 103 9.613 103
-0.10329
-0.38656
f3
f4
f5
f6
0.154226
-14.763
118.27
r0
r1
r2
r3
-0.2977
11.98
-25442
-0.4354
Table 4.1:
14.503
in (4.10)-(4.13).
the error in
ture range of interest, where the extreme end states were approximately
{2300 K, 0.07 M P a}
and
{3300 K, 35 M P a}, and less than 1 per is now given by its denition
KB =
where
T.
cp
R
=1+ ,
cv
cv
u
cv = T
V
(4.14)
is found by dierentiat-
First of all,
T [300, 1000]
K,
which is valid for the entire closed part of a motored cycle. The specic
heat ratio for
= 1 is shown in
cp
and
cv
from which
55
1.34
1.32
1.3
1.28
1.26
1.24
300
Figure 4.1:
400
500
600
700
Temperature [K]
800
900
1000
Property
u
lin
[-]
lin
cp,u [J/(kg K)]
clin
v,u [J/(kg K)]
Table 4.2:
Constant
1.3488
1051.9
Slope
NRMSE
RMSE
13.0 105
0.19 %
0.0024
0.387
0.15 %
1.78
0.387
0.20 %
1.78
777.0
, mass-specic cv
T [300, 1000] K and = 1.
proximations of
and
cp ,
56
1.35
=1.2
1.3
=0.975
=1
=1.025
1.25
300
400
Figure 4.2:
=0.8
500
600
700
Temperature [K]
900
1000
800
as functions of temperature.
is dened as:
where
v
u
M
u 1 X
u (T ))2 ,
RM SE = t
((Tj ) lin
j
M j=1
(4.15)
j according
v
u
M
u (T ) 2
u 1 X
(Tj ) lin
j
t
N RM SE =
.
M j=1
(Tj )
to:
(4.16)
Besides temperature, the specic heat ratio also varies with AFR,
as shown in gure 4.2 where
(lean).
For comparison,
(T )
= ,
57
1.35
1.34
0.8 4 0.85
x 10
0.9
0.95
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
0.8 3 0.85
x 10
0.9
0.95
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
0.8
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
Airfuel ratio []
1.1
1.15
1.2
Slope b1 [1/K]
300
[]
1.36
NRMSE []
1.26
1.28
1.3
1.32
1.34
2.5
2
1.5
Figure 4.3:
0.85
Upper:
300
in (4.7) as a function of
in (4.7) as a function of
u
lin
(T ).
of gure 4.3, which shows the NRMSE for dierent AFR:s, it can be
u
lin
(T ) is better the leaner
the mixture is, at least for [0.8, 1.2].
4.4.1
b and let
only
for spark ignited engines this is the region where the engine should be
operating most of the time, due to legislations. The results are shown in
gure 4.4, where the coecient
300
as when letting the slope vary. The relative dierence is less than 0.1
% for
when
58
300 []
1.36
Fixed slope
Free slope
1.35
1.34
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
NRMSE []
2.5
x 10
Fixed slope
Free slope
2
1.5
1
0.8
Figure 4.4:
0.85
Upper:
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
Airfuel ratio []
300
1.1
1.15
1.2
in (4.7) as a function of
for unburned mixture at equilibrium with xed and free slope b respecu
tively.
NRMSE for lin (T ) for xed and free slope coecient.
Bottom:
and pressure
T,
= 1,
rich
59
=1.2
=0.8
1.3
1.25
=0.8
1.2
=1.2
1.15
=0.975
=1
=1.025
1.1
1.05
1
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
Figure 4.5: Specic heat ratio for burned mixture at various air-fuel
ratios
Region
A
B
C
D
E
Table 4.3:
in (4.7) for
T
[500, 3500]
[500, 3000]
[500, 2700]
[500, 2500]
[1200, 3000]
300
1.3695
1.3726
1.3678
1.3623
1.4045
b
9.6 105
9.9 105
9.4 105
8.8 105
11.4 105
=1
and
p = 7.5
bar.
b
lin
(T )
found
60
1.35
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
1
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
Figure 4.6: Specic heat ratio for burned stoichiometric mixture using
CHEPP at various pressures.
dissociation and
b
lin
(T )
of
is computed at
KB
dened as
M RE = max |
The linear approximation
(T )
for
=1
b
(Tj , p) lin
(Tj )
|.
(Tj , p)
b
lin
(T )
(4.17)
61
1.35
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
1
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
Figure 4.7: Specic heat ratio for burned stoichiometric mixture using
b
CHEPP, the corresponding linear function lin and Krieger-Borman
polynomial KB .
Region
A
B
C
D
E
T
[500, 3500]
[500, 3000]
[500, 2700]
[500, 2500]
[1200, 3000]
b
lin
KB
MRE
NRMSE
MRE
NRMSE
2.0 %
0.97 %
2.0 %
0.56 %
1.6 %
0.95 %
0.7 %
0.20 %
1.9 %
0.90 %
0.3 %
0.17 %
2.4 %
0.74 %
0.3 %
0.17 %
1.6 %
0.74 %
0.7 %
0.21 %
Table 4.4: Maximum relative error (MRE) and normalized root mean
square error (NRMSE) for dierent temperature regions at
p = 7.5
bar.
=1
and
62
KB @ = 0.975
Region
A
B
Table 4.5:
KB @ = 1
KB @ = 1.025
MRE
NRMSE
MRE
NRMSE
MRE
NRMSE
1.9 %
0.86 %
2.0 %
0.56 %
2.1 %
0.59 %
1.8 %
0.73 %
0.7 %
0.20 %
0.7 %
0.28 %
KB (T, p, )
at
p = 7.5
bar and
= {0.975, 1, 1.025}.
to
in table 4.3.
A second or-
der polynomial shows the same behavior as the linear case, but when
the order of the polynomial is increased to three, the model captures
the modes of
(T )
quite well.
model even more, an even better t is found. This has been done in
the Krieger-Borman polynomial, and for this example it captures the
behavior of
(T )
ure 4.7 and in the right-most (NRMSE) column in table 4.4, where
the NRMSE value is much higher for temperature region A than for
the other regions. As expected, the Krieger-Borman polynomial is better than the linear approximation in every chosen temperature region,
since the NRMSE is smaller. Comparing the MRE:s for temperature
region
A,
KB
(lean),
tendency which is most evident when comparing the NRMSE for temperature region
B.
KB
does not t
KB
should there-
and
in table 4.4.
63
T 3000
[1200, 3000].
is
K.
Tb in a two-zone model,
Tb
is reduced by 25%.
and
has been investigated in the two previous sections. During the closed
part of a motored engine cycle, the previous investigations would be
enough since the models of the unburned mixture will be valid for the
entire region.
xb
is used to
4.6.1
Reference model
The single-zone specic heats are found from energy balance between
the single-zone and the two-zone model, from which the single-zone
specic heat ratio
CE
can be stated:
(4.18a)
(4.18b)
CE (T, p, xb ) =
where the mass fraction burned
xb
cp (T, p, xb )
,
cv (T, p, xb )
(4.18c)
The single-zone (T ), burned zone (Tb ) and unburned zone (Tu ) temperatures are given by the two temperatures models (A.1) and (A.7)
64
described in appendix A.1. The rst is the ordinary single-zone temperature model and the second is a two-zone mean temperature model
presented in Andersson (2002). The mass specic heats in (4.18) are
computed using CHEPP (Eriksson, 2004) and
CE
erence model.
To compute
CE
CE
-models
How to nd xb ?
To compute the specic heat ratio
trace
xb
is needed.
CE
burned is considered to be known, which is the case in this work. However, if one were to use experimental data to e.g. do heat release analysis,
xb
xb
xb
xb
heat release.
4.6.2
Grouping of -models
Thirteen
-models
the third group, to which reference model (4.18) belongs, contains the
models based on
is determined.
T , computed by (A.1).
65
b
B1 : B1 (T ) = lin
(T ) = 300 + b (T 300),
(4.19)
T [500, 3000]
(region
This
Another
p.
optimal conditions for the simulations, and will therefore give the best
results possible for this model structure.
The second model, denoted
described in (4.9)
B2 : uB2 = A(T )
B2 ,
B(T )
B2 (T ) = KB (T ),
(4.20)
without the correction term for dissociation. The Krieger-Borman polynomial is used in model
B3
as well,
B(T )
+ ucorr (T, p, )
B3 : uB3 = A(T )
with the correction term
ucorr (T, p, )
(4.21)
B4 : B4 = constant.
As for model
model (4.18).
B1 ,
the constant
B4
(4.22)
b (Tb )
and
u (Tu )
for each zone respectively, where the temperatures are given by the
two-zone mean temperature model (A.7).
trace
xb
by interpolating
and
u .
Note that the relations for determining the thermodynamic properties, shown in (4.18), are not fullled for subgroup
C during combustion.
xb = 0
or
xb = 1
66
C1 ,
for the unburned and burned mixture. The coecients in the linear
the
the
C1
b
u
C1 : C1 (T, xb ) = xb lin
(Tb ) + (1 xb ) lin
(Tu ),
(4.23)
where the coecients for the linear functions are given in table 4.3 and
table 4.2 respectively.
The second model was proposed in Stone (1999, p.423), here de-
C2 ,
noted
com-
C2 : uC2 = A(T ) xb
B(T )
C2 (T, xb ).
(4.24)
This model includes neither dissociation nor the internal energy of the
unburned mixture.
C1
An improvement of model
ear model for the burned mixture with the Krieger-Borman polynomial.
This new model is denoted
C3
u
C3 : C3 (T, p, xb ) = xb KB (Tb , p) + (1 xb ) lin
(Tu ).
The fourth model interpolates
u (Tu )
and
b (Tb , p)
(4.25)
given by CHEPP:
C4 .
(4.26)
C5 :
comp
300 + bcomp (T 300) xb < 0.01
C5 : C5 (T, xb ) = seg (T, xb ) =
0.01 xb 0.99
comb
300
exp
300
+ bexp (T 300)
xb > 0.99.
(4.27)
Model
C5
into group
xb
in (4.27) can be
B1
and
B4 ,
the
67
interpolated to get the single-zone specic heats. The rst model, de-
noted
nd
and
lin
xb cKB
p,b (Tb , p) + (1 xb ) cp,u (Tu )
D1 : D1 (T, p, xb ) =
An extension of model
and
cv,u (Tu )
KB (T , p) + (1 x ) clin (T )
xb cv,b
b
b v,u u
D1
(4.28)
cp,u (Tu )
xb cKB
p,b (Tb , p) + (1 xb ) cp,u (Tu )
D2 : D2 (T, p, xb ) =
KB (T , p) + (1 x ) c
xb cv,b
b
b v,u (Tu )
D2
(4.29)
D1 .
When comparing it to
D4 ,
Model
D3 : D3 (T, p, xb ) =
(4.30)
D4 :
CE
D1 .
D4 : D4 (T, p, xb ) = CE (T, p, xb ).
(4.31)
-model
in Gatowski et al. [1984], will also aect the amount of energy left or
added to the system when a mass element enters or leaves the crevice
0
volume. This energy term u u is quantied by (2.32) for B1 . It has
to be restated for every
-model
4.6.3
B1 ,
and this is
Evaluation criteria
The dierent
-models
(4.16), which
68
-model.
The cylinder pressure model used for the simulations is the model developed in Gatowski et al. (1984), summarized in section 3.8.
The
parameters are given in appendix A.3 and the engine geometry is given
in appendix A.2.
4.6.4
and
cylinder pressure. To investigate if the engine operating condition inuences the choice of model, nine operating points covering most parts
of the operating range of an engine are used to do the same evaluations.
These operating points are given in table A.2 and their corresponding
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
D4 .
-model B1
replaced
69
-domain
The
model
complete picture is given in appendix A.8, see e.g. gures A.7 and A.8,
where
for each model is also given in gure A.9 and gure A.10 as a function
of single-zone temperature
T.
NRMSE( ) for all models. Figure 4.9 compares the reference model
with the computed values of
B 3 , C5 , C4
and
D1 .
D1
D4
B1 ,
and
yields
errors lower than 1 % for both columns. The lower plot of gure 4.9
B1
(4.19) has the best performance, although it does not capture the
B3
(4.21) is only able to capture the reference model after the com-
reference model very well, as seen in the upper plot of gure 4.9. Model
bustion, since model
C5
B3
Model
(4.27) has good behavior before and after the combustion. But durcomb
ing the combustion, the constant 300 does not capture CE very well.
Models B4 and C2 has even worse behavior, as shown in gure A.7.
To conclude, model group
yields errors in
D4 .
D3
Pressure domain
The impact each
in gures A.11 and A.12. The plots show the dierence between the
simulated cylinder pressure for reference model
D4
and the
-models,
i.e. the error in the cylinder pressure that is induced by the modeling
error in
Note that the scaling in the gures are dierent. The RMSE
introduced in the cylinder pressure is given in table 4.6 for all models.
The RMSE of the measurement noise is approximately 6 kPa and
70
1.4
B
[]
1.3
Ref
B1
B3
C5
100
1.2
1.1
C5
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
[]
1.4
C
1.3
Ref
C4
D1
1.2
1.1
100
Figure 4.9:
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
Upper:
C4
and
D1
MRE:
[%]
NRMSE:
[%]
RMSE:
[kPa]
C5
as
Time
[s]
4.7
1.3
52.3
3.8
(4.20)
5.9
2.7
85.8
4.1
(4.21)
5.2
1.8
76.0
4.2
(4.22)
7.7
4.5
62.8
3.8
(4.23)
2.3
0.69
39.8
4.7
(4.24)
7.3
4.1
140.7
4.9
(4.25)
2.4
0.65
25.4
5.1
(4.26)
2.3
0.58
22.8
211.1
(4.27)
8.4
1.5
82.9
4.0
(4.28)
0.27
0.10
2.8
5.2
(4.29)
0.26
0.09
2.6
12.3
(4.30)
0.04
0.01
0.3
381.9
(4.18)
0.0
0.0
0.0
384.2
-models,
and
D4 .
(4.19)
B1 , B3
Model
B1
B2
B3
B4
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
D1
D2
D3
D4
D4 . Lower:
100
71
Pressure [kPa]
2000
1500
1000
500
0
100
50
50
100
250
B1
B3
C5
200
150
100
50
0
100
50
50
100
80
C4
D1
60
40
20
0
20
Figure 4.10:
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
in gure 4.8.
B1 , B3
and
C4
and
D1 .
Note that
72
-models
will
introduce a modeling error which is signicantly larger than the measurement noise as seen in table 4.6, and thereby aect the accuracy of
the parameter estimates. Within group
D,
models
D3
and
D4
have the
D2 ,
D1
and there-
fore the most time ecient one should be used of these two. Altogether
D could be used.
-models B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 and C5 ,
described
in section 4.3, all introduce modeling errors which are at least seven
times the measurement noise for this operating point. Clearly, a large
error, so none of these models are recommended. Of these models,
B1
induces the smallest RMSE(p) and should, if any, be the one used of
the previously proposed models.
Computational time
The right-most column of table 4.6 shows the computational time. The
time value given is the mean time for simulating the closed part of one
engine cycle using Matlab 6.1 on a SunBlade 100, which has a 64-bit
500 MHz processor. The proposed model
faster than the reference model
D4 ,
D1
is approximately 70 times
D1
cp
and
cv .
ratio to the Gatowski et al. single-zone heat release model is simple, and
it does not increase the computational burden immensely compared to
the original setting, i.e.
B1 .
-model
4.6.5
The same analysis as above has been made for the simulated cylinder
pressure from nine dierent operating points, where
and
and
ure 4.11, where the upper plot shows the range covered for the unburned
mixture, and the lower shows the range covered for single-zone (solid)
and burned (dashed) mixture. According to (Heywood, 1988, p.109),
the temperature region of interest for an SI engine is 400 to 900 K for
the unburned mixture; for the burned mixture, the extreme end states
are approximately
Of
73
10
Pressure [MPa]
Unburned zone
0
300
400
500
600
700
Temperature [K]
800
900
1000
1500
2000
Temperature [K]
2500
3000
3500
Pressure [MPa]
10
Burned zone
Single zone
5
0
0
500
Figure 4.11:
Lower:
1000
Operating range in
and
T . Upper:
Unburned zone.
course, not all points in the range are covered but the cycles at hand
cover the extremes of the range of interest.
The results are summarized in terms of MRE for
NRMSE for
in table A.11,
mean values over the operating points for each model as well as the
values for each cycle are given. The mean values for each model are
also given here as a summary in table 4.7.
Ordering of models
When comparing the NRMSE for
-models,
D4 D3 D2 D1 C4 C3 C1 B1 C5 B3 B2 C2 B4 .
(4.32)
Here
for
D4 D3 D2 D1 C4 C3 C1 B1 B4 B3 B2 C5 C2 .
(4.33)
74
Model
MRE:
B1
B2
B3
B4
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
D1
D2
D3
Table 4.7: Evaluation of
NRMSE:
[%]
RMSE:
[%]
[kPa]
3.4
1.2
84.9
5.2
2.4
153.6
4.5
1.7
137.3
7.1
4.2
110.0
1.9
0.77
6.6
3.9
1.9
0.53
1.8
0.46
8.3
1.6
0.26
0.097
5.8
0.25
0.092
5.1
0.044
0.016
0.7
-models,
56.6
269.2
42.4
36.7
191.9
This ordering is not the same as in (4.32), but the only dierence lies in
Model
Model group D
In terms of NRMSE( ) (4.32) and RMSE(p) (4.33) model group
behaves as expected, and obeys the rule: the higher the complexity is,
the higher the accuracy becomes. According to the RMSE(p) column in
table 4.7, the models in
D2
Comparing models
D1
(4.28)
using the unburned specic heats from CHEPP instead of the linear
functions.
D1 ,
D2
D3
cp,b
and
cv,b .
D1
75
heats for CHEPP and the Krieger-Borman polynomial are given, and
this veries that the polynomial has poorer performance for higher
temperatures.
a smaller but more relevant region for SI engines could increase the
accuracy for high temperatures. A perfect model of the burned mixture
yields the results given by
D3 ,
D1
is however considered to
D1
Model group C
In model group
the NRMSE in
-domain
C2
Model
performance and would be the last choice here. The rest of the models
in group
D , i.e. C4 C3 C1 .
C4 , is compared to all models
reference model D4 , it is concluded that
D,
C,
i.e.
the specic heats should be interpolated, and not the specic heat ratios. This conclusion can be drawn since the only dierence between
C4
and
D4
C4
interpolates
the specic heat ratios found from CHEPP directly, and model
D4
in-
terpolates the specic heats from CHEPP and then form the specic
heat ratio. Therefore, group
Since
D1
C.
C.
C,
Model group B
As expected, the models in group
76
B1
Summary
To conclude, the models are ordered by their performance and with
computational eciency in ascending order:
D4 D1 B1 B4
(4.34)
Most of the models are excluded from this list, either due to their low
accuracy, high computational time, or because another model with approximately the same computational time has higher accuracy. Of the
models given in (4.34),
D1
-model
release model, since it has a large impact on the cylinder pressure. The
focus is now turned to how the
-models
parameters.
4.6.6
d , b
and
Qin
in
D4
D4 .
Qin
ig
d , b
Model
B1
B2
B3
B4
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
D1
D2
D3
D4
[%]
Qin
[%]
77
[%]
RMSE(p)
Time
[kPa]
[min]
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
5.1
1.7
0.29
3.1
-9.2
1.4
9.8
3.5
3.1
1.7
0.63
2.9
-7.3
1.3
9.1
3.8
3.4
1.7
-0.2
2.9
-7.2
1.3
9.1
3.9
6.8
1.7
-0.11
3.2
-6.2
1.4
10.1
3.5
0.074
1.4
1.1
2.4
-2.9
1.1
6.5
4.4
9.6
2.1
-1
3.9
-14
1.7
16.0
4.6
0.19
1.4
0.75
2.4
-2.5
1.2
6.5
4.8
0.14
1.5
0.64
2.4
-2
1.2
6.7
200
-8
1.5
-2.5
2.3
27
0.92
6.6
3.7
0.21
1.5
-0.062
2.4
-0.67
1.3
6.7
4.9
0.2
1.5
-0.08
2.4
-0.61
1.3
6.7
11
0.22
1.5
-0.13
2.4
-0.48
1.3
6.7
360
0.21
1.5
-0.13
2.4
-0.42
1.3
6.7
360
Table 4.8: Relative mean estimation error (RME) and mean relative 95
% condence interval (RCI) given in percent, for heat release parameters using various
-models
d = 20
deg,
b = 40
deg and
also given.
the relative mean estimation error RME (D.4) and the mean relative 95
% condence interval RCI (D.5) in
each
-model.
d , b
and
Qin
respectively for
Discussion
The RMSE of the applied measurement noise is approximately 6.7 kPa,
which is also the RMSE found when using most
model used, the rapid burn angle
-models.
For every
three parameters, and nearly all of them are accurate within 1%. On
the other hand, only model group
D1
D -models
4.6.7
can be used,
Model
C5
D1
D4
erating point 2.
78
NRMSE( | D1) []
0.01
0.005
0.98
0.99
1.01
1.02
0.98
0.99
1
[]
1.01
1.02
4
3.5
3
2.5
Figure 4.12:
Lower:
Upper:
[0.975, 1.025]
[0.975, 1.025] at OP 2.
at OP 2.
small.
The results are displayed in gure 4.12, where the upper plot shows the
NRMSE(, |D1 ), and the lower plot shows the RMSE(p, |D1 ). Lean
and stoichiometric mixtures have the lowest errors in the
domain,
= 0.995,
less than the measurement noise. This assures that for a few percent
deviation in
Fuel composition
A small, and by no means exhaustive sensitivity analysis is made for
fuels such as methane and two commercial fuels in appendix A.6. This
in order to see if the results are valid for other fuels than iso-octane.
The hydrocarbon ratio for the fuel
that if
D1
y [1.69, 2.25],
Ca Hb is given by y = b/a.
It is found
acceptable.
4.6.8
79
The inuence of the residual gas on the specic heat ratio has so far
been neglected.
CE
xr ,
the
(4.35a)
(4.35b)
cp (T, p, xb , xr )
CE (T, p, xb , xr ) =
.
cv (T, p, xb , xr )
(4.35c)
when a residual gas mass element crosses the ame front, it enters
combustion chamber.
Tu .
Tb .
xr = 0
for
compared to
pression and combustion. After the combustion, the mass specic heats
for the single zone will coincide with the ones for the burned zone in
accordance with the model assumptions, and there is thus no dierence
in
Modeling of xr -dependence
A simple model of the inuence of
a linear function of
xr
xr
on
CE (T, p, xb ) is
the term bxr xr
xr
is constant during a
bias (xr )
80
1.35
x =0.20
r
xr=0
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
Figure 4.13:
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
CE
100
that changes from cycle to cycle. A better model is gained if the mass
fraction burned
xb
is used, as described in
(4.37)
xr
for every
model
lin
KB
cp (T, p, xb , xr ) = xb cKB
p,b (Tb , p) + (1 xb ) (1 xr )cp,u (Tu ) + xr cp,b (Tu , p)
(4.38a)
cv (T, p, xb , xr ) =
xb cKB
v,b (Tb , p)
KB
(T
,
p)
+ (1 xb ) (1 xr )clin
(T
)
+
x
c
u
u
r
v,u
v,b
(4.38b)
cp (T, p, xb , xr )
D1xr (T, p, xb , xr ) =
cv (T, p, xb , xr )
(4.38c)
x 10
81
5
xr=0.20
4
x =0.15
r
xr=0.10
xr=0.05
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
D1
xr .
D1xr
CE
compared to
100
xr = 0.
(4.40)
Evaluation
The specic heat ratio for the six models (4.36)(4.40) and (4.18), i.e.
given
82
NRMSE( ) [%]
xr = 0
Model
No model
(4.36)
(4.37)
(4.38)
9.8 102
9.8 102
9.8 102
(4.39)
(4.40)
Model
xr = 0
(4.36)
(4.37)
(4.39)
6.3 105
9.6 105
(4.40)
Table 4.9:
for
xr = 0.05
7.1 102
4.8 102
8.2 103
9.9 102
1.1 101
9.5 102
xr = 0.05
6.5 104
1.2 103
5.9 104
1.3 103
xr = 0.10
1.4 101
9.7 102
1.7 102
1.0 101
1.4 101
9.2 102
bias
xr = 0.10
1.3 103
2.5 103
1.2 103
2.6 103
xr = 0.15
2.1 101
1.5 101
2.5 102
1.0 101
1.8 101
9.1 102
xr = 0.20
2.8 101
1.9 101
3.4 102
1.1 101
2.2 101
9.0 102
xr = 0.15
2.0 103
3.7 103
1.9 103
3.8 103
xr = 0.20
2.6 103
5.0 103
2.5 103
5.0 103
bias
xr -modeling.
xr ,
bias (xr )
xr ,
depend almost
as a linear function of
xr .
D1
at least
bias (xr )
bxr
in
will change for operating conditions other than the one given here.
The model used therefore needs to be robust to changing operating
conditions, a feature the Krieger-Borman polynomial has. Model (4.38)
only adds an NRMSE( ) of 1.2 % for
xr = 0.20
compared to
xr = 0,
as shown in table 4.9. Therefore model (4.38) which uses the KriegerBorman polynomial is recommended, although it did not have the best
performance of the
4.6.9
xr -models
Comparing models
C4
and
The
-models B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 , C2
and
83
C5
B1
curacy.
B1
is the best
The computation times are of the same order for all models except
D3 , D4
and
C4 .
D1 is recommended.
xr
up to 20 %, model
D1
can
be extended with specic heats for the residual gas (4.38). These
specic heats are modeled by the Krieger-Borman polynomial.
This model extension adds a NRMSE( ) which is less than 1.2 %
to the previous modeling error for
xr = 0.20.
heat release parameters, that are accurate within 1 % for all three
parameters, and this suggests that any of the
used, preferably model
D1
D -models
can be
It is shown
that the specic heat ratio and the specic heats for the unburned mixture is captured to within 0.25 % by a linear function in mean charge
temperature
for
[0.8, 1.2].
and temperature
If a linear
84
then the temperature region should be chosen with care which can reduce the modeling error in
by 25 %.
-model
during the combustion process, i.e. for a partially burned mixture. This
is done by interpolating the specic heats for the unburned and burned
mixture using the mass fraction burned
model of
, which results in
xb .
(T, p, xb ) =
lin
xb cKB
cp (T, p, xb )
p,b + (1 xb ) cp,u
=
KB + (1 x ) clin
cv (T, p, xb )
xb cv,b
b v,u
(4.41)
xr
error in
that the
heat ratio to the Gatowski et al. (1984) single-zone heat release model is
Part II
Compression Ratio
Estimation
85
5
Compression ratio
estimation with focus on
motored cycles
The ability to vary the compression ratio opens up new possibilities
but if the compression ratio gets stuck at too high ratios, the risk of
engine destruction by heavy knock increases rapidly.
On the other
hand if the compression ratio gets stuck at too low ratios, this results
in low eciency, and therefore an unnecessary high fuel consumption.
It is therefore vital to monitor and diagnose the continuously changing
compression ratio.
Determination of the compression ratio is in itself an issue of high
importance (Amann, 1985; Lancaster et al., 1975) since it inuences
the analysis and control of the combustion process. Due to geometrical
uncertainties, a spread in compression ratio among the dierent cylinders is inherent (Amann, 1985), and since it is impossible to measure
the compression ratio directly it is necessary to estimate it. Here four
compression ratio estimation methods are developed and their properties with respect to 1) accuracy, 2) convergence speed, and 3) over
all convergence, are investigated.
88
heat release model. Three dierent optimization algorithms that minimize the prediction error are utilized to estimate the parameters in the
cylinder pressure models. These are:
1.
2.
3.
Levenberg-Marquardt method.
Based on these models and optimization algorithms, four dierent compression ratio estimation methods are formulated.
5.1 Outline
The two cylinder pressure models that will be used are given in section 5.2. They have been derived in chapter 2 and are summarized here
for convenience. Based on these two models and the three optimization algorithms described above, four methods for compression ratio
estimation are introduced in section 5.3. Thereafter, the performance
of the four methods is evaluated for simulated cylinder pressure traces
in terms of bias, variance and computational time in section 5.4. The
simulation study is an important and necessary step for a fair evaluation, due to that the true value of the compression ratio for an engine
is unknown. The simulation evaluation includes a sensitivity analysis.
In section 5.5 the focus is turned to an evaluation of the methods performance on experimental data.
89
Figure 5.1: Schematic of engine with variable compression. With courtesy of SAAB Automobile AB.
5.2.1
Polytropic model
p()V ()n = C,
where
p()
(5.1)
is the volume,
, V ()
is a cycle-to-cycle
V () = Vid () + Vc ,
(5.2)
where
and
rc =
where
(5.3)
pression and expansion phases of the engine cycle well, but not the
90
bustion only data between inlet valve closing (IVC) and start of combustion (SOC) will be used, while for motored cycles all data acquired
during the closed part of the cycle, i.e. between IVC and exhaust valve
opening (EVO), is utilized.
5.2.2
Standard model
Gatowski et al. (1984) develops, tests and applies this model for heat
release analysis. This model is from hereon named the standard model.
It is based on the rst law of thermodynamics and maintains simplicity
while still including the well known eects of heat transfer and crevice
ows.
dp
=
d
dQht
1
p dV
d d
,
Vcr
T
1
0 + 1 ln 0 1
V
+
+
T
1
Tw 1
b
1
dQch
d
(5.4)
see Gatowski et al. (1984) for the derivation and section 3.8 for details
on model components and parameters. This corresponds to model
B1
m+1
a ig
cd
xb () = 1 e
,
m
m+1
dxb ()
a (m + 1) ig
a ig
cd
,
=
e
d
cd
cd
xb
where
cd
ig
(5.5a)
(5.5b)
and
are adjustable
dQch
dxb ()
= Qin
,
d
d
where
Qin
(5.6)
5.2.3
91
level is unknown and it is slowly varying. This issue was introduced and
discussed in section 3.1. The modeling assumption was that the pressure oset is considered to be constant during one engine cycle. The
pressure oset is estimated using intake manifold pressure referencing
as described in section 3.1, i.e. by referencing the measured cylinder
pressure
pm ()
waves in the intake runners and ow losses over the valves at certain
operating points, the referencing might prove to be insucient. This
is investigated by including a parameter for cylinder pressure oset in
estimation methods 3 and 4, described in the next section.
as
min k(x)k22 ,
x
(x)
where a residual
measurement.
(5.7)
residuals are formed, and in the iterative methods used for solving the
resulting problem (5.7).
The termination criterion for all methods are the same; If the relk(x)k2 is less than 1 106 in one
5.3.1
p() (Vid () + Vc )n = C
to estimate the polytropic exponent
the constant
C.
n,
(5.8)
rc
and
Vc
(i.e.
determine the
C1 = ln C
and
n,
if
Vc
(5.9)
is xed. An-
(5.10)
92
n
1b (, x).
Vid () + Vc
1a (, x)
(5.11)
The relation (5.11) must be taken into account and the residual
is therefore multiplied by the weight
w() = Vid () + Vc ,
1a
to obtain
x = [Vc C n]
in
x = [Vc C n].
min kw 1a k22
n,C1
with
Vc
C1 = ln C .
Vc ,C2
with
c2 = C 1/n .
5.3.2
The second method also uses the polytropic model (5.1), together with a
variable projection algorithm. A nonlinear least-squares problem (5.7)
is
separable
x = (y z)
such
that
(5.12)
(y, z)
93
is linear in
y , (y, z)
can be rewritten as
z,
(5.13)
this is minimized by
(5.14)
(5.15)
and
PF (z)
is the orthogonal
projection
(5.16)
F (z),
thus
n,
and nonlinear in
Vc .
(5.17)
C1 = ln C
and
The residual (5.10) is not suitable, since the parameters are coupled for
this formulation, see appendix B.2. With this method the three parameters
x = [Vc ln C n]
5.3.3
The third method uses the polytropic model (5.1), as methods 1 and 2
did, with a pressure sensor model (3.1) added according to
pm () = Kp p() + p = p() + p
(5.18)
in order to make the pressure referencing better. The measured cylinder pressure is given by
pm (),
is
Kp
between the volume and pressure are also included in the polytropic
model, which then can be written as the following residual:
3 (Vc , n, C, p, ) = pm () p C (Vid ( + ) + Vc )n .
(5.19)
n, C , p, .
Vc ,
94
5.3.4
The fourth method uses the single-zone model (5.4) from Gatowski
et al. (1984) which, in contrast to the other methods, also includes
heat transfer and crevice eects.
and the parameters used are summarized in appendix B.4. Due to the
complexity of this model, the sublinear approach and variable projection approach are not applicable, and therefore only the Levenberg
Marquardt method is used. The increased complexity also causes identiability problems for some of the parameters, since there exist many
dependencies between them. This is the case for the crevice volume
and the clearance volume
Vc ,
Vcr
Therefore
one of them is set constant, in this case the crevice volume (Klein,
2004, p. 94). The estimation problem is however still hard, as will be
shown in chapter 6, and therefore the number of parameters to estimate are reduced to ve for motored cycles, and eight for red cycles.
The remaining parameters are xed to their initial values. The number
of parameters to estimate are determined by comparing the bias and
variance in the parameter values using simulations for dierent settings
of parameters. For motored cycles the estimated parameters are:
5.3.5
Tivc ,
d ,
Summary of methods
Table 5.1 shows the relations between the methods. For red cycles,
methods 1, 2 and 3 use cylinder pressure data between IVC and SOC
only, in contrast to method 4 which uses data from the entire closed
part of the engine cycle. For motored cycles, all data during the closed
part of the cycle is utilized by all methods. It is also noteworthy that
if the clearance volume
Vc
is estimated instead of
Vc .
In
Algorithm
Polytropic model
Sublinear
Method 1
Variable projection
Method 2
Levenberg-Marquardt
Method 3
Standard model
Method 4
95
Pressure [bar]
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
5.4.1
N = 1500
bar, which dene operating points OP1, OP2 and OP3 respectively.
Pressure traces were generated for both motored and red cycles at
each operating point for integer compression ratios between 8 and 15,
which covers the compression ratio operating range of the prototype
SI engine. To each trace ten realizations of Gaussian noise with zero
mean and standard deviation 0.038 bar were added, forming altogether
240 motored and 240 red cycles. This noise level was chosen since it
has the same RMSE as the residual for method 4 in the experimental
evaluation, and thus reects the application to experimental data. The
data was sampled with a resolution of 1 crank-angle degree (CAD).
96
In gure 5.2, one motored cycle is shown for each integer compression
ratio
rc
5.4.2
parameters in the models are estimated using all methods, for each
individual cycle.
Estimation results
For the variable compression ratio engine, the dierence in
two consecutive cycles can be as large as 5 %.
rc
between
rc ,
= 8)
= 15)
pression ratio, and as a mean for all compression ratios. The relative
mean error RME is dened by
RM E =
1
M
PM
j=1 rc
rc
rc
(5.20)
j
where rc , j = 1, . . . , M is the estimate of rc corresponding to cycle j
97
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
7
10
11
12
13
True compression ratio
14
15
16
M
1 X 1.96j
RCI =
,
M j=1 rc
where
(5.21)
98
Residual analysis
The residuals corresponding to the cylinder pressures in gure 5.2 are
displayed for all four methods in gure 5.4 for rc
rc
and 5.5. The same systematic deviation occurs for method 3, although
it is smaller. The residuals for method 4 are white noise, which is expected since method 4 has the correct model structure. The systematic
deviation for methods 1-3 is due to the polytropic model (5.1), which
does not explicitly account for heat transfer and crevice eects . The
systematic deviation for method 3 would be of the same order as for
methods 1 and 2, if it were not for the two extra parameters
and p
in (5.19). These two parameters compensate for the lack of heat transfer and crevice eect with the penalty of parameter biases. The most
pronounced change is the shifted crank angle phasing
, which results
5.4.3
The results for all motored operating points are given in table 5.3,
where the relative mean estimation errors and 95 % condence intervals
are computed as a mean for all compression ratios. For all operating
points, the estimate from method 2 is within 1.5 % and within 0.5 %
from method 4.
rc = 8
Method
vs.
99
rc = 15
all
rc
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
std
True
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[-]
2.6
4.1
2.3
6.9
2.4
5.4
0.093
-0.9
3.5
-1.0
3.8
-0.9
3.6
0.072
-2.8
5.9
-4.4
5.4
-3.6
5.5
0.19
0.35
0.87
0.12
0.49
0.21
0.65
0.0013
Table 5.2:
Time
Iter
[ms]
[-]
63
26.1
3.0
86
5
2.6 10
5.0
14.0
rc
for
rc = 8, rc = 15
simulated data
and as a mean
RMSE=0.070 bar
RMSE=0.066 bar
0.2
M2: Residual [bar]
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
RMSE=0.042 bar
100
0.2
M4: Residual [bar]
0
RMSE=0.038 bar
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
Figure 5.4: Dierence between estimated and simulated cylinder pressure for all methods, given the motored cycle at
rc = 8
in gure 5.2.
100
RMSE=0.176 bar
0.5
M2: Residual [bar]
0.5
0.5
100
0.5
100
100
RMSE=0.069 bar
0.5
M4: Residual [bar]
100
RMSE=0.038 bar
0.5
0.5
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
0.5
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
Figure 5.5: Dierence between estimated and simulated cylinder pressure for all methods, given the motored cycle at
rc = 15
in gure 5.2.
pman
the signal to noise ratio, while the eects of heat transfer and crevice
ows remain the same.
The choice of residual is important. This is illustrated by the fact
that the estimates and condence intervals for methods 1 and 2 dier,
for which the only dierence is the formulation of the residual. Furthermore, methods 1 and 2 use a logarithmic residual of the pressure,
that weighs the low pressure parts between IVC and EVO relatively
higher than method 3 does. For method 3, the samples corresponding
to the highest pressure are the most important ones. This however coincides with the highest mean charge temperature, and thus the highest
heat transfer losses. This is where the polytropic pressure model used
in methods 1-3 has its largest model error, since heat transfer is not
101
OP1
OP2
OP3
1500 rpm
1500 rpm
1500 rpm
pman
0.5 bar
1.0 bar
1.8 bar
Method
RME [%]
RCI [%]
RME [%]
RCI [%]
RME [%]
3.6
8.5
2.4
5.4
0.45
RCI [%]
4.3
-0.35
5.7
-0.9
3.6
-1.4
2.7
-3.8
7.1
-3.6
5.5
-3.6
4.7
0.37
1.2
0.21
0.65
0.094
0.37
Table 5.3: Relative mean error (RME) and mean 95 % relative condence interval (RCI) in estimated
rc ,
pman .
and
pressure.
Parameter
Nominal value
p [kPa]
[deg]
C1 [-]
Vcr [% Vc ]
-5
Deviations
-2
-0.25
-0.1
0.1
0.25
2.28
1.14
3.42
4.56
1.5
0.75
2.25
3.0
Table 5.4: Nominal values for the parameters and the deviations used
in the sensitivity analysis.
5.4.4
The next question asked is: How sensitive are the methods to changes
in heat transfer, crevice volume, an inaccurate TDC determination or
a badly referenced cylinder pressure?
rc
is given as a function of
p,
sure bias. Methods 1 and 2 which do not model a pressure bias, are
approximately equally sensitive. This is due to that an additive pressure bias aects all pressure samples equally. A parameter deviation
of
|p| 2
for
0.1
0.05
0.05
RME []
RME []
102
0
0.05
M1
M2
0.1
0
5
M3 5
Pressure bias p [kPa]
M4
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.05
RME []
RME []
0.2
0
0.2
Crank angle offset [deg]
0.1
0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0
0.05
2
4
Woschni C1 []
0.1
1
2
3
Crevice volume [% Vc]
C1
and
Vcr
p, ,
values are given in table 5.4, and correspond to the third value on the
x-axis.
p. Comparing methods 1
than method 2. This is
p, is less
|| 0.2 deg,
rc
C1 .
Vcr ,
al-
Vcr
Vc .
103
volume are modeled in almost the same way, due to the relatively low
in-cylinder temperatures. It is therefore natural that a larger crevice
volume causes a larger estimate of the clearance volume, and thereby
a smaller compression ratio. This is the case in gure 5.6, and it has
been seen earlier for motored and red cycles in Klein (2004, p. 94).
To conclude, the more robust methods 3 and 4 are able to cope with
the parameter deviations imposed upon them, due to their high model
exibility. Of the other two methods, method 2 has the best performance although it is equally sensitive to a pressure bias as method 1
is.
5.4.5
Figure 5.7 displays the results for simulated cycles with combustion,
in terms of mean value and 95 % condence interval at each integer
compression ratio from 8 to 15.
The estimates for methods 1-3 are poor, and the relative mean error
for all
rc
that the pressure corresponding to TDC is not included, since they only
use the data between IVC and SOC. This also yields larger condence
intervals compared to motored cycles, reecting a more uncertain estimate. Method 4 on the other hand uses all data between IVC and
EVO, and yields an estimate accurate within 0.4 % for OP2. Due to
the poor performance of methods 1-3, an experimental evaluation on
red data is not pursued. Out of the four proposed methods, method 4
is required to estimate the compression ratio from a red cycle.
The conclusions from this investigation of how the methods perform
on simulated data is summarized in section 5.6.
5.5.1
N
{1500, 3000} rpm, intake manifold pressures pman {0.5, 1.0} bar alto-
104
14
M1
M2
M3
M4
True CR
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
7
10
11
12
13
True compression ratio
14
15
16
gether forming four dierent operating points, dened in the upper part
of table 5.6. The measurements are performed for actuated compression
ratio values from the lower limit 8.13 to the upper limit 14.66, through
integer values 9 to 14 in between. With actuated compression ratio it
is meant the value commanded from the electronic control unit (ECU).
These values were determined from engine production drawings and
implemented in the ECU, but can be aected by production tolerances
or non-ideal sensors (Amann, 1985), as well as mechanical and thermal
deformation during engine operation (Lancaster et al., 1975).
For each operating point and compression ratio, 250 consecutive
motored cycles with the fuel injection shut-o were sampled with a
crank-angle resolution of 1 degree, using a Kiestler 6052 cylinder pressure sensor.
rc
rc
at
tilted, see gure 5.1, which causes the position for TDC to be advanced
from 0 CAD (Klein et al., 2003). The lower the compression ratio is,
105
Pressure [bar]
rc=14.66
20
10
rc=8.13
0
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
the more advanced the position for TDC becomes. This explains why
the peak pressure position for
pared to
rc = 14.66, and
rc = 8.13
5.5.2
The performance of the estimation methods is rst evaluated for operating point OP2, dened in table 5.6. This operating point has an
intake manifold pressure in the midrange of the engine, and a relatively
low engine speed for which the eects of heat transfer and crevices are
signicant. OP2 is therefore chosen as a representable operating point.
Estimation results
The estimation results are presented in the same manner as for the
simulated data. Figure 5.9 displays the mean estimate and the mean
95 % condence interval for 250 consecutive cycles at OP2, where the
estimate has been computed for each individual cycle. Table 5.5 shows
mean computational time and mean number of iterations, as well as the
relative mean error and mean 95 % relative condence interval. Two
examples of residuals are given in gures 5.10 and 5.11.
106
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
10
11
12
13
Actuated compression ratio
14
15
compare gures 5.9 and 5.3. This spread increases as the compression
ratio becomes higher, a trend also found for the condence intervals
of the estimates.
the same, where method 1 always yields the largest estimates, and
method 3 the smallest. The trends and eects in the simulation evaluation are also present in the experimental investigation, which gives a
rst indication that the conclusions drawn from the simulation study
are valid.
All methods have approximately the same condence intervals for
the experimental and simulated data, compare tables 5.5 and 5.2. Again
method 4 yields the smallest condence intervals followed by method 2.
The dierence is most signicant for method 4, which had the correct
model structure in the simulation case while here it is an approximation of the real engine. This is also seen in the residual, gure 5.11,
as a systematic deviation around TDC. This model error thus adds to
Method
vs.
107
rc = 14.66
all
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
std
Act.
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[-]
6.0
2.9
5.2
6.1
6.4
5.3
0.11
rc
Time
Iter
[ms]
[-]
89
30.2
3.7
5.1
2.6
2.7
3.7
3.6
3.8
0.083
-1.5
6.7
-6.1
5.8
-4.2
6.5
0.066
3.6
1.6
1.0
1.3
2.2
1.3
0.051
128
5
6.6 10
5.7
14.0
Table 5.5: Relative mean error (RME) and mean 95 % relative condence interval (RCI) of the estimated
and
rc = 14.66,
mental data
rc
rc = 8.13
from OP2.
experi-
Residual analysis
The residuals corresponding to the cylinder pressures in gure 5.8 are
rc = 8.13 and in grc = 14.66, together with their respective root mean square
error (RMSE).
As for the simulations, there is a systematic deviation for methods
1, 2 and 3. This deviation increases with
rc .
This is most
The
108
RMSE=0.107 bar
M2: Residual [bar]
RMSE=0.108 bar
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
100
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
RMSE=0.038 bar
M4: Residual [bar]
RMSE=0.045 bar
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
rc =
8.13.
5.5.3
The trends shown for OP2 are also present in the full data set, displayed
in table 5.6.
pman
pman
is
109
RMSE=0.230 bar
M2: Residual [bar]
RMSE=0.252 bar
0.5
0
0.5
100
0.5
0
0.5
100
100
100
RMSE=0.065 bar
M4: Residual [bar]
RMSE=0.098 bar
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
rc =
14.66.
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
1500 rpm
1500 rpm
3000 rpm
3000 rpm
pman
0.5 bar
1.0 bar
0.5 bar
1.0 bar
Method
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
RME
RCI
vs. Act.
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
10
6.2
6.4
5.3
7.5
3.6
5.9
4.6
3.6
3.8
1.3
5.2
-0.083
-2.3
8.2
-4.2
6.5
-3.9
7.3
-6.2
5.9
2.8
2.0
2.2
1.3
2.9
1.6
2.4
1.2
Table 5.6: Relative mean error (RME) and mean 95 % relative condence interval (RCI) in estimated
dened by engine speed
rc ,
pman .
110
compression ratio. A possible fault mode is that the compression ratio gets stuck at a too high level, e.g. at
is then used to detect and alarm when
stuck at 12
Consider the task of detecting when the compression ratio gets stuck.
Only two fault modes are considered
rcest
NF).
ered as no fault (
(5.22)
rc act
is consid-
H0 : N F
H 1 : F.
(5.23)
rc act
rcact = 9
(5.24)
and
rc
is really stuck at
and es-
This is
(5.25)
(5.26)
probability.
Based on the estimates and condence intervals for method 2 using
the experimental results at OP2 in table 5.5, the power function
is
111
1
0.9
Power function []
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
8
10
11
12
Actuated rc []
13
14
15
rc
is stuck at 12.
computed and displayed in gure 5.12. In the computations it is assumed that the true
rc
J = 0.15 rcact ,
shows that this results in a signicance level of less than 0.2 %, which is
assumed suciently low. In this case the false alarm probability comes
est
to the cost of a low missed detection probability for rc
close to but
est
not within the
fault mode, rc
[10.8, 13.2]. This is illustrated
est
by the region rc
[10.5, 10.8[ where M DP = 1 0.5, i.e. the
NF
error will not be detected in more than 50 % of the cases. But when
rcest 10 the missed detection probability goes to zero, indicating
that we will always detect if rc gets stuck if a proper excitation of the
112
rc .
This
is sucient both for safety reasons, where the compression ratio can
be too high and engine knock is the consequence, and for fuel economic reasons, where a too low compression ratio will lead to higher
fuel consumption.
5.6 Conclusions
Four methods for compression ratio estimation based on cylinder pressure traces have been developed and evaluated for both simulated and
experimental cycles.
rc
rc
rc
it is important to take the heat transfer into account, and then only
rc .
5.6. CONCLUSIONS
113
from method 4 are smallest of all methods, but it suers from a high
computational time. Method 2 yields smaller condence intervals than
methods 1 and 3, and is outstanding regarding convergence speed. The
eects and trends shown in the simulation evaluation are also present
in the experimental data. Therefore the conclusions made in the simulation evaluation with respect to models, residuals, methods, heat
transfer and crevice eects are the same for the experimental evaluation.
Concluding recommendations
The accuracy of the compression ratio estimate is higher for motored
cycles with high initial pressures. Thus if it is possible to choose the
initial pressure, it should be as high as possible. Using motored cycles
assures that all pressure information available is utilized and the high
initial pressure improves the signal-to-noise ratio, while the eects of
heat transfer and crevice ows remain the same.
Two methods are recommended; If estimation accuracy has the
highest priority, and time is available, method 4 should be used. Method
4 yields the smallest condence intervals of all investigated methods for
both simulated and experimental data. In the simulation case where
the true value of the compression ratio is known, method 4 gave estimates with smallest bias. If computational time is the most important
property, method 2 is recommended.
114
Part III
115
6
Using prior knowledge for
single-zone heat release
analysis
Internal combustion engines operate by converting the chemical energy
in the air-fuel mixture into useful work by raising the cylinder pressure
through combustion.
Problem outline
The focus is on a single-zone heat release model (Gatowski et al., 1984)
that describes the cylinder pressure accurately and has a low computational complexity. A low computational complexity is an important
feature when analyzing large data sets. However, this model includes
at most 16 unknown parameters, as shown in section 3.8, among which
there are couplings causing identiability problems. This is due to that
the estimation problem is on the verge of being over-parameterized. An
example is the clearance volume and the crevice volume, which are hard
to identify simultaneously. This is often solved by setting one of these
parameters to a constant xed value. The correct value of the constant
117
118
Problem solution
Two methods for parameter estimation are developed and compared.
Method 1 is called
and is summarized
as:
1. Estimate the parameter values and variances using a constrained
local optimizer.
2. Find the most uncertain parameter, i.e. the one that has the
highest variance by using singular value decomposition (SVD) of
the estimated hessian, for the given measured cylinder pressure.
3. Set the uncertain parameter from step 2 constant using prior
knowledge of the parameter and return to step 1.
The uncertain parameters are set constant one-by-one in step 3, which
reduces the variance for the remaining (ecient) parameters when no
modeling error is induced.
prior knowledge
WN =
N
1 X
(p(i ) p(i , x))2 + (x x# )T (x x# )
N i=1
(6.1)
named
p(, x)
and measured
p()
6.1. OUTLINE
119
WN
x# .
If
6.1 Outline
The outline of this chapter and the two following chapters is presented
here. One cylinder pressure is described in section 6.2. It has been derived in chapters 2 and is summarized here for convenience. Then the
problem associated with this parameter estimation application is illustrated in section 6.3 by two simple approaches, which are based purely
on either data tting or parameter prior knowledge, and they are both
unsuccessful. Therefore two methods, referred to earlier in this chapter
as method 1 and 2, that incorporate parameter prior knowledge in the
estimation problem are proposed in section 6.4.
The compiled
120
develops, tests and applies a single-zone model for heat release analysis.
See section 2.5 for the derivation and section 3.8 for details on the
parameters and model components.
6.2.1
Standard model
B1
in chapter 4.
(6.2)
6.2.2
The parameters used in the standard model and how to nd its nominal
values was given in chapter 3. In the standard model, two parameters
(300 and
b)
TIV C ,
pIV C ,
200 K, i.e. a physically invalid value. The second approach tunes the
parameters manually one at a time until a satisfactory pressure trace
is found, an approach sometimes referred to as heat release playing.
121
=32.3 kPa
man
2000
Pressure [kPa]
1500
1000
500
0
Pressure [kPa]
500
100
50
100
50
50
100
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
20
0
20
Figure 6.1: Filtered experimental ring cycle and the modeled cylinder
pressure for the two simple approaches. The residual for approach 1
(dash-dotted) and approach 2 (dashed) are also given in both the upper
and lower plot. The RMSE:s are 1.3 and 5.8 kPa respectively.
This approach requires a lot of patience combined with prior knowledge of nominal values as well as expert knowledge of what inuence
each parameter has on the cylinder pressure, and also cross-couplings
in between the parameters.
The results for both approaches are given in gure 6.1, where the
modeled and measured cylinder pressure traces are displayed, and in
table 6.1 where the parameter estimates are given. In fairness of the
second approach, it should be pointed out that less than an hour was
spent on tuning the parameters, thus the result could of course be
better. It however illustrates how time-consuming this approach can
be.
As shown in gure 6.1 approach 1 has a good residual t, but according to table 6.1 the parameter estimates are bad. The small residual
in gure 6.1 also illustrates that the model structure is exible enough
to describe the cylinder pressure, but that the parameters are hard to
identify. The bad parameter estimates are exemplied by the temperature at IVC,
TIV C ,
300
b
C1
C2
p
Kp
pIV C
TIV C
Tw
Vc
Vcr
ig
d
b
Qin
24.6
20.1
352
0.71
350
20.1
26.6
-32.6
350
20.1
26.6
-32.6
0.58
58.8
440
388.8
41.3
-1.37
0.047
2.28
3.24 103
7.42 105
1.335
Nominal
Table 6.1: Nominal values and estimates for the two simple approaches.
0.61
-31.4
3
single aggregate crevice volume [cm ]
58.8
400.0
61.1
270.0
41.0
475
45.7
563
0.908
-1.37
0.043
-1.34
4.56
3.24 103
3.14 103
2.44
7.42 105
1.335
Approach 2
2.11 105
0.048
1.285
Approach 1
Description
Par.
122
123
This is compen-
Tw , and
300 . Without the constraints the estimation would render an
even smaller TIV C . Typically all temperatures drift o to non-physical
sated for by having a higher mean cylinder wall temperature,
a smaller
estimates that are inaccurate and not physically valid. The same behavior arise for estimation problems that are either rank-decient or
ill-posed. As an illustration, the behavior for a simple linear example
of a rank-decient problem is given in appendix C.2.
For the second approach it is the other way around compared to
the rst approach. The second approach gives reasonable parameter
values, see table 6.1, but the residual t is worse than for the rst
approach as shown in the lower part of gure 6.1. This approach can
therefore be said to give physically valid parameter estimates, but not
in a time ecient way. In addition the user's presumption also plays a
role in the estimation and could result in a bias. The residual error is
however small compared to the measured cylinder pressure, as shown
in the upper part of the gure.
comply very well with all our demands on the estimation procedure;
ecient, systematic and accurate. To enhance the performance of these
two approaches, their advantages are combined by using the systematic
minimization of the residual from the rst approach and the parameter
guess approach based on expert and prior knowledge from the second.
The idea for doing so is to use prior knowledge or information about
the parameters and use it in a central way to enhance the estimation
procedure.
p(i )
The sec-
ond method includes the prior knowledge directly into the optimization
problem. This is achieved by including a parameter deviation penalty
124
regularize
and thereby
control and attract the estimates to the vicinity of the priorly given
nominal values.
prior knowledge.
6.4.1
regularization using
VN =
w.r.t.
x.
1
N
N
X
i=1
by minimizing
(6.3)
The
number of parameters to estimate are then reduced one by one by setting them xed, starting with the most uncertain parameter. This is
motivated by the following; The most uncertain parameters generally
drift o from their nominal values. This nominal parameter deviation
will cause a bias even in the most certain parameters, as illustrated for
300
simultaneously.
VN .
rameter is found, it is set constant and the estimation starts over again
with one parameter less to estimate. This systematic procedure of reducing the number of parameters was presented in (Eriksson, 1998) for
motored cycles. A recommended number of parameters was then found
by using the condition number of the hessian. Here all parameter estimates
estimate minimizing the Akaike nal prediction error (FPE) is the best
parameter estimate, x
.
to
125
1995; Lindskog, 1996), the parameters can be divided into two sets:
spurious
and
ecient
y = (x1 + x2 ).
If
x2
(6.4)
x1
is
VN (
x)
HN (
x)
This is
reected in the hessian, which has large values for ecient parameters. Therefore, it is of interest to nd the group of parameters that
corresponds to the smallest eect, i.e. the spurious parameters, and
set these parameters to appropriate constant values.
This is reason-
able since the spurious parameters are the hardest to estimate with the
N
given model M(x) and the observed data Z . The observed data is
N
dened as Z
= [y(1 ), u(1 ), y(2 ), u(2 ), . . . , y(N ), u(N )], given the
inputs
u()
and outputs
y().
The spurious parameters are classied by nding the smallest singular value of HN (
x, Z N ), and from the corresponding eigenvector the
group of parameters can be picked out. An algorithm for this is given
by algorithm 6.1.
126
TIV C ,
can be ordered as
TIV C .
TIV C
TIV C .
Tw
will be set
A special case for the preferred ordering groups, is when only one
(large) group
B1
As mentioned earlier, it is
C1 , Tw
and
TIV C
Bi .
rules, in step 4 and step 6 respectively. These are motivated after the
algorithm.
Algorithm 6.1
ferred ordering
Let x
ef f be estimated parameters from the local optimizer used for
#
d ecient parameters and xsp are the spurious parameters.
HN (
x, Z N )
(C.8), where
x =
3.The eigenvector
ek
ek
is
127
A of elements from the eigenvector vd# correspondby using the following strategy: Find the elements in
6.Form a group
ing to
vd#
d# ,
0.1.
Bi
Bi
to which
xk
A.
ek .
ek .
This assures
that the dominating parameter is not exchanged. This approach is implemented in step 4 such that a parameter is classied as dominating if
its absolute value is greater than 0.9, which corresponds to more than
vd# .
In step 6 another ad-hoc decision rule is used. It is based upon the
xk
vd# .
xj ,
In step 6
The numerical values in steps 4 and 6 are ad-hoc choices, and can
therefore be adjusted according to the specic requirements of the user.
x1 , . . . , x5 .
ordering groups
and
Fol-
lowing the algorithm, rst the estimated hessian is computed (step 1),
128
and from this the singular values are found (step 2). The eigenvector
that corresponds to the smallest singular value is
v5 (step 3).
v5 vectors.
Three
ek
in Group
v5 =
Aa
are found by
0
1
0
0
0
Aa = {e2 }
using steps 34. The absolute value of this element is greater than
0.9, and therefore
b)The elements
ek
x2
in Group
v5 =
Ab
0
0.7
0.7
0.14
0
are found by
Ab = {e2 , e3 }
e2 and e3 belong to
x2 is returned in step
Bi ,
8.
and therefore
c)The elements
ek
Ac are found by
0.4
0.65
0.5
Ac = {e2 , e3 , e1 }
0.2
0.2
in Group
v5 =
B1
as well as
e2 ,
e1 .
and thus
x1
e1
e2
should
is returned in step 8.
Bi ,
x2 .
VN (
x, Z N )
129
It is therefore
This is known as
over-t
Akaike FPE it is assumed that the true system can be described by our
model
M(x),
VN
is
EVN (
x) VN (
x, Z N ) + 0
where
2d
,
N
samples and
d is the
(6.5)
is the number of
M(x).
The more
parameters the model structure uses, the smaller the rst term will
be. Each new parameter contributes with a variance penalty of
20 /N ,
VN
20 /N
spurious.
EVN (
x)
1+
1
d
N
d
N
VN (
x, Z N ) =: VNF P E (
x, d).
VN (
x)
(6.6)
should be modied to
Algorithm Method 1
We are now ready to formulate the algorithm.
d1
be the initial values for the parameters x R
. The pa ef f sp T
#
ef f
rameter vector is partitioned as x = x
x
, where x
Rd 1
Let
xsp R(dd
)1
130
x
= xinit
and the
#
#
3.If there are more than dmin ecient parameters left, i.e. d
>
#
sp
ef f
usdmin , compute the most spurious parameter xnew out of x
sp
ef f
sp
ing Algorithm 6.1. Then move xnew from x
to x
and reduce
#
#
the number of ecient parameters by one, i.e. d = d 1. Return to step 2.
VNF P E (
xef f , d# ) from (6.6) for all d# .
VNF P E (
xef f , d# ).
x = x
ef f (d ).
5.Return the best parameter estimate
x .
prior knowledge.
into
ecient and spurious parameters has to be done by the user. For the
sake of completeness, the number of ecient parameters in chapters 7
#
#
and 8 are set to dmin = 1 and dmax = d.
6.4.2
131
an ill-conditioned jacobian
singular hessian
done by adding
WN (x, x# , Z N , )
1
N
PN
1
i=1 2
2 (i , x) + (x x# )T (x x# )
= VN (x, Z N ) + x VN (x, x# , ).
(6.7)
It diers from the basic criterion VN by also penalizing the squared dis#
#
tance between x and x , where x
are the nominal parameter values.
It is divided into two terms, where
VN
and will be returned to later. The main reason for using this criterion
is: If the model parameterization contains many parameters, it may
not be possible to estimate several of them accurately. There are then
#
(Ljung,
advantages in pulling the parameters towards a xed point x
1999, pp.221). This denitively applies to an ill-posed problem. The
penalty term VN in (6.7) will eect the parameters with the smallest
inuence on
VN , i.e.
the spurious ones, the most. This forces the spurix# . The regularization matrix can
large
comes smaller and that more parameters are locked to the vicinity of
x# . It can also be seen as the weighted compromise between residual
#
#
error and nominal parameter deviation x = x x . A large thus
corresponds to a large condence in the nominal parameter values.
The impact of the prior on the nal estimate will now be illustrated
in the following example.
and
on nal estimate
y = (x1 + x2 ),
which formed the base for example 6.1. Here,
(6.8)
x1 = x2 = 1
= diag(1 , 2 ).
The residual
is then formed as
(6.9)
132
WN (x, x# , Z N , )
WN (x, x# , Z N , ) = (y x1 x2 )2 + (x x# )T (x x# ).
It is minimized analytically by dierentiating
WN
(6.10)
(1 + 21 )x1 + x2 = y + 21 x#
1 ,
(6.11a)
x1 + (1 + 22 )x2 = y + 22 x#
2 .
(6.11b)
= 0
x1 + x2 = y,
(6.12)
6= 0,
x1 = 2
#
y (x#
1 + x2 )
+ x#
1 ,
1 + 2 + 1 2
(6.13a)
x2 = 1
#
y (x#
1 + x2 )
+ x#
2 .
1 + 2 + 1 2
(6.13b)
x#
i ,
larger the components i are, the more the estimates xi are drawn to
#
the nominal values xi . In the case when 1 2 , x1 is more attracted
#
#
to x1 than x2 is to x2 .
WN
(6.7) re-
quires that the optimization search method is reformulated. The expressions for the gradient and the hessian of
WN
given here. For comparison, references to the derivation of a local optimizer without regularization (appendix C.1) are given. The gradient
VN (x, Z N )0 (C.4) and the hessian approximation HN (C.8) for such
an optimizer have to be rewritten when the parameter penalty term
in (6.7) is included. It is here assumed that there are no cross-couplings
133
WN0 (x, x# , Z N , ) =
1
N
PN
t=1
(6.14)
HN (x, Z N ) + 2 = HN
(x, Z N , ),
and its approximation is given by
The estimate
(6.15)
HN
(x, Z N , ) = HN (x, Z N ) + 2 .
minimizing point
x
i+1 (x# , Z N , )
,i i
=x
i (x# , Z N , ) iN [HN
(
x , Z N , )]1 WN0 (
xi , x# , Z N , )
x
i (x# , Z N , )
where
is the
ith
iterate, in which
di
di (
xi , x# , Z N , ),
(6.16)
,i
HN
x#
and
scaling of the two terms VN and VN , they can dier quite substantially
in size and can therefore be hard to compare in a fair way. This is
solved by introducing a regularization factor
matrix
in the regularization
according to
= x diag(i ), i = 1, . . . , d,
where
(6.17)
is then used
134
in
i =
where
are given by
1
,
2N i 2
(6.18)
xi
and it is assumed
is referred to as
It can however be
#
two measures VN and VN are directly related to and x according to
between the measures
1
VN
2
r
1
#
RMSE(L x ) =
V
d N
RMSE() =
where
L = diag(i )1/2
and
(6.19a)
(6.19b)
#
x ). The matrix L serves as a weighting function and determines how
RMSE
RMSE
strong the pulling force is for the individual parameters. The form on
which the prior is given is therefore important for the shape of the
() from
The notation x is used for the estimate x
resulting curve.
x ,
mates are no longer suppressed by the prior and therefore free to adjust
to the measurement data. This results in an RMSE() that is approximately the same as the noise level. These two cases are the extremes
concerning condence in the prior knowledge and measurement data
respectively.
For moderate
transition where the residual error falls while the nominal parame#
ter deviation x
remains basically constant. Due to that the upper
135
10
Small
10
RMSE ( L #x ) []
10
10
10
10
Large
10
10
10
10
RMSE ( ) [bar]
10
part of the graph resembles the letter L, the curve is called an
curve
L-
(Hansen and O'Leary, 1993). The noise level and the parameter
#
t
deviation x x are known in simulations, and are therefore included
x :s
136
for which
RM SE((
x, x# , , Z N )) m ,
(6.20a)
RM SE(L #
x, x# , , Z N )) m .
x (
(6.20b)
x =
m
m
(6.21)
#
N
yields a regularized estimate x such that RM SE((x , x , , Z ))
#
#
N
2m and RM SE(L x (x , x , , Z )) 2m . The result
is valid for linear systems. Then if m and m are good estimates
#
of RMSE( ) and RMSE(L x ) respectively, the regularization
parameter
RM SE((x, x# , , Z N )) = a RM SE(),
where
a 1
(6.22)
(x ) =
is dened as
00 (x )0 (x )
0 (x )00 (x )
3/2 ,
0 (x )2 + 0 (x )2
(6.23a)
(x ) = log||(x, x# , , Z N )||2 ,
(x ) =
(6.23b)
#
N
log||L #
x (x, x , , Z )||2 .
(6.23c)
cor-
is determined.
while the
third does not. The latter is thus categorized as error-free in Engl et al.
(1996).
If the noise level is changed and an approximative value for the
new
137
The objective is to keep the ratio between the residual loss function
VN and the prior loss function VN constant. Assume that measurement noise is white and described by 1 (t) and that this results in the
residual loss function VN (1 ) and the prior (or nominal parameter) loss
VN (2 ) =
Keeping the ratio between
is increased by a
VN (2 )
and
VN (2 )
(6.24)
constant results in
VN (1 )
VN (2 )
a2 VN (1 )
=
=
VN (2 ) = a2 VN (1 )
VN (1 )
VN (2 )
VN (2 )
which is realized by setting the prior factor
x (2 ) = a2 x (1 ).
(6.25)
Thus if
is related to the
In the special case when all elements i are equal, the matrix L =
diag(i )1/2 is given by the identity matrix times a constant. This as#
sures that RMSE(x ) is monotonic whenever VN is, and thus the mea#
#
sure RMSE(x ) can be used in the L-curve plots instead of RMSE(L x ).
#
The advantage is that RMSE(x ) corresponds directly to the nominal
parameter deviation. This will be used in chapters 7 and 8 whenever
all
i :s
are equal.
Algorithms Method 2
Algorithms for three versions of method 2 are now given. They dier
in how they nd the regularization parameter
optimization routines described earlier, and are labeled M2:1, M2:2 and
M2:3 respectively. In all cases when the criterion function WN (6.7) is
init
#
minimized, the initial values x
are given by the nominal values x .
138
x#
i
and
2.Compute boundaries
WN
3.Minimize
(6.7) w.r.t.
x Rd1 .
= x diag(i ).
using
from step 2.
x, .
x#
i
and
x Rd1 .
= x diag(i ).
than 1.
x x ,
5.Find the
WN
interpolation.
6.Minimize
WN
x = 0 .
WN
(6.7) w.r.t.
x, .
using
from step 5.
139
RMSE((x )) a RMSE().
for as long as
A third alternative is to
x .
and 8.
Algorithm 6.5 also requires an investigation for nding the search
region
for
x#
i
and
x x ,
3.Find the
x Rd1 .
= x diag(i ).
WN
interpolation.
4.Minimize
WN
(6.7) w.r.t.
using
from step 3.
x, .
x .
x Rd1
N (x#
i , i ).
is then formed as
= x diag(i ),
where
xi
i is
6.4.3
The prior knowledge is used for more reasons than to give the best
parameter estimates. It should primarily be used to reect the insight
and knowledge the user has of the system at hand, and to give physically
reasonable parameter values.
140
x#
xi .
xi ,
it has to be
Vc .
The
Regularization elements i
The element
xi
tion
i ).
of the uncertainty.
Also, from (6.17) it can be concluded that it is only the relative
intergroup size of
141
speaks in favor for the second alternative. It also suggests that other
probability density functions can be assigned to the parameters, as long
as they are of the same kind.
#
Note that only the nominal value, and not the uncertainty of xi
#
that is related to i , is used in method 1. The prior values x
and
are determined for each specic application, and this issue is therefore
returned to in chapters 7 and 8.
6.4.4
nominal value
142
7
Results and evaluation for
motored cycles
7.1.1
144
25
20
OP8
15
10
5
OP1
100
Figure 7.1:
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
points OP18.
engine speeds
IVC
For each operating point a cylinder pressure trace was simulated and
ten realizations of Gaussian noise with zero mean and standard deviation 3.8 kPa were added, forming altogether 80 motored cycles. The
chosen noise level is the same as the one used in chapter 5, and thus
reects the level seen in experimental data. The data was sampled with
a resolution of 1 crank-angle degree (CAD). In gure 7.1, one motored
cycle is shown for each operating point. The cylinder pressures corresponding to OP1 and OP8 dier the most, and will therefore be the
two extremes in the investigation.
7.1.2
To resemble
1
.
2N i 2
prior
(7.1)
When (7.1) was stated it was assumed that there are no cross-terms in
the covariance matrix.
x#
145
will be
regularization parameter
compared to
x .
ters, this allows for a direct measure of the nominal and true parameter
#
t
deviations, x and x respectively, in the plots of an L-curve. Secondly,
since each parameter is assigned the same parameter uncertainty, this
results in a parameter guiding of the estimates towards the nominal
values but it does not give any joint ordering of the parameters. This
case can therefore be seen as the rst and simplest approach. It will
from hereon also be referred to as
i = c,
where
is a constant.
It can be
seen as the more advanced case of the two, and typically yields regularization elements that are not the same. This case is referred to as
i 6= c.
for
experimentally, they are merely chosen since they are physically reasonable.
Vcr
is chosen as
and
146
Vc
3
[cm ]
C1
TIV C
pIV C
300
Unit
xi
[-]
[K]
[kPa]
[-]
0.5
0.114
10
2.5
0.005
RME [%]
0.9
5.0
2.7
5.0
0.4
xi
Tw
Kp
Unit
[K]
Vcr
3
[cm ]
[kPa]
[deg]
[-]
10
0.15
2.5
0.05
0.005
RME [%]
2.5
15.0
50.0
50.0
0.5
i :s.
b
[K
1 105
10.0
xi
sponding to one standard deviation from the true value (for OP1) is
also given.
7.1.3
Secondly, a
without
by
(7.2)
11
11
10
10
8
No of parameters []
No of parameters []
OP 1
7
6
5
4
7
6
5
4
3
0 % (5.3)
1 % (5.3)
2.5 % (5.2)
5 % (5.1)
2
1
0
0
147
5
Cycle No []
0 % (6)
1 % (6)
2.5 % (6)
5 % (5.9)
2
1
10
0
0
5
Cycle No []
10
pIV C .
b pIV C
means that
is
position to the investigated noise realizations, false prior levels and different operating conditions. The other parameters however dier in a
few number of cases and out of the three variations, mostly from dierent noise realizations. The dierences in order appear almost without
exception as permutations of two groups, namely [C1 , TIV C , Tw ] and
[Kp , pIV C ]. This means that pIV C is sometimes replaced by Kp and
that TIV C is at some instances replaced by either C1 or Tw . It is also
worth to mention that 300 is the most ecient parameter of them all,
according to (7.2).
The minimizing number of parameters using algorithm 6.2 are given
in gure 7.2 for OP1 and OP8, which are the two extremes in the
simulation-based investigation. Ten dierent noise realizations corresponding to ten engine cycles have been used, as well as four dierent
cases of false prior. The corresponding results for all eight operating
points are given in table 7.2, but now as a mean value for the ten cycles.
148
5.3
5.4
6.1
6.1
5.5
5.3
6.1
6.0
5.3
4.9
6.1
6.1
5.2
4.9
6.1
6.0
2.5
5.2
4.9
6.1
6.1
5.2
4.9
6.1
6.0
5.1
5.0
6.2
6.0
5.1
5.2
6.1
5.9
[4, 8]
[4, 8]
[4, 8]
[4, 8]
[4, 8]
[4, 8]
[4, 7]
[4, 8]
a preferred ordering. Four false prior levels are used and the range of
d is given for each operating point.
#
Table 7.2 shows that the average numbers of d are between 4.9 and
#
6.1, but gure 7.2 and table 7.2 indicate that d [4, 8]. The variation
#
in d
depending on the level of false prior FP is comparatively small,
but the variation is larger depending on the operating point.
This
Estimation accuracy
Tables 7.3 and 7.4 show the parameter estimates for the entire range of
d# , i.e. from 11 to 1 parameter, for one engine cycle. For this specic
cycle (OP1, cycle1), the Akaike FPE is minimized by four parameters,
well, but to increase the readability these values are left out.
Table 7.4 shows that the parameter estimates are clearly biased
when a false prior is present.
as the false prior level. The estimates of course also depend upon what
parameters that are classied as ecient. In order to have a
tx 1 %,
a maximum of three parameters in combination with a false prior level
of 0 % is required, see table 7.3. For F P = 5 % (table 7.4), the same
#
limit on d
is found if the true parameter deviation should be less or
equal to the false prior level, i.e.
tx 5 %. This means that for d# 4,
t
#
the parameter estimates deviate more from x than x
does.
However, by considering the individual estimates it is notable that
the
C1 -estimate
Kp , TIV C , 300
C1
and to some
57.4
57.5
57.5
58.6
58.5
58.1
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
2.28
2.28
58.8
58.8
2.28
1.70
1.87
1.87
1.88
370
370
370
404
404
404
50.0
50.0
50.0
51.8
51.7
[kPa]
pIV C
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.39
1.40
1.40
1.37
1.37
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
[-]
300
-0.0001
-0.0001
-0.0001
-0.00012
b
1
[K
]
400
400
400
446
378
382
381
418
418
418
420
[K]
Tw
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.2
[kPa]
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.11
[deg]
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.01
0.99
1.00
1.03
1.03
1.03
1.03
0.99
0.99
[-]
Kp
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.1
0.5
3.5
7.8
5.0
5.1
6.7
6.7
6.6
8.7
[%]
tx
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.5
3.5
7.8
5.0
5.1
6.7
6.7
6.6
8.7
[%]
#
x
d# [1, 11] parameters when using no preferred ordering and a false prior level of
0 %. The true and nominal parameter deviations
tx and #
tx = RMSE(tx )
x are given as RMSE:s of their relative values, i.e.
#
#
and
x = RMSE(x ).
x#
xt
58.8
1.96
57.4
1.96
57.4
10
402
[K]
1.91
[-]
57.1
11
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
d#
57.3
57.3
57.3
57.4
57.4
58.5
58.5
57.8
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
[K]
2.39
2.28
61.7
58.8
1.78
2.39
1.63
1.90
1.96
1.89
1.89
1.89
370
389
389
406
406
405
402
[-]
1.91
TIV C
C1
50.0
52.5
52.5
51.8
51.7
[kPa]
pIV C
1.40
1.47
1.37
1.45
1.39
1.40
1.40
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
[-]
300
-0.0001
-0.000105
-0.000105
-0.00012
b
1
[K
]
400
420
420
394
400
405
421
421
420
420
[K]
Tw
1.1
1.1
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.3
5.3
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.2
[kPa]
0.10
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.11
[deg]
1.00
1.05
1.05
0.93
0.96
0.95
0.95
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.99
0.99
[-]
Kp
0.0
5.0
4.3
4.6
3.9
7.6
9.3
6.3
5.7
7.0
6.9
6.8
8.7
[%]
tx
5.0
0.0
2.0
3.5
3.8
9.0
11.0
7.9
7.3
8.1
8.2
8.1
9.1
[%]
#
x
d# [1, 11] parameters when using no preferred ordering and a false prior level of
tx and #
tx = RMSE(tx )
5 %. The true and nominal parameter deviations
x are given as RMSE:s of their relative values, i.e.
#
#
and
x = RMSE(x ).
x
xt
1
#
61.7
57.1
11
Vc
3
[cm ]
d#
150
Tw ,
151
priori through calibration, compared to the other parameters. Therefore if a preferred parameter ordering is to be used, it is recommended
that
Kp
and
C1
upon
300 ,
which have their smallest biases for ve parameters for both cases
These two
Vc ,
method 4.
To summarize, method 1 does not yield a unequivocal number of
ecient parameters, as it uctuates in between four and eight. Using a
#
mean value of d
is not optimal either since it does not correspond to
the best parameter estimates, especially in the presence of a false prior.
This is however not unexpected, since the minimization of
VN
(6.3) is
only based upon the residuals, and is therefore not inuenced directly
by the parameter estimates.
Residual analysis
In gure 7.3 the residuals for two cases of false prior oset at OP1 are
shown. The upper plots show the residual corresponding to minimiza
tion of the Akaike criterion, in these cases d =4. The middle plots
display the dierence between the modeled pressure for 4 and 1 parameter, while the lower plots show the dierence for 4 and 11 parameters.
The data is well described by both 11 pars and 4 pars, for both 0
and 5 % false prior oset. However for less than four parameters the
residual becomes larger, reecting that too few parameters are used to
describe the data. This eect is more pronounced for F P = 5 %, as the
#
#
dierence between the modeled pressure for d =4 and d =1 becomes
larger.
The parameter values for
d#
=4 and
d#
same, see table 7.4, and this reects that it is not sucient to have a
small residual error for an accurate parameter estimate.
152
Residual [Pa]
x 10
FP = 0 %, d =4
1
100
100
p(4) p (1)
Residual [Pa]
FP = 5 %, d =4
1
100
4
1000
x 10
100
p(4) p (1)
0
1000
2000
100
100
2
100
p(11) p (4)
1000
Residual [Pa]
x 10
x 10
100
p(11) p (4)
0
1000
2000
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
Figure 7.3:
Upper:
prior is 0 and 5 %.
2
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
Middle:
Lower:
Dierence between
ordering groups:
with
a preferred or-
153
dering used
(7.3)
The dierence in orders between (7.2) and (7.3) occurs for two locations;
Firstly for
The permutations
however still exist, but are reduced in their number of occurrences and
would extinguish if the ad-hoc decision rules corresponding to step 4
and step 6 in algorithm 6.1 were set to 1 and 0 respectively.
C1
The
parameter
and
order in
algorithm 6.1.
given in gure 7.4, and the mean value of
estimates for one engine cycle are given in tables 7.6 and 7.7 for
0%
FP =
and 5 % respectively.
is
smaller, especially for OP8 as shown in gure 7.4. This is also reected
in table 7.5, where the mean values are more focused.
However, as
tables 7.6 and 7.7 both indicate, the estimates are not signicantly
improved compared to tables 7.3 and 7.4.
Due to the unsuccessful results of method 1 for setup 1, the evaluation for setup 2 is left out.
Summary of method 1
To summarize, using method 1 to estimate the parameters in the presence of a false prior has not been successful.
the case of no false prior. In the case of a false prior it gets even worse.
Method 1 is therefore in itself not recommended to use for estimation,
and is therefore not investigated further for the simulation part of the
chapter.
It can however be used for a specic application, like compression
ratio estimation in chapter 5. In this case only the
Vc -estimate
is mon-
300
is the
154
OP 1
OP 8
10
10
8
No of parameters []
11
No of parameters []
11
7
6
5
4
3
7
6
5
4
3
0 % (5.1)
1 % (5.2)
2.5 % (5.1)
5 % (5.7)
2
1
0
0
0 % (5.3)
1 % (5.3)
2.5 % (5.1)
5 % (5.1)
2
1
5
Cycle No []
0
0
10
5
Cycle No []
10
5.1
5.6
5.5
5.3
5.5
5.6
5.3
5.3
5.2
5.6
5.3
5.3
5.5
5.5
5.3
5.3
2.5
5.1
5.6
5.3
5.3
5.5
5.5
5.1
5.1
5.7
5.5
5.1
5.1
5.5
5.5
5.1
5.1
[3, 7]
[4, 7]
[5, 8]
[5, 7]
[4, 6]
[4, 7]
[5, 7]
[5, 7]
using a preferred ordering. Four false prior levels are used and the
57.5
57.5
58.6
58.6
58.4
58.6
7
6
5
4
3
2
370
370
370
346
340
349
368
352
404
404
404
50.0
50.0
50.0
51.6
51.6
51.5
51.5
51.8
51.7
[kPa]
pIV C
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.39
1.39
1.39
1.37
1.37
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
[-]
300
-0.0001
-0.0001
-0.0001
-0.00012
b
1
[K
]
400
400
400
379
418
418
418
420
[K]
Tw
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.7
2.9
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.2
[kPa]
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.11
[deg]
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.99
[-]
Kp
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.1
2.0
2.5
1.9
2.6
3.4
6.6
6.6
6.6
8.7
[%]
tx
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
2.0
2.5
1.9
2.6
3.4
6.6
6.6
6.6
8.7
[%]
#
x
d# [1, 11] parameters when using a preferred ordering and a false prior level of
0 %. The true and nominal parameter deviations
tx and #
tx = RMSE(tx )
x are given as RMSE:s of their relative values, i.e.
#
#
and
x = RMSE(x ).
x
xt
2.28
1.88
2.28
57.4
1.88
58.8
57.4
1.88
2.28
57.4
10
[K]
402
[-]
1.91
TIV C
C1
58.8
58.8
57.1
11
1
#
Vc
3
[cm ]
d#
57.5
57.3
54.9
54.9
52.6
51.7
7
6
5
4
3
2
370
389
389
565
420
420
376
334
405
405
405
50.0
52.5
52.5
49.1
49.2
49.0
49.0
51.8
51.7
[kPa]
pIV C
1.40
1.47
1.37
1.28
1.33
1.33
1.33
1.37
1.37
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
[-]
300
-0.0001
-0.000105
-0.000105
-0.00012
b
1
[K
]
400
420
420
364
420
420
420
420
[K]
Tw
1.1
1.1
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.3
5.3
-1.2
-1.2
2.9
2.8
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.2
[kPa]
0.10
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.07
0.08
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.11
[deg]
1.00
1.05
1.05
0.99
0.99
[-]
Kp
0.0
5.0
4.3
6.0
16.7
8.7
8.7
4.2
5.6
7.3
7.1
6.8
8.7
[%]
tx
5.0
0.0
2.0
6.5
15.4
8.4
8.4
4.6
7.6
8.3
8.5
8.1
9.1
[%]
#
x
d# [1, 11] parameters when using a preferred ordering and a false prior level of
5 %. The true and nominal parameter deviations
tx and #
tx = RMSE(tx )
x are given as RMSE:s of their relative values, i.e.
#
#
and
x = RMSE(x ).
x
xt
2.39
1.86
2.28
57.3
1.86
58.8
57.3
1.89
2.39
57.3
10
[K]
402
[-]
1.91
TIV C
C1
61.7
61.7
57.1
11
1
#
Vc
3
[cm ]
d#
156
157
10
10
[]
10
10
10
20
10
10
20
30
40
Element no. []
50
60
70
vestigations.
7.1.4
First some important implementation details are given. Then the three
versions of method 2 are evaluated using the two setups described in
section 7.1.2.
Implementation details
First the interesting search region for the regularization parameter
x [1011 , 105 ],
is chosen
shape corresponding to gure 6.2 occurs for all examined cases. The
region is then divided into three intervals, where
is equally spaced in
a logarithmic scale for each interval. The middle interval is where the
corner of the L-curve is expected to appear, and this interval is therefore
5
1
8
more densely sampled. The limits of the intervals are 10 , 10 , 10
11
and 10
, and the number of samples are 14, 50 and 5 respectively.
The regularization parameter is plotted in gure 7.5. These numerical
values are all based upon that the residual
and
from (6.20)
are set. The drive for setting these values is twofold; First of all the
regularization parameter
158
m =
(0.01 L ), and assures that both requirements are fullled
RMSE
RMSE((x# ))
rameter values
x ,
x# .
(7.4)
RMSE
at OP1 and
RMSE
is decreased,
tx
reaches its optimal value. This means that the estimate is a compromise
between the data and the prior knowledge, and it lies in between the
true value and the nominal (false) value, which is good. The gure also
illustrates that all three versions of method 2 nd positions close to the
corner of the L, at least visually.
the performance of method 2 for the two extreme operating points OP1
and OP8. Figure 7.7 displays the optimal x at ten consecutive cycles,
for which only the noise realization diers.
indicated by the gure legend, and the corresponding mean value for
x are given within the parentheses. The values for FP = 0 % are left
out since they all correspond to the highest value of
x .
159
Zoomed version
10
10
10
RMSE( #) []
10
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
10
Figure 7.6:
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
FP=5 % (dotted line) for setup 1. The results for the three versions
of method 2 and the optimal choice of regularization parameter are
tx (dashdotted line) is also given.
depending
There is also
given. Again, the false prior level is indicated by the gure legend and
the corresponding mean value for
tx are given in percent within the
parentheses.
Figure 7.8 illustrates that the resulting
tx is less than the specied
160
OP 8
2
10
10
10
x []
x []
10
10
10
10
1 % (0.003)
2.5 % (0.00093)
5 % (0.00022)
10
10
5
Cycle No []
10
1 % (0.0077)
2.5 % (0.0025)
5 % (0.0013)
10
5
Cycle No []
0.04
0.035
0.035
0.03
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.01
0.005
0.005
0
0
Figure 7.8:
5
10
1 % No
(0.0078)
Cycle
[]
2.5 % (0.019)
5 % (0.037)
0
0
in method 2
OP 8
0.04
RMSE ( tx ) []
RMSE ( tx ) []
OP 1
10
5
10
1 % No
(0.0076)
Cycle
[]
2.5 % (0.019)
5 % (0.038)
tx = RMSE(tx )
corre-
161
2.5
1 105
1 105
1 105
1 105
1 105
1 105
1 105
1 105
0.0030
0.00093
0.0024
0.00072
0.00022
5
0.0011
0.0044
0.0011
0.0024
0.0024
0.00098
0.0024
0.00072
0.0011
0.0044
0.0024
0.0077
0.0025
0.0013
2.6 10
0.0024
0.00098
5
1.0 10
0.00022
1
7
2
7
3
7
10
10
10
107
107
107
107
107
0.78
0.76
0.77
0.76
0.77
0.76
0.77
0.76
2.5
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
3.7
3.7
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
optimal x in table 7.8, for setup 1 and operating points OP1 to OP8.
FP.
FP = 5 %),
the dierence between the estimates are within 0.2 %. This suggests
that it is not vital to nd exactly the optimal x , to get good estimates.
for all operating points and false prior levels used in setup 1. The corresponding true parameter deviations
tx are summarized in table 7.9.
The numerical values in tables 7.8 and 7.9 are given as mean values for
ten cycles.
Table 7.8 shows that the optimal
FP
level and
operating point used, and the eect is most pronounced for changes in
the
FP
FP > 0 %.
162
OP
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.8
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.9
3.8
3.8
Max Di
0.092
0.35
0.31
0.21
Mean Di
0.040
0.19
0.15
0.094
Time [s]
2579
32
1333
2579
57
(M2:1)
(M2:2)
(M2:3)
mv(x )
the three versions of method 2 and as mean value for the optimal x
Table 7.10: True parameter deviation
FP = 5
time for completing the estimation for one engine cycle is also given.
FP
x .
FP = 5 %.
computed relative to
x .
mean computational time is also given, where the following assumpx and algorithm M2:3 all x in the search
region x are used, and are therefore included in the computational
x x
and then
and 5 in algorithm 6.4. Thus the computational time for this algorithm
can dier quite extensively from cycle to cycle, depending on when a
RMSE
RMSE
resulting in
((x )) > a
() is found. For algorithm M2:1
tx
is not
as good for the approximative methods as for the optimal one, since
the true parameter deviation
tx increases for all four approximations of
163
x .
However the mean dierence is small, especially for M2:1 and the
mv(x ) as the table indicates. The latter is however
mean-value based
x (M 2 : 3),
which is available.
The performance of M2:3 itself is however not better than that of M2:1,
according to the mean dierence in table 7.10. It is therefore expected
that using the mean value of
x (M 2 : 3)
and
might require some ad-hoc tuning, in this case for the parameter
a .
The two algorithms M2:2 and M2:3 both tend to give too high
in M2:2. This
eect has already been pointed out for M2:2 by Hansen (1994).
Concerning computational time, algorithm M2:1 and
fastest and they dier merely due to that they use a dierent number
of iterations to minimize the loss function
WN .
Compared to M2:3,
xi .
C1 , TIV C , Tw , p, ,
Vcr
seven parameters corresponds fairly well with the order in which the
parameters are set spurious for method 1 when no preferred ordering is
used, compare (7.2). The dierence is
pIV C ,
Vc , pIV C , 300
and
Kp
otherwise it corresponds
389
5.0
4.8
2.39
5.0
2.28
58.8
-0.0
60.6
3.1
60.3
2.6
61.7
5.0
58.8
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
x#
#
RME(x )
t
x
370
5.0
388
5.1
389
3.3
382
50.0
5.0
52.5
0.1
50.0
0.2
50.1
0.1
50.0
0.4
50.2
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
5.0
1.470
1.4
1.420
1.5
1.421
0.2
1.403
-0.2
1.397
[-]
300
-0.0001
5.0
-0.000105
5.0
-0.000105
5.0
-0.000105
5.0
-0.000105
6.0
-0.000106
b
1
[K
]
400
5.0
420
5.0
420
4.9
419
6.2
425
8.9
436
[K]
Tw
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.0
5.3
4.8
5.2
4.8
5.2
4.6
5.2
1.3
5.1
[kPa]
0.10
5.0
0.11
4.9
0.10
5.0
0.10
4.7
0.10
2.9
0.10
[deg]
0.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.1
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.7
[%]
tx
using
5.0
0.0
0.0
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
3.1
3.1
4.4
4.4
[%]
#
x
FP = 5 %,
1.000
5.0
1.050
0.0
1.000
0.2
1.002
-0.2
0.998
-1.0
0.990
[-]
Kp
Table 7.11: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP1 at
2.39
4.9
2.39
4.0
2.37
-1.1
x (M 2 : 1)
-0.1
-0.6
RME
[K]
366
[-]
2.28
TIV C
C1
58.4
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
164
2.35
3.2
2.38
4.5
58.5
-0.5
59.2
x (M 2 : 1)
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
326
5.0
4.2
2.39
5.0
2.28
0.0
61.7
5.0
58.8
x#
#
RME(x )
xt
4.1
100.0
5.0
105.0
0.0
100.0
-0.0
100.0
0.1
100.1
0.0
100.0
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
5.0
1.470
0.2
1.403
0.6
1.408
-0.1
1.398
0.2
1.403
[-]
300
]
-0.0001
5.0
-0.000105
5.0
-0.000105
4.9
-0.000105
5.1
-0.000105
5.0
-0.000105
b
[K
Tw
400
5.0
420
6.3
425
5.6
423
8.1
432
6.3
425
[K]
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
5.0
1.05
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.0
5.3
4.8
5.2
4.9
5.2
4.6
5.2
4.8
5.2
[kPa]
0.10
5.0
0.11
4.6
0.10
4.8
0.10
4.0
0.10
4.6
0.10
[deg]
0.0
5.0
5.0
3.8
3.8
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.8
3.8
tx
[%]
using
5.0
0.0
0.0
3.1
3.1
2.9
2.9
3.6
3.6
3.1
3.1
#
x
[%]
FP = 5 %,
1.000
5.0
1.050
-0.2
0.998
-0.2
0.998
-0.4
0.996
-0.2
0.998
[-]
Kp
Table 7.12: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP8 at
310
3.2
320
RME
2.38
0.7
58.8
RME
323
0.9
313
3.2
320
x (M 2 : 3)
4.2
2.38
0.0
[K]
[-]
58.8
TIV C
C1
RME
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
166
pIV C ,
which results
Kp ,
pIV C
Vc
and
300
respectively for all versions. The estimates of the two latter parameters
are signicantly better for OP8 compared to OP1.
The estimation accuracy also depend upon the routine used to determine the regularization parameter
x .
that routine M2:1 gave the smallest overall mean error, followed by
M2:3 and M2:2. When considering the individual estimates of the four
parameters, the same relative ordering is found if both operating points
are considered. In the case for M2:1, the accuracy for the four parameters is high; The estimates are within 0.5 %. The other estimates end
up as a compromise in between the true value and the (false) nominal
value, except for
Tw .
Vcr
and
b, these
weighted
RMSE
are abbreviated as
The L-curves based on one engine cycle for each case at OP1 are
given in gures 7.9 and 7.10 respectively. For completeness, the corresponding L-curves at OP8 are given in gures C.5 and C.6 in ap-
pendix C.7. The individual parameter estimates are given in tables 7.14
7.17, and corresponds to the form used in table 7.11.
and 7.15 represent case 1 (i
case 2 (i
= c),
Tables 7.14
6= c)
are given in tables 7.16 and 7.17. Note that the optimal
x now is determined as the one minimizing
the weighted true parameter deviation, i.e.
(L tx ). The nomt
#
inal and true parameter deviations
x and x for both cases at OP1
regularization parameter
RMSE
167
Zoomed version
10
10
10
2
RMSE( # ) []
10
10
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure 7.9: L-curve (solid line) for one engine cycle at OP1 with false
(#t
) (dotted line), when using setup 2 and case 1 of the i
x
prior
(i
RMSE
= c).
The results for the three versions of method 2 and the optimal
RMSE
i = c
OP1
x :
x
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x#
xt
tx
#
x
OP8
tx
OP1
#
x
tx
i 6= c
#
x
tx
OP8
#
x
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
14.1
22.8
14.9
18.2
6.1
20.3
6.5
20.1
22.1
1.4
22.1
0.7
6.2
20.7
6.6
20.9
20.6
5.8
20.5
5.7
10.5
27.6
10.7
27.3
22.1
0.9
22.1
0.3
9.4
18.9
9.4
18.4
22.1
0.0
22.1
0.0
22.1
0.0
22.1
0.0
0.0
22.1
0.0
22.1
0.0
22.1
0.0
22.1
Table 7.13: Mean true and nominal parameter deviation for method 2
using two cases of
168
Method 2; OP1
Zoomed version
10
10
10
RMSE( L # ) []
x
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
Figure 7.10:
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
RMSE
RMSE
Vc , pIV C , 300
and
Kp ,
the second case as shown in tables 7.147.17. It is also notable that the
estimates for the case of
i 6= c
the true and nominal value, see for instance the negative RME:s for
pIV C
and
i = c.
i 6= c
than for
169
In the case of
i = c
This is,
#
x in
M2:2 actually performs better than these two, but the
by the
RMSE
RMSE
RMSE
7.1.5
For a specic
i = c
and
i 6= c.
nal values of the parameters are determined and yields good estimates.
However, they can be too restricted by the nominal values, as seen in
setup 2. Instead it is recommended to use the second case. It requires
more eort to decide upon the uncertainty for each parameter, but
pays o in better estimates that are more robust to a false nominal
parameter value.
Method 2 is given in three versions, and the version M2:1 followed
by M2:3 give the most accurate results for changing operating conditions, false prior levels and noise realizations. M2:1 is also computationally ecient and outstanding compared to the other versions.
It
380
2.7
5.0
2.39
5.0
2.28
-0.1
59.2
0.8
59.3
0.9
59.3
0.9
58.8
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
x#
#
RME(x )
t
x
370
2.7
380
-8.7
338
2.5
50.0
5.0
52.5
2.1
51.0
0.9
50.5
0.9
50.5
4.0
52.0
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
0.4
1.405
-0.2
1.398
0.7
1.410
0.3
1.404
0.8
1.411
[-]
300
-0.0001
10.0
-0.00011
10.0
-0.00011
11.8
-0.000112
10.0
-0.00011
17.6
-0.000118
b
1
[K
]
400
2.5
410
2.5
410
9.0
436
2.6
410
-4.5
382
[K]
Tw
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
9.7
1.1
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
50.0
7.5
47.4
7.4
49.9
7.5
21.2
6.1
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
50.0
0.15
43.2
0.14
49.9
0.15
-5.5
0.09
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
0.1
1.001
-3.6
0.964
-1.1
0.989
-5.0
0.950
[-]
Kp
[%]
tx
using
22.1
0.0
0.0
0.9
0.9
5.8
5.8
1.4
1.4
22.8
22.8
[%]
#
x
i = c,
0.0
22.1
22.1
22.1
22.1
20.6
20.6
22.1
22.1
14.1
14.1
Table 7.14: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP1 when
2.39
-5.3
2.16
4.9
2.8
379
RME
2.39
-0.0
58.7
RME
-35.2
[K]
380
[-]
1.48
TIV C
C1
58.8
Vc
3
[cm ]
x (M 2 : 1)
x :
170
5.0
59.2
0.8
59.3
0.9
59.3
0.9
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
2.28
2.39
-4.3
2.18
4.9
2.39
296
310
3.2
320
3.3
320
-8.8
283
3.0
319
-4.6
100.0
2.5
102.5
2.0
102.0
0.8
100.8
0.9
100.9
3.6
103.6
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
0.4
1.405
-0.2
1.397
0.7
1.410
0.3
1.404
0.7
1.409
[-]
300
]
-0.0001
10.0
-0.00011
10.0
-0.00011
11.4
-0.000111
10.0
-0.00011
15.3
-0.000115
b
[K
Tw
400
2.5
410
2.5
410
9.4
438
2.6
411
1.0
404
[K]
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
12.4
1.12
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
50.0
7.5
47.4
7.4
49.9
7.5
30.2
6.5
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
50.0
0.15
42.9
0.14
49.9
0.15
8.0
0.11
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
0.0
1.000
-3.6
0.964
-1.1
0.989
-5.1
0.949
[-]
Kp
tx
[%]
using
22.1
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.3
5.7
5.7
0.7
0.7
18.2
18.2
#
x
[%]
i = c,
0.0
22.1
22.1
22.1
22.1
20.5
20.5
22.1
22.1
14.9
14.9
Table 7.15: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP8 when
#
RME(x )
t
58.8
2.39
-0.1
RME
x#
5.0
58.7
x (M 2 : 1)
1.56
-31.7
0.6
[K]
[-]
59.1
TIV C
C1
RME
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
3.7
2.39
5.0
2.28
59.0
0.4
59.0
0.3
59.1
0.6
59.3
0.9
58.8
x (M 2 : 1)
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
x#
#
RME(x )
t
x
370
2.7
380
1.9
377
1.6
376
2.0
377
2.0
50.0
5.0
52.5
-0.1
50.0
-0.5
49.8
-0.3
49.8
-0.3
49.9
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
0.4
1.405
0.3
1.405
0.4
1.405
0.4
1.405
0.4
1.405
[-]
300
-0.0001
10.0
-0.00011
9.4
-0.000109
8.4
-0.000108
8.5
-0.000108
8.5
-0.000108
b
1
[K
]
400
2.5
410
3.0
412
3.0
412
2.8
411
2.8
411
[K]
Tw
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
24.2
6.2
5.3
5.3
8.8
5.4
9.0
5.5
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
-7.0
0.09
-29.6
0.07
-4.5
0.10
-3.1
0.10
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
[-]
Kp
using
4.8
0.0
0.0
3.1
3.1
3.8
3.8
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
[%]
L #
x
i 6= c,
0.0
4.8
4.8
3.3
3.3
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
[%]
L tx
Table 7.16: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP1 when
2.36
3.1
2.35
3.7
2.36
3.8
0.4
RME
[K]
377
[-]
2.37
TIV C
C1
59.0
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
172
3.9
4.0
2.39
5.0
2.28
59.0
0.5
59.0
0.4
59.1
0.6
59.3
0.9
58.8
x (M 2 : 1)
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
x#
#
RME(x )
xt
310
3.2
320
2.3
317
1.8
315
2.2
317
2.3
317
100.0
2.5
102.5
-0.1
99.9
-0.6
99.4
-0.4
99.6
-0.4
99.6
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
0.4
1.405
0.3
1.404
0.4
1.405
0.4
1.405
0.4
1.405
[-]
300
]
-0.0001
10.0
-0.00011
9.5
-0.000109
8.7
-0.000109
8.8
-0.000109
8.8
-0.000109
b
[K
Tw
400
2.5
410
2.9
412
3.1
412
2.9
411
2.8
411
[K]
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
15.0
1.15
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
24.3
6.2
7.3
5.4
10.2
5.5
10.6
5.5
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
-5.4
0.09
-29.6
0.07
-6.7
0.09
-3.8
0.10
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
[-]
Kp
using
4.2
0.0
0.0
2.2
2.2
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
[%]
L #
x
i 6= c,
0.0
4.2
4.2
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
[%]
L tx
Table 7.17: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP8 when
2.37
3.4
2.36
3.9
2.37
2.37
[K]
[-]
0.5
TIV C
C1
59.0
Vc
3
[cm ]
x
RME
x :
174
10
OP1
5
OP2
0
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
can therefore be stated that the third requirement is also fullled. For
the simulated motored cycles, M2:1 is therefore recommended as the
best choice.
7.2.1
[2000, 5000]
kPa alto-
7.2.2
175
i .
x#
that is updated for each cycle, while the others are updated for each
operating condition.
Regularization elements i
Two cases of regularization parameter elements are used in method 2
and they correspond to the two cases used in the simulation-based
i = c, sets
the standard deviation i for each parameter as i = 0.01
x#
i , where
#
#
x
i is the mean value of xi for one operating point. It is used to
assure that i does not uctuate in size from cycle-to-cycle. In the
t
simulation-based evaluation x was used instead of x
# .
evaluation done previously. The rst case, again denoted
6= c)
7.2.3
The pa-
(7.5)
which reects the average case. This parameter order diers somewhat
from the corresponding order found in simulations (7.2), but
300
is still
176
N [rpm]
pman [kPa]
mean(d )
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
2000
3000
4000
5000
43
32
35
37
9.5
10.3
10.4
10.4
[9, 10]
[9, 11]
[9, 11]
[9, 11]
at OP14.
[TIV C , Tw ], [p, b]
and
[Kp , C1 ].
not exactly the same as the ones for the simulation-based evaluation.
table shows that the mean values of d are larger and the variation is
points.
C1 , TIV C ,
and
Tw
7.2.4
The same implementation settings, as for the simulation-based evaluation in section 7.1.4, are used and are therefore not repeated here.
of
regularization parameter
gion
x ,
for a
given by 25 samples of
58.8
2.28
1.63
120.8
1.0
-1.1
est
RME
#
2.28
5.04
58.8
58.1
mean
1.71
3.5
178.1
1.0
est
RME
#
2.28
6.34
58.8
60.8
mean
2.07
2.3
160.5
1.1
est
RME
#
2.28
5.94
58.8
60.1
mean
2.98
120.5
1.6
-1.6
est
RME
#
[K]
314
44.5
184
454
314
28.3
170
403
314
50.8
187
474
314
87.1
220
588
[-]
5.03
57.8
mean
TIV C
C1
48.4
-23.2
1.7
43.8
47.3
-27.5
2.2
41.3
42.5
-34.4
1.8
37.4
56.4
-4.1
0.4
54.7
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
6.1
0.019
1.431
1.400
5.9
0.010
1.429
1.400
5.4
0.011
1.422
1.400
1.5
0.007
1.369
[-]
300
9.3 105
-61.3
9.3 105
5.03 105
4.39 105
-91.5
9.3 105
1.1 105
1.63 105
-91.5
9.3 105
1.11 105
1.48 105
-96.6
b
1
[K
]
4.39 106
5.82 106
400
33.9
200
562
400
25.3
186
526
400
47.9
209
621
400
64.4
230
690
[K]
Tw
0.882
46.1
0.318
0.859
0.882
-23.7
0.352
0.448
0.882
103.9
0.524
1.2
0.882
89.8
0.755
1.12
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-1.2
-199.0
0.9
2.2
-0.6
-257.1
0.8
3.4
-1.6
-177.2
0.6
1.7
-1.4
-88.3
0.5
-0.3
[kPa]
0.47
-77.3
0.05
0.11
0.47
-71.7
0.06
0.13
0.47
-70.1
0.08
0.14
0.47
-31.7
0.13
0.32
[deg]
1.000
2.0
0.032
1.020
1.000
4.1
0.058
1.041
1.000
4.3
0.049
1.043
1.000
0.0
0.000
1.000
[-]
Kp
Table 7.19: Mean value, standard deviation est , relative mean error (RME) and nominal parameter deviation
OP4
OP3
OP2
OP1
Vc
3
[cm ]
#
x
of the
0.0
88.1
88.1
88.1
0.0
108.4
108.4
108.4
0.0
99.8
99.8
99.8
0.0
92.5
92.5
92.5
[%]
#
x
178
Zoomed version
10
10
10
RMSE(# ) []
10
10
4
10
10
M2:3
M2:3+
M2:2
M2:1
10
10
10
2
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure 7.12: L-curve (solid line) for one engine cycle at OP1, when
using case 1 of the
i (i = c).
[rpm]
pman [kPa]
x (M 2 : 1)
mean
est
x (M 2 : 2)
mean
est
x (M 2 : 3)
mean
est
x (M 2 : 3+) mean
est
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
2000
3000
4000
5000
43
32
35
37
3.8 105
6.3 105
2.3 108
1.9 108
4.2 108
1.5 108
5.1 105
1.6 105
4.1 105
3.9 105
7.5 108
8.1 108
3.9 108
3.4 108
9.2 105
4.3 106
6.5 105
1.5 106
9.6 108
6.6 108
0.4 108
0.8 108
9.0 105
5.8 105
4.2 105
4.8 105
6.3 108
4.3 108
2.1 108
4.1 108
3.4 105
3.4 105
179
This is done for all four operating points and for each of the four versions of method 2. The corresponding individual parameter estimates
are given as mean values for 101 cycles at each operating point in ta#
ble 7.21, as well as the corresponding (emphasized) nominal values x
#
and the nominal parameter deviation
x . More detailed results for
OP1 are given in table C.6, where also the standard deviation and
#
the relative mean error with respect to the nominal parameters x
are
given.
The corresponding gures and tables for case 2 are given in gure 7.13, table 7.22, table 7.23 that now also include the weighted
nominal parameter deviation
(L #
x ), and table C.7 respectively.
RMSE
in table 7.20 for all operating points. M2:1 and M2:3+ result in higher
x :s
(7.6)
with two exceptions. For OP1 it is the other way around for M2:2 and
M2:3, and the same goes for M2:1 and M2:3+ at OP4. As expected the
dierence between
x (M 2 : 1)
and
x ,
M2:3 this corresponds to the high value of the left-most curvature found
in gure C.4. Table 7.20 also shows that the mean value of
depends
x :s
5.77
2.61
60.9
58.9
5.81
2.58
60.7
58.2
4.82
2.62
58.5
57.3
2.28
4.67
57.7
58.8
2.61
57.4
2.28
5.96
58.8
58.8
2.60
58.2
2.28
5.64
60.1
58.8
2.67
59.1
2.28
6.54
2.70
59.1
57.8
58.8
6.27
59.0
[K]
314
352
456
448
350
314
345
500
523
344
314
347
501
502
347
314
357
567
550
358
[-]
2.70
58.0
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
48.4
45.3
36.1
36.3
45.3
47.3
43.9
29.8
29.1
43.8
42.5
39.8
27.0
27.4
39.6
56.4
53.8
32.8
34.1
53.8
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
1.420
1.426
1.406
1.422
1.400
1.418
1.418
1.392
1.420
1.400
1.414
1.412
1.402
1.420
1.400
1.393
1.371
1.370
1.396
[-]
300
b
1
[K
]
8.8 105
3.0 107
2.1 107
8.7 105
9.3 105
7.9 105
1.4 106
8.4 107
8.1 105
9.3 105
7.6 105
3.4 107
8.1 107
7.6 105
9.3 105
7.3 105
1.3 105
2.9 105
7.2 105
9.3 105
400
363
578
551
367
400
373
687
696
374
400
372
677
663
374
400
373
741
712
370
[K]
Tw
0.882
0.884
0.787
1.03
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.382
0.782
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.73
0.909
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.597
0.64
0.883
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-1.2
1.7
1.6
0.6
1.7
-0.6
2.8
2.7
1.1
2.9
-1.6
1.2
1.0
0.4
1.4
-1.4
1.3
-0.3
-0.4
1.1
[kPa]
0.47
0.47
0.03
0.06
0.25
0.47
0.47
0.06
0.07
0.37
0.47
0.47
0.06
0.08
0.39
0.47
0.47
0.11
0.15
0.45
[deg]
1.000
1.001
1.253
1.272
0.999
1.000
1.000
1.449
1.534
0.998
1.000
1.000
1.457
1.460
0.999
1.000
0.999
1.658
1.596
0.998
[-]
Kp
0.0
11.4
87.0
65.5
3.3
0.0
2.6
137.1
83.3
2.4
0.0
0.6
97.6
82.3
3.4
0.0
0.8
73.5
103.9
5.8
[%]
#
x
Table 7.21: Mean value of the estimate for the four versions of method 2 using case 1, evaluated for 101 experimental cycles
#
at OP1-4. The nominal values x
are also included.
OP4
OP3
OP2
OP1
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
180
181
The individual estimates for M2:1 and M2:3+ are all reasonable,
which is expected since they end up close to their nominal values. The
#
for all parameters (except for Vc
estimates are in general closer to x
and
C1 , TIV C
and
Tw
for
both versions.
To summarize the evaluation for
i = c,
estimates that deviate less than 6 and 11 percent from the nominal
values in the mean.
x ,
which is conrmed by
table 7.22 for OP1-4. In general, the mean values and standard deviations of the regularization parameter for the three versions M2:1, M2:3
and M2:3+ are basically the same for all operating points, as shown in
table 7.22. The reason that M2:3 and M2:3+ do not coincide is that
the former nds a corner at a smaller
version (M2:2) yields a
large for M2:2. A trend for all versions is that the estimated
smaller than the nominal
and
TIV C
Vcr , Kp , and
like
Vc
and
300
p-estimate,
i 6= c,
182
Zoomed version
10
0.6
10
0
RMSE(L #x) []
10
0.7
10
2
10
0.8
10
10
M2:3
M2:3+
M2:2
M2:1
10
10
0.9
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure 7.13: L-curve (solid line) for one engine cycle at OP1, when
using case 2 of the
i (i 6= c).
[rpm]
pman [kPa]
x (M 2 : 1)
mean
est
x (M 2 : 2)
mean
est
x (M 2 : 3)
mean
est
x (M 2 : 3+) mean
est
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
2000
3000
4000
5000
43
32
35
37
3.3 105
1.1 105
7.8 106
3.7 105
2.8 105
2.0 105
3.4 105
2.1 105
3.5 105
9.6 106
4.4 106
2.7 105
5.9 105
5.1 105
6.3 105
2.1 105
5.5 105
2.6 105
3.0 105
1.0 104
5.6 105
2.7 105
6.6 105
2.6 105
3.6 105
1.3 105
2.1 105
8.1 105
3.2 105
2.1 105
3.5 105
2.0 105
2.72
2.72
57.7
57.7
2.63
2.63
58.9
58.9
2.60
2.60
58.2
58.1
2.62
2.62
57.4
57.4
2.28
3.07
57.4
58.8
2.63
57.4
2.28
3.04
58.4
58.8
2.61
58.2
2.28
3.87
59.7
58.8
2.68
59.1
2.28
3.54
57.5
58.8
2.73
57.7
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
314
351
351
352
351
314
345
345
346
345
314
349
349
353
348
314
359
359
368
359
[K]
[-]
pIV C
48.4
45.2
45.2
45.0
45.2
47.3
43.8
43.8
43.4
43.7
42.5
39.7
39.7
38.7
39.5
56.4
53.7
53.7
53.8
53.7
[kPa]
1.400
1.422
1.422
1.425
1.422
1.400
1.419
1.420
1.424
1.420
1.400
1.416
1.416
1.432
1.420
1.400
1.394
1.394
1.389
1.394
[-]
300
]
8.7 105
8.8 105
8.7 105
8.7 105
9.3 105
7.9 105
7.8 105
8 105
8 105
9.3 105
7.5 105
7.7 105
7.5 105
7.5 105
9.3 105
7.2 105
7.7 105
7.2 105
7.2 105
9.3 105
b
[K
Tw
400
367
366
387
367
400
372
373
392
373
400
371
371
426
374
400
371
371
406
372
[K]
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-1.2
1.8
1.8
2.0
1.9
-0.6
3.0
3.0
3.2
3.0
-1.6
1.3
1.4
2.1
1.6
-1.4
1.4
1.4
1.0
1.4
[kPa]
0.47
0.26
0.26
0.24
0.26
0.47
0.39
0.39
0.36
0.39
0.47
0.42
0.42
0.33
0.41
0.47
0.49
0.49
0.46
0.49
[deg]
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.001
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.001
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.003
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.002
1.000
[-]
Kp
25.2
0.0
0.0
25.5
28.2
12.0
12.3
15.7
25.3
0.0
12.0
32.6
0.0
33.0
35.1
12.6
12.9
16.0
33.0
0.0
12.7
30.9
0.0
31.1
38.3
12.7
13.1
23.3
31.6
0.0
13.1
34.5
0.0
35.4
36.7
34.4
#
x
[%]
14.7
15.8
21.0
14.7
[%]
L #
x
Table 7.23: Mean value of the estimate for the four versions of method 2 using case 2, evaluated for 101 experimental cycles
#
are also included.
at OP1-4. The nominal values x
OP4
OP3
OP2
OP1
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
184
Summary of method 2
In the simulations the gain in choosing case 2 instead of case 1 was
not distinct. However in the experimental situation the gain in using
case 2 is stronger, especially for M2:2 and M2:3 since all estimates are
physically reasonable. It has also been shown that M2:1 and M2:3+
give more reasonable estimates, compared to M2:2 and M2:3. Version
M2:3+ is more exible to changes in operating condition than M2:1,
since it nds a convex corner of the L-curve. For motored cycles, this
exibility has not been shown to be necessary for the examined operating points. To conclude, the argumentation speaks in favor of using
version M2:1 and case 2 of
300
is the most
ecient parameter.
Method 2 outperforms method 1 since it is more robust to a false
prior level and yields more accurate parameter estimates, according to
the simulation-based evaluation. In the experimental situation method
2 was found to give reasonable estimates for all parameters. The drive
for method 2 was to regularize the solution such that the parameters
that are hard to determine are pulled towards their nominal values,
while the ecient parameters are free to t the data. This has shown
to be the case in the simulations.
The user can chose between two cases of the parameter uncertainty,
namely
i = c
and
i 6= c.
nal values of the parameters are determined and yields good estimates,
almost as good as for the second case when considering only the simulations. However, when also considering the experimental evaluation
the gain in using the second case is stronger. Thus it is recommended
to use the second case. It requires more eort to decide upon the uncertainty for each parameter, but pays o in better estimates that are
more robust to a false nominal parameter value.
Method 2 was originally given in three variants, and variant M2:1
gives the most accurate results for changes in operating condition, false
prior levels and noise realizations for simulated cylinder pressure data.
In the experimental evaluation a fourth variant, M2:3+, was included
to cope with unreasonably high curvature for low
experimental data. It was found that the two variants M2:1 and M2:3+
185
both yield reasonable estimates, and that the exibility of M2:3+ for
a change in operating condition was not necessary. Since M2:1 is also
computationally ecient and outstanding compared to the other variants, usage of M2:1 together with
the best choice for motored cycles.
i 6= c
is therefore recommended as
186
8
Results and evaluation for
fired cycles
Method 1 and method 2 described in section 6.4 will now be evaluated for red cylinder pressure data.
for motored cycles in chapter 7 and the evaluation in this chapter follows the same structure.
experimental data.
It is worth noting that all numerical calculations have been made
for normalized values of the parameters, while the individual parameter
values that are given in tables are not normalized if not explicitly stated.
The purpose of the normalization is to yield parameters that are in the
order of 1, and the normalization is described in appendix C.1.
8.1.1
gine speeds
TIV C
187
188
50
OP6
40
30
20
10
OP1
100
Figure 8.1:
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
points OP16.
Vc
3
[cm ]
C1
TIV C
pIV C
300
Unit
xi
[-]
[K]
[kPa]
[-]
[K
1 10
0.5
0.114
10
2.5
0.005
RME [%]
0.9
5.0
2.4
5.0
0.4
xi
Kp
C2
Unit
[kPa]
[deg]
[-]
2.5
0.05
0.005
RME [%]
50.0
50.0
0.5
Table 8.1:
xi
]
5
[K]
Tw
Vcr
3
[cm ]
10
0.15
14.3
2.1
15.0
Qin
ig
[m/(s K)]
4
[J]
[deg]
[deg]
[deg]
25
5.0
5.0
6.7
10.0
10.0
1.62 10
i :s.
and dierent heat release traces, where table C.5 denes the individual
operating points.
was simulated and ten realizations of Gaussian noise with zero mean
and standard deviation 3.8 kPa were added, forming altogether 60 red
cycles. The chosen noise level is the same as the one used in chapter 5
(and chapter 7), and thus reects the level seen in experimental data.
The data was sampled with a resolution of 1 crank-angle degree (CAD).
In gure 8.1, one red cycle is shown for each operating point.
The
cylinder pressures corresponding to OP1 and OP6 dier the most, and
will therefore be the two extremes in the investigation.
8.1.2
189
details are therefore not repeated here. The standard model for red
cycles entails 16 parameters, i.e. ve more than for the motored cycle.
This has consequences for the second case of
i ,
i.e.
i 6= c,
where the
for
8.1.3
First of all, the order in which the parameters are set xed when using
algorithm 6.2 without a preferred ordering is investigated. This correxsp
new in step 3.
In this case all parameters need to be included, and therefore the
sponds to keeping track of the spurious parameters
without
by
C2 C1 Kp Tw p Vcr TIV C
b ig Vc pIV C b Qin d 300 ,
which reects a typical case.
(8.1)
The rst
except for
b which
Qin
has
Comparing the
parameter order for motored (7.2) and red (8.1) cycles, the order is
changed for most positions. However
300
points are given in table 8.2, but now as a mean value for the ten
cycles.
190
OP 6
16
14
14
12
12
No of parameters []
No of parameters []
OP 1
16
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
8
6
4
2
5
0 %No
(3.6)
Cycle
[]
1 % (6.2)
2.5 % (7.4)
5 % (7.6)
10
0
0
5
0 %No(11.8)
Cycle
[]
1 % (12.8)
2.5 % (13)
5 % (12.6)
10
d#
range
illustrates that for a high load, i.e. OP2, OP4 and OP6, the number
#
increases. Compared to the motored cycles
of ecient parameters d
#
the variation in d
depending on the level of false prior FP is larger,
but again the variation is larger depending on the operating point. The
#
large range of d
makes it hard to use the Akaike FPE to determine
how many of the parameters in (8.1) that are ecient.
Estimation accuracy
Table 8.3 shows the parameter estimates for the entire range of
d# ,
i.e.
191
3.6
10.2
4.2
12.6
3.8
11.8
6.2
15.8
5.6
11.0
5.6
12.8
2.5
7.4
15.6
5.4
13.4
5.6
13.0
7.6
14.0
6.0
12.2
6.4
12.6
[3, 10]
[3, 16]
[3, 8]
[4, 16]
[3, 9]
[3, 16]
a preferred ordering. Four false prior levels are used and the range of
d is given for each operating point.
false prior is present, which was also found for motored cycles in table 7.4. As expected the individual parameter estimates depend upon
#
the number of ecient parameters d , the false prior level and what
parameters that are classied as ecient. In order to have a true parameter deviation that is smaller than the false prior level, a maximum
of eight parameters should be used according to the
tx -column. For the
motored case, this number was as low as three according to table 7.4.
tx -column also shows that tx is minimized by seven parameters,
which is also the minimizer of the Akaike FPE for this particular cycle.
The
C1 -estimate
two parameters would decide how many parameters to use, the answer
would be eight parameters. This motivates why eight parameters are
used for compression ratio estimation on ring cycles in chapter 5.
Due to the unsuccessful results of applying method 1 to setup 1
without a preferred ordering of the parameters, as well as the unsuccessful results for a preferred ordering for the motored case in section 7.1.3,
the investigations concerning a preferred parameter ordering as well as
setup 2 are left out.
Summary of method 1
To summarize, the usage of method 1 for estimating all the parameters
in the presence of a false prior has not been successful, which conrms
57.5
57.8
58.0
57.1
57.2
57.4
58.3
58.6
58.4
59.1
54.8
59.9
61.5
15
14
13
12
11
10
2.39
2.28
61.7
58.8
2.39
3.13
414
435
435
474
531
607
700
423
445
486
561
[K]
[-]
3.15
TIV C
C1
50.0
52.5
52.5
47.1
46.7
47.3
47.2
47.4
48.6
49.8
50.7
48.4
47.7
48.6
51.0
[kPa]
pIV C
1.35
1.42
1.33
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.37
1.35
1.35
1.36
1.34
1.33
1.32
1.35
1.34
1.34
1.33
[-]
300
]
-7e-005
7.35 105
5.42 105
6.25 105
6.86 105
7.21 105
4.35 105
5.07 105
5.78 105
6.57 105
6.88 105
6.83 105
7.35 105
b
[K
Tw
480
504
504
549
390
396
524
552
[K]
RMSE
RMSE
5.0
5.3
5.3
3.7
2.4
1.4
4.1
3.7
3.5
2.5
[kPa]
0.10
0.11
0.11
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.08
[deg]
1.00
1.05
1.05
1.07
1.05
1.02
[-]
Kp
3.24 104
3.40 104
3.40 104
2.85 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
503
528
528
478
485
484
488
506
523
540
493
488
513
544
[J]
Qin
ig
-15.0
-15.8
-15.8
-16.0
-16.2
-16.1
-16.1
-16.1
-16.1
-16.1
-16.0
-16.1
[deg ATDC]
20.0
21.0
21.0
20.0
20.0
20.9
21.4
20.9
20.9
21.2
21.4
21.3
21.4
21.4
21.2
21.2
21.2
21.3
[deg]
20.0
21.0
21.0
18.9
19.6
19.9
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.1
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
[deg]
0.0
5.0
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.4
4.8
4.3
3.9
4.2
5.7
9.2
18.2
28.6
6.9
7.3
12.0
20.5
tx
[%]
5.0
0.0
1.6
2.1
2.1
3.3
4.7
4.3
4.5
4.4
5.5
8.9
18.7
29.0
8.6
9.0
11.5
20.7
#
x
[%]
0.59
0.62
0.32
0.62
0.12
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.27
Vcr
3
[cm ]
x
xt
1
#
61.7
57.3
16
Vc
3
[cm ]
d#
192
193
the results found for the motored cycles in chapter 7. Minimizing the
Akaike FPE criterion gives a recommended number of parameters between 3 and 16, which uctuates with both operating point and noise
realization and therefore hardly gives any guidance at all.
If we in-
300
is the
8.1.4
Now the focus is turned to evaluating method 2. First the results are
presented and then the performance of the three versions M2:1, M2:2
and M2:3 are evaluated using the two setups described previously in
section 7.1.2.
Implementation details
The implementation details described in section 7.1.4 for motored cycles apply here as well and are therefore only repeated in a summarized
manner.
rameter
that the L-shaped corner is included for all examined cases. When it
comes to the three versions of method 2, the constants
M2:1 and
and
for
for M2:2 are computed in the same manner for both red
and motored cycles, see section 6.4.2 for details. Version M2:3 requires
no choices to be made.
i ,
i.e. case 1 of
i (i = c).
RMSE
the computation.
194
Zoomed version
10
1.3
10
1
10
1.4
10
RMSE(#) []
10
10
1.5
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
10
Figure 8.3:
1.6
10
0
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
FP=5 % (dotted line) for setup 1. The results for the three versions
of method 2 and the optimal choice of regularization parameter are
tx (dashdotted line) is also given.
The optimal
ble 8.8. These parameter values are computed as mean values for ten
195
FP [%]
1 105
1 105
1 105
1 105
1 105
0.15
1 105
0.0081
2.5
0.0062
0.011
0.051
0.0013
0.02
0.0033
0.002
0.0044
0.008
0.00098
0.019
0.0044
0.085
0.091
0.095
0.56
x , for setup 1
%, x is the highest
For
FP = 0
FP [%]
0
1
7
2
7
10
10
3
7
10
4
7
10
5
7
10
6
7
10
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
2.5
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.6
1.8
1.6
3.4
3.5
3.4
3.0
3.3
3.2
tx [%] corresponding to
Table 8.5: Mean true parameter deviation
optimal x in table 8.4, for setup 1 and operating points OP1 to OP6.
consecutive cycles. The tables also entail the relative mean estimation
error (RME) in percent, as well as numerical values for the true and
(emphasized) nominal values.
tx
and that all three versions of method 2 visually nd positions close
to the corner of the L. Note that the estimate lies in between the
true value and the nominal (false) value, and therefore is a compromise
between the data and the prior knowledge.
The placement order on the L-curve in gure 8.3 in which the versions occur is however somewhat altered compared to the motored case.
As for the motored case, the approximative versions are a little more
pends upon the operating point and false prior level used. Concerning
the estimation accuracy, the true parameter deviation
tx is fairly constant from cycle-to-cycle and dierent operating points, for a given
FP
196
OP
3.4
4.1
4.1
4.0
4.0
3.5
4.0
4.0
3.9
3.9
3.4
4.1
4.1
4.0
4.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.3
4.0
4.0
3.9
4.0
3.2
3.9
3.9
3.6
3.8
Max Di
0.98
0.95
0.95
Mean Di
0.69
0.69
0.58
0.65
Time [s]
21275
296
9109
21275
358
(M2:1)
(M2:2)
(M2:3)
mv(x )
the three versions of method 2 and as mean value for the optimal x
corresponding to table 8.4. The numerical values are given in percent
and are evaluated for
FP = 5
time for completing the estimation for one engine cycle is also given,
where the assumptions made are the same as for the motored cycles in
section 7.1.4.
level. These statements are not shown, but are in accordance with the
motored cycles and are based on the similarity of gures 7.8 and 7.9
for the motored cycles.
method 2 for all operating points. Table 8.4 shows that the optimal
x changes with the FP level and operating point, and the eect is
most pronounced for changes in the FP level. However the estimation
approximative versions of
However all estimates are a compromise between the true and nominal
(false) values, and are somewhat biased towards the nominal ones. As
illustrated earlier for gure 8.3, the approximative versions resulted in
conservative
x :s,
the nominal ones, i.e. estimates that are over-smoothed by the regularization. The mean dierence in
tx compared to x is in the order
of 0.6-0.7 % as indicated in the table. The dierence in between the
approximative versions is however relatively small. Compared to the
197
imatively the same accuracy. Algorithm M2:3 however has the overall
highest accuracy of the three versions, and is in the mean 0.1 % more
accurate than M2:1 and M2:2 for all the examined operating points.
These two versions yield approximately the same estimate and they
could both be trimmed to give better estimates, which would however
require ad-hoc tuning. This is therefore not pursued here since the goal
has been to compute the values for the constants
m , m
and
in the
WN .
x .
set spurious for method 1 when no preferred ordering is used, compare (8.1). The dierence is
Kp ,
most spurious parameters. The estimates for the other parameters, except for
ig
and
Kp ,
(false) nominal value. For all examined operating points the estimation
closely followed by
and
accuracy for
Vc
Qin
The
is within 3.2 %.
The estimation accuracy also depends upon the routine used to determine the regularization parameter
x .
that routine M2:3 gave the smallest overall mean error, followed by
5.3
2.40
5.3
2.40
5.4
2.39
5.0
3.2
60.5
3.0
59.7
1.6
61.7
5.0
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
414
5.0
435
4.5
433
5.0
435
5.1
435
1.9
422
pIV C
50.0
5.0
52.5
1.0
50.5
1.6
50.8
1.8
50.9
0.7
50.3
[kPa]
1.350
5.0
1.418
1.4
1.369
1.4
1.369
1.2
1.366
0.5
1.356
[-]
300
7 10
5.0
7.35 105
3.5
7.25 105
4.3
7.3 105
4.5
7.31 10
0.2
7.02 105
b
[K
Tw
480
5.0
504
4.5
501
4.6
502
4.7
502
3.2
496
[K]
0.588
5.0
0.617
4.9
0.617
4.9
0.617
5.0
0.617
4.3
0.613
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.0
5.3
4.9
5.2
4.8
5.2
4.8
5.2
4.9
5.2
[kPa]
0.10
5.0
0.11
5.0
0.10
5.0
0.11
5.0
0.11
4.1
0.10
[deg]
1.000
5.0
1.050
-2.5
0.975
-1.8
0.982
-1.4
0.986
-1.6
0.984
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
5.0
3.40 104
5.1
3.41 104
5.1
3.40 104
5.1
3.40 10
5.2
3.41 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
503
5.0
528
1.7
512
1.6
512
1.8
513
1.7
512
[J]
Qin
ig
-15.0
5.0
-15.8
5.7
-15.9
5.9
-15.9
6.0
-15.9
4.8
-15.7
[deg ATDC]
= c).
20.0
5.0
21.0
-0.1
20.0
0.8
20.2
1.2
20.2
-0.1
20.0
[deg]
0.0
5.0
5.0
3.9
3.9
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
3.3
3.3
tx
[%]
FP = 5 %,
20.0
5.0
21.0
4.6
20.9
3.9
20.8
3.8
20.8
3.9
20.8
[deg]
Table 8.7: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP1 at
#
RME(x )
t
2.28
2.40
60.7
x (M 2 : 1)
58.8
5.4
x#
2.40
[K]
[-]
0.4
TIV C
C1
59.0
Vc
3
[cm ]
x
RME
x :
using
5.0
0.0
0.0
2.9
2.9
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
3.3
3.3
#
x
[%]
198
5.0
2.28
5.0
58.8
x#
#
RME(x )
xt
100.0
5.0
105.0
1.3
101.3
1.1
101.1
1.2
101.2
1.3
101.3
1.350
5.0
1.418
1.4
1.369
1.4
1.368
1.5
1.370
0.6
1.358
[-]
300
7 10
5.0
7.35 105
2.2
7.15 105
3.7
7.26 105
3.4
7.24 105
-0.4
6.97 105
b
[K
Tw
400
5.0
420
4.2
417
4.6
419
4.6
418
3.5
414
[K]
0.588
5.0
0.617
4.9
0.617
4.9
0.617
4.9
0.617
5.4
0.620
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.0
5.3
5.1
5.3
4.9
5.2
4.9
5.2
5.3
5.3
[kPa]
0.10
5.0
0.11
4.9
0.10
5.0
0.10
4.9
0.10
4.9
0.10
[deg]
1.000
5.0
1.050
-2.5
0.975
-2.2
0.978
-2.5
0.975
-2.0
0.980
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
5.0
5.1
3.40 104
3.40 104
5.0
5.0
3.40 104
3.40 104
4.8
3.40 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
1193
5.0
1252
1.2
1206
1.8
1214
1.5
1211
1.4
1210
[J]
Qin
ig
-25.0
5.0
-26.3
2.3
-25.6
3.6
-25.9
3.3
-25.8
0.7
-25.2
[deg ATDC]
= c).
30.0
5.0
31.5
-1.6
29.5
-1.2
29.6
-1.6
29.5
-0.6
29.8
[deg]
0.0
5.0
5.0
3.6
3.6
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.9
3.2
3.2
tx
[%]
FP = 5 %,
15.0
5.0
15.8
3.6
15.5
5.4
15.8
5.3
15.8
1.2
15.2
[deg]
Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP6 at
370
5.0
389
3.4
383
4.3
386
4.2
386
1.2
375
pIV C
[kPa]
Table 8.8:
5.6
2.39
2.9
61.7
RME
5.3
2.41
2.7
5.4
2.40
2.7
60.4
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
60.5
2.40
60.4
x (M 2 : 1)
RME
5.3
x (M 2 : 3)
2.40
[K]
[-]
1.5
TIV C
C1
59.7
Vc
3
[cm ]
x
RME
x :
using
5.0
0.0
0.0
3.2
3.2
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.1
3.7
3.7
#
x
[%]
200
ve parameters, the same relative ordering is found if all six operating points are considered. In the case for M2:3 the accuracy of the
estimates for the ve parameters is within 3 %.
than the 0.5 % which was found for the corresponding motored case,
and is probably due to the more complex model structure and harder
estimation problem in the red case. The other estimates end up as a
compromise in between the true value and the (false) nominal value,
except for
ig
and
Kp .
and
C2 ,
x
these two estimates coincide with the nominal values for all cases of
in table 8.7. For the two parameters
Vcr
and
with the nominal ones for the approximative versions, but not for the
optimal choice of
x .
As pointed out for the motored case, in the presence of a false prior
of 5 % the estimates for method 2 are equally or more accurate compared to method 1 for all number of, except seven, ecient parameters,
tx -columns in tables 8.3 and 8.7. This again
as shown by comparing the
illustrates that method 2 is more robust to a false prior than method 1
and this results in better estimates. The dierence between method 1
and method 2 are however smaller in the red case.
= c) for OP1
6= c) are given
in tables 8.12 and 8.13. It is worth to mention again that the second
case uses the weighted versions of the nominal parameter deviation
(L #
x ) and so on in the tables and gures. Therefore the optimal
RMSE
RMSE
201
Method 2; OP1
Zoomed version
10
10
10
10
RMSE(# ) []
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure 8.4: L-curve (solid line) for one engine cycle at OP1 with false
#t
(dotted line), when using setup 2 and case 1 of the i (i =
x
c). The results for the three versions of method 2 and the optimal
prior
The
curve which was also found for the corresponding motored case. The
three approximative versions of method 2 all yield estimates that are
close to the corner of the L. This is however not the case for the
optimal regularization parameter. Figure 8.4 (i = c) shows that the
x is not as close to the corner as in the approximative ver
sions. This is directly reected in the parameter estimates for x that
optimal
are close to the true values. They are closer than the estimates from
the approximative versions, as seen in the
tx - and #
x -columns in ta
bles 8.10 and 8.11. For i 6= c the optimal x is closer to the corner as
shown in gure 8.5, which is also reected in a better consistency between the optimal and approximative versions. It also reects a better
202
Method 2; OP1
Zoomed version
10
1.4
10
RMSE( L #x ) []
10
10
1.5
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
Figure 8.5:
1.6
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
RMSE
i (i 6= c).
RMSE
i = c
OP1
x :
x
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x#
xt
tx
OP6
#
x
tx
[%]
[%]
6.5
16.6
18.3
18.3
18.2
OP1
i 6= c
#
x
OP6
#
x
tx
tx
#
x
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
6.2
17.7
5.8
15.2
11.2
16.0
3.8
18.3
3.2
11.1
12.7
14.3
11.7
4.1
18.3
3.3
12.8
10.4
13.8
8.6
4.3
18.2
3.9
11.4
12.5
12.6
11.9
18.8
0.0
18.7
0.0
18.8
0.0
18.7
0.0
0.0
18.8
0.0
18.7
0.0
18.8
0.0
18.7
Table 8.9: Mean true and nominal parameter deviation for method 2
using two cases of
L tx
and
L #
x,
203
i 6= c.
xi ,
estimates produce by M2:1, M2:2 and M2:3. Tables 8.10 and 8.11 show
that the estimates for the parameters
C1 , b,
Vcr , p,
region between the true and nominal values, except for the estimates
of
C1 , Vc , 300
and
Kp .
region with estimates that are within 6 % for the worst case (Kp ).
and
tx
i = c
the true
parameter deviation
and
are 50 %, see
table 8.1.
Now the attention is turned to nding which version of method 2
that performs the best.
In the case of
i = c
This is,
#
x in
17.5
5.6
2.39
5.0
2.28
58.6
-0.3
58.8
-0.0
59.2
0.7
59.3
0.9
58.8
x (M 2 : 1)
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
x#
#
RME(x )
xt
414
2.4
424
0.9
418
1.7
421
1.9
422
5.2
436
pIV C
50.0
5.0
52.5
0.8
50.4
0.4
50.2
0.5
50.3
-1.4
49.3
[kPa]
1.350
0.4
1.355
2.3
1.381
2.1
1.379
1.9
1.375
-0.1
1.349
[-]
300
7 10
14.3
8 105
11.5
7.8 10
12.7
7.89 105
13.1
7.92 10
-3.2
6.77 105
b
[K
Tw
480
2.1
490
1.0
485
1.4
487
1.5
487
5.2
505
[K]
0.59
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.4
0.74
21.4
0.71
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
49.9
7.5
49.9
7.5
49.9
7.5
1.9
5.1
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
50.0
0.15
50.0
0.15
50.0
0.15
14.1
0.11
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
-5.4
0.946
-5.1
0.949
-4.4
0.956
1.1
1.011
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
10.0
3.56 104
10.1
3.57 10
10.1
3.57 104
10.1
3.57 10
7.6
3.49 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
503
5.0
528
3.4
520
4.1
524
4.6
527
1.2
509
[J]
Qin
ig
-15.0
-6.7
-14.0
0.2
-15.0
-0.4
-14.9
-0.5
-14.9
3.4
-15.5
[deg ATDC]
20.0
10.0
22.0
1.5
20.3
1.2
20.2
1.3
20.3
3.2
20.6
[deg]
0.0
18.8
18.8
18.2
18.2
18.3
18.3
18.3
18.3
6.5
6.5
tx
[%]
i = c,
20.0
10.0
22.0
-0.1
20.0
0.7
20.1
2.0
20.4
0.1
20.0
[deg]
Table 8.10: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP1 when
2.41
5.4
2.40
5.3
2.40
2.68
[K]
[-]
-0.6
TIV C
C1
58.4
Vc
3
[cm ]
x
RME
x :
using
18.8
0.0
0.0
4.3
4.3
4.1
4.1
3.8
3.8
16.6
16.6
#
x
[%]
204
5.9
2.39
5.0
2.28
2.3
59.3
0.9
58.8
x#
#
RME(x )
xt
5.5
369
370
2.7
380
-0.3
369
1.3
375
1.7
376
-0.2
pIV C
100.0
2.5
102.5
-0.1
99.9
-1.0
99.0
-1.4
98.6
1.8
101.8
[kPa]
1.350
0.4
1.355
2.0
1.377
1.9
1.375
1.7
1.373
0.2
1.352
[-]
300
7 10
14.3
8 105
9.6
7.67 105
12.1
7.85 105
12.7
7.89 105
-1.3
6.91 105
b
[K
Tw
400
2.5
410
1.1
405
1.9
407
2.1
408
-3.4
386
[K]
0.59
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.4
0.74
25.4
0.74
46.1
0.86
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
50.3
7.5
50.1
7.5
50.0
7.5
-0.9
5.0
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
49.9
0.15
50.0
0.15
50.0
0.15
12.8
0.11
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
-3.1
0.969
-3.1
0.969
-3.0
0.970
-2.0
0.980
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
10.0
3.56 104
10.1
10.1
3.57 104
3.57 104
10.1
3.57 104
1.4
3.28 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
1193
2.1
1218
0.8
1203
2.0
1216
2.4
1221
2.1
1217
[J]
Qin
ig
-25.0
-4.0
-24.0
1.8
-25.4
2.1
-25.5
2.1
-25.5
-0.4
-24.9
[deg ATDC]
15.0
13.3
17.0
4.2
15.6
6.6
16.0
7.3
16.1
-0.3
15.0
[deg]
0.0
18.7
18.7
18.2
18.2
18.3
18.3
18.3
18.3
6.2
6.2
tx
[%]
i = c,
30.0
6.7
32.0
-1.4
29.6
-0.8
29.8
-0.3
29.9
-0.2
29.9
[deg]
Table 8.11: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP6 when
2.42
RME
2.41
58.7
x (M 2 : 2)
-0.1
5.4
-1.2
RME
60.1
2.40
58.1
x (M 2 : 1)
RME
-0.2
x (M 2 : 3)
2.28
[K]
[-]
0.2
TIV C
C1
58.9
Vc
3
[cm ]
x
RME
x :
using
18.7
0.0
0.0
3.9
3.9
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
17.7
17.7
#
x
[%]
2.40
5.3
2.40
5.4
59.0
0.4
59.2
x (M 2 : 1)
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
424
2.4
5.4
2.39
5.0
2.28
0.5
59.3
0.9
58.8
x#
#
RME(x )
xt
2.3
pIV C
50.0
5.0
52.5
-0.9
49.5
-0.6
49.7
-1.1
49.5
-0.9
49.5
[kPa]
1.350
0.4
1.355
0.4
1.355
0.4
1.355
0.4
1.355
0.2
1.352
[-]
300
14.3
7 105
8 105
-0.3
6.98 105
2.5
7.18 105
-0.6
6.96 105
-1.5
6.89 105
b
[K
Tw
480
2.1
490
2.0
490
2.0
490
2.1
490
2.2
491
[K]
0.59
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
5.6
5.3
14.0
5.7
5.2
5.3
2.5
5.1
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
43.5
0.14
47.6
0.15
42.5
0.14
20.2
0.12
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
0.4
1.004
[-]
Kp
10.0
3.24 104
3.56 104
10.5
3.58 104
10.5
10.5
3.58 104
3.58 104
9.3
3.54 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
503
5.0
528
0.1
504
0.8
507
-0.0
503
0.2
504
[J]
Qin
ig
-15.0
-6.7
-14.0
-1.0
-14.8
-2.3
-14.7
-0.0
-15.0
1.8
-15.3
[deg ATDC]
20.0
10.0
22.0
-0.1
20.0
-0.9
19.8
0.6
20.1
1.9
20.4
[deg]
0.0
4.2
4.2
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.1
2.9
2.9
2.5
2.5
[%]
L tx
i 6= c,
20.0
10.0
22.0
0.1
20.0
-0.3
19.9
0.1
20.0
0.1
20.0
[deg]
Table 8.12: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP1 when
414
2.2
423
RME
2.40
0.7
59.1
RME
424
2.1
423
1.8
x (M 2 : 3)
4.5
0.1
RME
421
[K]
[-]
2.38
TIV C
C1
58.8
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
using
4.2
0.0
0.0
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.6
2.9
2.9
3.2
3.2
[%]
L #
x
206
5.0
59.2
0.7
59.2
0.7
59.3
0.9
x (M 2 : 2)
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
RME
2.28
2.41
5.7
2.41
5.8
370
2.7
380
2.6
380
2.7
380
2.6
380
2.9
pIV C
100.0
2.5
102.5
-0.8
99.2
-0.3
99.7
-0.8
99.2
-0.2
99.8
[kPa]
1.350
0.4
1.355
0.3
1.354
0.3
1.354
0.3
1.354
0.0
1.350
[-]
300
7 10
14.3
8 105
-3.6
6.75 10
-0.0
7 105
-3.6
6.75 105
-5.6
6.61 105
b
[K
Tw
400
2.5
410
2.3
409
2.3
409
2.3
409
1.8
407
[K]
0.59
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
25.5
0.74
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
50.0
7.5
8.8
5.4
23.2
6.2
9.8
5.5
-8.1
4.6
[kPa]
0.10
50.0
0.15
47.9
0.15
48.3
0.15
54.7
0.15
43.4
0.14
[deg]
1.000
0.5
1.005
0.3
1.003
0.3
1.003
0.3
1.003
0.3
1.003
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
10.0
3.56 104
10.4
3.58 10
10.3
3.57 104
10.5
3.58 104
4.3
3.38 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
1193
2.1
1218
0.1
1193
0.6
1200
0.1
1193
0.3
1196
[J]
Qin
ig
-25.0
-4.0
-24.0
-0.1
-25.0
-1.3
-24.7
-0.2
-25.0
-0.2
-25.0
[deg ATDC]
15.0
13.3
17.0
0.6
15.1
-0.7
14.9
0.5
15.1
0.2
15.0
[deg]
0.0
4.2
4.2
2.9
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.4
2.4
[%]
L tx
i 6= c,
30.0
6.7
32.0
-0.0
30.0
-0.7
29.8
-0.0
30.0
0.1
30.0
[deg]
Table 8.13: Parameter estimates and corresponding relative mean estimation error (RME) for OP6 when
#
RME(x )
t
58.8
2.39
0.7
RME
x#
5.8
59.2
x (M 2 : 1)
2.41
3.0
0.6
RME
381
[K]
[-]
2.35
TIV C
C1
59.1
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
using
4.2
0.0
0.0
3.0
3.0
2.6
2.6
3.0
3.0
3.3
3.3
[%]
L #
x
208
table 8.9. Out of these three, M2:3 performs best, but the dierence
is small and the estimation bias is still signicant as reected by the
tx -columns.
i 6= c,
In the case of
ter deviations
the same and fairly close to the optimal, see tables 8.12 and 8.13. Table 8.9 shows that
tx is smallest for M2:1 at OP1 and for M2:3 at OP6.
However when considering
tx for all investigated operating points, it is
lowest for M2:3 followed by M2:2 and M2:1 for all six operating points
except OP1.
8.1.5
i = c
and
i 6= c.
nal values of the parameters are determined and yields good estimates.
The second case is however more robust to false prior as seen in setup 2,
and it is therefore recommended since it pays o in better estimates.
Method 2 is given three versions; For the red cycles it has been
shown that M2:3 yields the best estimates in terms of estimation accuracy. For motored cycles it was shown that M2:1 could be used in all
the examined operating points without any noticeable loss in estimation accuracy. This has not been the case for the red cycles, where a
change in operating conditions changes the thermodynamic properties
more signicantly and results in larger biases for M2:1 than for M2:3.
The dierence in estimation accuracy between M2:1 and M2:3 is however small, within 0.3 % and 2 % for setup 1 and 2 respectively, while
the dierence in computational time is more signicant. Thus if time
is available the recommendation is to use M2:3, while if computational
time is an important feature M2:1 is recommended.
209
8.2.1
[1200, 3500]
ignition angle
kPa and
ent operating points. These operating points are dened in the upper
part of table 8.14, and are also given in table C.9 in appendix C.7.
For each operating point 101 consecutive red cycles were sampled
for two cylinders with a crank-angle resolution of 1 degree, using an
AVL GU21D cylinder pressure sensor. But due to the longer computational time for ring cycles as compared to motored, especially for
M2:3 as shown in table 8.6, only the rst 40 cycles will be considered in
the evaluation. Figure 8.6 displays one measured cycle for each operating point. The operating points are numbered in an ascending order
of their maximum cylinder pressure.
8.2.2
i .
x#
and
p,
that are updated for each cycle, and therefore for these
The other
210
OP6
60
Pressure [bar]
50
40
30
20
10
OP1
0
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
Figure 8.6: Experimentally measured red cylinder pressures at operating conditions OP16.
Regularization elements i
Two cases of regularization parameter elements are used for method 2
and they correspond to the two cases used in the simulation-based
evaluation done previously. The rst case (i = c) sets the standard
deviation i for each parameter as i = 0.01
x#
#
i , where x
i is the mean
#
value of xi for one operating point. It is used to assure that i does not
uctuate in size from cycle-to-cycle. In the simulation-based evaluation
xt was used instead of x
# .
The second case (i
6= c)
N [rpm]
pman [kPa]
ig [deg ATDC]
mean(d )
d
211
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
OP5
OP6
1200
1500
1500
2000
3000
3500
120
32
55
130
123
103
-33
-26
-5
-12
-28
-24
13.2
13.2
13.1
11.8
13.6
14.3
[11, 16]
[12, 16]
[9, 16]
[10, 15]
[11, 16]
[11, 16]
at OP16.
8.2.3
(8.2)
ig
and
300
ecient parameter and invariant in position for the investigated operating conditions and cycle-to-cycle variations.
and
[ig , d ].
The same groups were found in the simulation-based evaluation in section 8.1.3 except for
Vcr
and
given in table 8.14 as a mean over the 40 cycles at all six operating
points. The range of d for each operating point is also given. The
table shows that the mean values of d are more stable between operating points and that the variation is smaller in the experimental case,
compared to the simulation given in table 8.2. The trend of more ecient parameters for high loads seen in table 8.2 does not show up in
table 8.14.
The mean value, standard deviation, and relative mean error for the
individual estimates are given in table 8.15. The relative mean error
is computed relative to the nominal parameter value at each cycle and
is given in percent. All parameters give reasonable values except for
Tw
and
Vcr
Vc
C1
TIV C
yields
estimates that are either too small, reasonable or too large. Especially
for OP3 and OP4 the
-3.5
RME
#
58.8
2.28
1.77
-12.2
4.7
-7.3
est
RME
#
2.28
2.00
58.8
54.5
mean
-5.2
392
-14.2
113
338
400
-26.8
46
1.66
4.1
-7.8
292
394
2.16
2.28
est
54.2
58.8
RME
#
mean
-31.4
1.12
-58.2
3.7
-3.0
270
407
0.95
2.28
est
57.0
58.8
RME
#
mean
-15.0
66
0.02
-99.1
3.8
-6.9
335
425
-34.7
271
450
-30.6
56
304
0.02
2.28
est
54.7
58.8
RME
#
mean
1.60
1.7
-12.5
est
RME
#
42.2
3.24
2.28
58.1
2.08
3.60
[K]
[-]
51.4
mean
58.8
4.7
est
x
56.7
mean
TIV C
C1
153.3
-1.2
12.4
142.6
132.2
-0.2
3.8
131.6
152.3
1.7
5.1
154.9
162.5
5.1
9.7
171.0
68.6
-0.6
3.3
68.4
40.8
-3.7
4.0
39.0
[kPa]
pIV C
1.334
-6.9
0.043
1.284
1.335
-7.8
0.034
1.269
1.336
-5.3
0.019
1.288
1.336
-5.5
0.013
1.293
1.335
-9.6
0.017
1.211
1.336
-6.6
0.050
1.253
[-]
300
]
7.42 105
-65.6
7.42 10
2.55 105
1.79 105
-70.1
7.42 105
2.22 105
2.02 105
-68.6
7.42 105
2.33 105
1.32 105
-70.1
7.42 10
2.22 105
0.754 105
-84.7
7.42 105
1.13 105
1.3 105
-57.9
3.12 105
3.18 105
b
[K
Tw
475
58.8
304
754
475
62.5
282
772
475
32.8
238
631
475
-22.0
85
371
475
42.5
175
677
475
27.6
203
606
[K]
0.882
302.1
1.95
3.55
0.882
344.3
2.62
3.92
0.882
217.6
3.32
2.8
0.882
254.3
2.49
3.12
0.882
179.1
2.18
2.46
0.882
208.8
2.11
2.72
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-2.7
-8.7
1.6
-3.0
-3.8
-16.7
2.6
-3.9
-2.8
-1.0
0.5
-2.8
-2.3
-8.7
1.3
-2.9
0.6
-0.1
0.3
0.2
0.5
-17.5
1.4
0.1
[kPa]
0.47
-87.7
0.02
0.06
0.47
-89.8
0.00
0.05
0.47
-62.7
0.22
0.18
0.47
-80.4
0.08
0.09
0.47
-28.3
0.39
0.34
0.47
-86.7
0.03
0.06
[deg]
1.000
2.1
0.062
1.021
1.000
1.1
0.032
1.011
1.000
1.4
0.048
1.014
1.000
0.2
0.058
1.002
1.000
3.7
0.046
1.037
1.000
7.1
0.107
1.071
[-]
Kp
3.24 104
-4.3
3.24 10
3.10 104
0.26 104
-1.8
3.24 104
3.18 104
0.09 104
-2.6
3.24 104
3.16 104
0.25 104
-11.8
3.24 10
2.86 104
0.61 104
-3.8
3.24 104
3.12 104
0.41 104
-3.2
3.13 10
0.81 104
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
1797
-4.7
180
1566
1502
-4.3
52
1400
1756
-9.0
100
1562
1864
-7.7
124
1685
731
5.9
60
732
373
-1.6
31
345
[J]
Qin
ig
-24.4
13.9
5.8
-29.5
-28.0
17.2
5.0
-32.8
-12.3
45.2
3.5
-17.9
-5.3
153.4
4.6
-13.3
-26.0
9.7
5.4
-28.5
-32.6
-4.8
3.9
-31.0
[deg ATDC]
21.1
19.5
4.8
26.2
22.0
24.0
4.2
27.8
17.3
39.7
3.2
24.4
15.4
63.2
4.4
25.3
19.9
15.4
5.5
22.7
27.5
-6.9
3.6
25.7
[deg]
#
x
19.1
-6.6
1.4
17.7
18.7
-5.6
1.2
17.7
19.1
-4.2
1.1
18.5
19.3
-4.5
0.9
18.3
16.0
-2.4
0.8
15.7
20.3
-0.9
1.4
20.3
[deg]
Table 8.15: Mean value, standard deviation est , relative mean error (RME) and nominal parameter deviation
OP6
OP5
OP4
OP3
OP2
OP1
Vc
3
[cm ]
of the
0.0
91.8
91.8
91.8
0.0
102.9
102.9
102.9
0.0
79.1
79.1
79.1
0.0
95.7
95.7
95.7
0.0
74.8
74.8
74.8
0.0
79.7
79.7
79.7
#
x
[%]
212
213
of accuracy for the estimates is due to the high mean number of ecient
parameters found in table 8.14. These high numbers are probably due
to that the Akaike FPE assumes that the system considered is covered
by the model structure used. All models are approximations and this
is the case here, especially for ring cycles, since not every physical
process inuencing the measured cylinder pressure is modeled.
The
8.2.4
In the experimental evaluation of method 2 for motored cycles in section 7.2.4, a fourth version called M2:3+was included. The algorithm
was motivated and fully described in appendix C.3, and it will also be
studied here in the experimental evaluation for ring cycles.
First the results are presented for the two cases of
i 6= c,
i :s, i = c
and
for 40 experi-
This is done for all six operating points and for each
RMSE
214
Method 2; OP1
Zoomed version
10
10
RMSE(# ) []
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:3+
M2:2
M2:1
10
10
1
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure 8.7: L-curve (solid line) for one engine cycle at OP1, when using
case 1 of the
i (i = c).
x :
x (M 2 : 1)
mean
x (M 2 : 2)
mean
x (M 2 : 3)
mean
x (M 2 : 3+)
mean
est
est
est
est
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
OP5
OP6
1.8 102
2.0 102
4.9 107
2.2 106
2.8 105
4.9 104
3.2 103
3.8 103
4.0 101
8.8 102
2.9 107
1.2 107
7.3 106
3.3 105
9.7 103
2.0 103
3.9 100
1.4 100
9.5 106
1.0 105
7.3 106
1.3 104
8.8 102
3.1 102
6.7 101
1.5 100
1.1 106
1.2 105
6.2 106
2.6 105
6.3 102
1.8 102
7.3 101
7.1 101
3.4 106
3.7 104
8.0 106
1.5 104
4.1 102
1.1 102
1.1 100
4.2 101
8.8 107
2.0 106
1.5 106
1.2 105
4.8 102
1.1 102
215
x .
Version M2:1 is
x ,
closely
followed by M2:3+. Then there is a gap to the two versions M2:2 and
M2:3, which in turn render approximately the same
x .
(8.3)
except for OP3 where it is the other way around for M2:2 and M2:3. As
expected the dierence between
than between
x (M 2 : 1)
and
x .
value of the curvature found in gure C.2. Table 8.16 also shows that
the mean value of
x :s
column shows that M2:1 yields the smallest nominal parameter deviation of all versions, closely followed by M2:3+. The nominal deviations
#
x are within 2.2 % and 4.4 % respectively for all operating points considered. The other two versions, M2:2 and M2:3, render a signicantly
larger
#
x , where the parameters b, 300 and TIV C give unreasonable
ig
is advanced
d ,
Kp
yielded unreasonable
estimates, see table 7.21, but this is not the case for the ring cycles.
Of the other parameters
pIV C , Kp , C2 , Qin
and
ig
and
for both
i = c,
216
Method 2; OP1
Zoomed version
10
10
#
RMSE(L x ) []
10
10
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:3+
M2:2
M2:1
10
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure 8.8: L-curve (solid line) for one engine cycle at OP1, when using
case 2 of the
i (i 6= c).
x :
x (M 2 : 1)
mean
x (M 2 : 2)
mean
x (M 2 : 3)
mean
x (M 2 : 3+)
mean
est
est
est
est
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
OP5
OP6
7.7 104
6.1 104
4.3 105
3.4 104
1.5 106
1.8 105
2.2 104
7.9 104
1.4 102
3.0 103
5.6 105
3.0 105
5.8 107
6.4 107
4.6 104
3.0 104
1.7 101
3.8 102
3.8 103
2.9 103
8.5 105
1.3 103
1.3 100
2.4 100
3.5 102
5.2 102
1.4 104
8.0 104
7.3 106
9.5 105
7.1 104
1.8 103
3.2 102
2.1 102
1.9 103
6.7 103
1.2 104
1.9 103
1.6 103
1.5 103
5.3 102
2.3 102
7.1 104
1.5 102
8.7 106
3.6 104
1.8 102
1.1 101
217
x
x . This observation is conrmed
However the variation in x for M2:1, M2:2 and M2:3+ is
three versions M2:1, M2:2 and M2:3+ yield approximately the same
for OP1, while M2:3 yields a smaller
by table 8.17.
larger for the other ve operating points, and thus reect that the versions typically are a little more spread out on the L-curve as compared
to OP1.
Table 8.17 shows that for all six operating points the regularization
parameter for the four versions are ordered in size according to
(8.4)
except for OP3 where it is the other way around for M2:1 and M2:3+.
Compared to (8.3), the ordering is the same apart from M2:2 and M2:3
which now have changed places. As for the rst case, M2:3 results in
low values of
value of
version of method 2
six operating points. The only exception is OP3 for version M2:3+.
As expected, the dierent
This
i =
i = c,
ig
d .
C2 , Qin
and
pIV C , Vcr , Kp ,
For
M2:3+the estimates of
and
2.42
2.29
57.9
58.2
2.41
2.29
50.3
52.1
1.72
2.29
53.4
59.0
2.17
2.29
54.9
58.2
2.08
2.29
56.1
55.8
1.82
2.29
58.0
56.9
2.28
2.13
57.9
58.8
2.28
58.4
2.28
1.86
56.4
58.8
2.28
57.9
2.28
1.80
53.7
58.8
2.28
59.0
2.28
1.80
52.7
58.8
2.28
59.4
2.28
2.42
50.4
58.8
2.28
57.8
2.28
2.13
58.2
58.8
2.29
58.2
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
392
382
270
270
389
400
391
291
290
396
394
384
270
270
390
407
397
270
270
406
425
413
281
270
424
450
449
362
325
449
[K]
[-]
pIV C
153.3
152.2
154.2
157.4
152.4
132.2
131.3
134.3
134.0
131.5
152.3
151.3
156.4
155.2
151.9
162.5
161.9
165.4
165.9
162.7
68.6
68.1
68.9
69.0
68.6
40.8
40.9
40.8
42.0
40.8
[kPa]
1.335
1.356
1.296
1.295
1.357
1.335
1.356
1.296
1.293
1.358
1.339
1.375
1.262
1.254
1.359
1.339
1.378
1.256
1.231
1.341
1.335
1.326
1.218
1.215
1.349
1.336
1.346
1.296
1.299
1.344
[-]
300
]
7.38 105
5.01 105
5.22 105
7.34 105
7.42 105
7.37 105
3.16 105
3.39 105
7.12 105
7.42 105
7.39 105
0.0864 105
1.83 105
7.14 105
7.42 105
7.31 105
1.21 105
2.65 105
7.14 105
7.42 105
7.34 105
4.37 105
5.25 105
7.19 105
7.42 105
7.35 105
5.4 105
4.95 105
7.2 105
7.42 105
b
[K
Tw
475
472
606
578
474
475
472
469
566
474
475
471
503
519
474
475
471
418
488
475
475
472
477
478
474
475
473
479
443
474
[K]
0.882
0.881
1.04
0.96
0.881
0.882
0.88
1.12
1.2
0.881
0.882
0.882
1.05
1.55
0.882
0.882
0.882
1.07
1.07
0.882
0.882
0.879
0.89
0.89
0.881
0.882
0.881
0.916
1.56
0.881
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-2.7
-2.7
-2.9
-2.8
-2.7
-3.8
-3.8
-4.1
-4.3
-3.8
-2.8
-2.8
-3.0
-3.4
-2.8
-2.2
-2.2
-2.4
-2.4
-2.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
[kPa]
0.47
0.47
0.73
0.62
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.74
0.77
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.88
1.61
0.47
0.47
0.47
1.00
1.11
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.56
0.57
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.52
0.81
0.47
[deg]
1.000
0.979
0.999
0.982
0.991
1.000
0.969
0.992
0.989
0.984
1.000
0.963
0.998
0.995
0.987
1.000
0.963
1.007
1.020
1.001
1.000
0.974
1.041
1.041
0.988
1.000
0.984
1.002
0.978
0.987
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
2.99 104
3.23 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.07 104
3.09 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.10 104
3.21 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
2.99 104
3.06 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.12 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
1797
1771
1728
1780
1790
1502
1465
1467
1449
1485
1756
1701
1779
1827
1738
1864
1802
1878
1914
1864
731
715
745
744
721
373
365
364
366
368
[J]
Qin
ig
-24.4
-23.5
-27.5
-28.2
-23.7
-28.0
-26.9
-32.0
-31.1
-27.2
-12.3
-11.6
-17.6
-20.2
-11.8
-5.3
-5.0
-9.8
-12.0
-5.2
-26.0
-24.9
-34.7
-34.8
-25.3
-32.6
-32.1
-31.6
-31.8
-32.2
[deg ATDC]
21.1
22.1
25.5
26.1
21.6
22.0
23.0
27.5
26.5
22.5
17.3
19.2
24.7
27.6
18.5
15.4
17.7
22.2
24.3
16.0
19.9
21.2
30.0
30.0
20.4
27.5
27.9
27.0
27.2
27.9
[deg]
19.1
17.8
18.1
18.1
18.7
18.7
17.5
17.9
18.0
18.3
19.1
18.3
18.6
18.9
18.9
19.0
18.6
18.8
18.9
19.2
16.0
15.1
15.6
15.7
15.9
20.3
19.7
20.3
20.0
20.0
[deg]
0.0
2.8
28.9
20.5
1.3
0.0
2.9
26.8
33.1
1.4
0.0
3.7
36.9
74.8
2.2
0.0
4.4
46.3
58.4
1.2
0.0
4.1
23.4
24.2
1.1
0.0
1.6
10.7
38.9
1.1
#
x
[%]
Table 8.18: Mean value of the estimate for the four versions of method 2 using case 1, evaluated for 40 experimental cycles
#
at OP1-6. The nominal values x
are also included.
OP6
OP5
OP4
OP3
OP2
OP1
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
218
1.99
2.24
59.3
58.1
1.92
2.22
54.6
56.8
2.03
2.26
53.5
58.1
2.09
2.16
53.4
55.4
2.09
2.24
57.7
58.1
1.25
2.25
59.3
58.3
2.28
2.12
58.0
58.8
2.27
58.2
2.28
2.14
57.4
58.8
2.27
57.9
2.28
2.12
54.6
58.8
2.25
57.0
2.28
2.15
55.1
58.8
2.29
57.8
2.28
1.94
55.0
58.8
2.25
57.2
2.28
2.21
59.4
58.8
2.28
58.9
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
x (M 2 : 1)
x (M 2 : 2)
x (M 2 : 3)
x (M 2 : 3+)
x#
392
382
381
338
386
400
390
362
345
394
394
362
355
352
382
407
399
356
374
405
425
405
273
286
413
450
423
375
390
448
[K]
[-]
pIV C
153.3
152.6
151.7
154.6
152.4
132.2
129.4
131.1
133.1
130.2
152.3
147.7
148.8
147.1
151.2
162.5
163.6
157.0
158.6
164.4
68.6
64.1
71.1
69.6
65.1
40.8
41.4
42.1
40.3
40.2
[kPa]
1.334
1.331
1.329
1.307
1.333
1.335
1.330
1.317
1.305
1.332
1.336
1.306
1.272
1.296
1.326
1.336
1.332
1.285
1.303
1.333
1.335
1.325
1.229
1.243
1.329
1.336
1.305
1.274
1.305
1.334
[-]
300
]
5.91 105
4.97 105
2.9 105
4.96 105
7.42 105
3.75 105
0.742 105
0.00404 105
3.58 105
7.42 105
5.02 105
3.15 105
2.19 105
5.89 105
7.42 105
4.46 105
2.83 105
1.92 105
3.28 105
7.42 105
4.47 105
4.13 105
4.18 105
4.24 105
7.42 105
5.05 105
4.45 105
3.35 105
5.17 105
7.42 105
b
[K
Tw
475
478
533
500
476
475
476
482
500
476
475
486
506
490
480
475
478
489
488
476
475
483
549
538
480
475
490
536
558
475
[K]
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-2.7
-3.0
-2.4
-6.6
-2.9
-3.8
-2.5
-4.1
-6.4
-3.5
-2.8
2.5
0.2
3.3
-1.2
-2.3
-1.7
7.3
4.6
-3.1
0.6
5.0
-2.9
-1.0
3.8
0.5
0.0
-1.4
1.0
1.5
[kPa]
0.47
0.88
1.10
0.97
0.93
0.47
1.18
1.06
0.93
1.08
0.47
1.20
1.38
1.30
0.78
0.47
0.46
1.16
0.98
0.45
0.47
1.78
1.28
1.38
1.64
0.47
0.70
0.57
0.69
0.80
[deg]
1.000
0.999
0.992
1.002
0.999
1.000
0.998
0.998
0.999
0.998
1.000
0.998
1.005
0.999
0.996
1.000
1.000
0.998
0.996
0.996
1.000
0.999
1.000
0.999
0.999
1.000
1.000
0.999
0.999
1.000
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
1797
1795
1749
1821
1793
1502
1489
1482
1488
1482
1756
1770
1863
1794
1715
1864
1850
1885
1845
1792
731
731
756
745
723
373
375
364
360
366
[J]
Qin
ig
-5.3
-24.4
-28.4
-28.7
-28.4
-26.4
-28.0
-31.3
-31.5
-31.5
-29.4
-12.3
-21.6
-21.5
-21.6
-17.1
-7.6
-17.2
-16.2
-7.9
-26.0
-32.3
-34.0
-33.7
-30.1
-32.6
-32.5
-31.8
-32.3
-32.4
[deg ATDC]
21.1
27.2
27.4
27.1
25.3
22.0
27.9
27.8
27.5
26.0
17.3
29.5
29.5
29.6
24.7
15.4
20.1
30.0
29.0
20.4
19.9
30.0
30.0
30.0
27.6
27.5
28.3
26.7
27.9
28.6
[deg]
19.1
18.1
18.3
18.3
18.2
18.7
18.2
18.2
18.1
18.1
19.1
19.0
19.2
19.1
18.6
19.3
18.7
19.6
19.3
18.8
16.0
16.2
16.3
16.3
16.1
20.3
20.1
20.1
20.0
20.0
[deg]
0.0
0.0
26.0
0.0
0.0
80.2
45.0
7.1
39.1
13.8
26.9
0.0
5.4
42.3
44.8
45.2
9.7
13.8
14.8
35.4
0.0
6.8
56.6
0.0
69.8
62.7
17.1
25.2
19.7
27.2
0.0
9.1
19.2
89.9
74.1
5.2
24.4
18.7
17.6
0.0
6.0
76.0
0.0
58.6
57.7
12.3
33.8
30.1
66.6
0.0
9.6
39.0
0.0
47.2
41.4
33.5
#
x
[%]
10.8
35.4
18.5
4.2
[%]
L #
x
Table 8.19: Mean value of the estimate for the four versions of method 2 using case 2, evaluated for 40 experimental cycles
#
at OP1-6. The nominal values x
are also included.
OP6
OP5
OP4
OP3
OP2
OP1
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
220
i 6= c,
Summary of method 2
To summarize, case 1 and 2 yield dierent estimates and for the versions M2:2 and M2:3 almost the same parameters are close (within
5 %) of their nominal values. For M2:1 and M2:3+ more parameters
are within this limit, especially for case 1. It can however not be determined which case that gives the best estimates, since the true values are
unknown. But it has been shown that the extension of M2:3 to M2:3+
has resulted in a more robust algorithm. It has also been shown that
M2:1 and M2:3+ give more reasonable estimates, compared to M2:2
and M2:3. This is in line with the results from the simulation study.
The simulation study also showed that case 2 (i
and therefore this is the recommended choice.
6= c) is to be preferred,
This
makes M2:3+ more exible to changes in operating condition. Therefore if time is available, M2:3+ is preferable to M2:1.
300
According to the simulation-based evaluation, method 2 is more robust to an introduced false prior than method 1 since it yields more
accurate parameter estimates.
smaller between method 1 and 2 for ring cycles compared to the motored case. Just as for the motored case, the simulation study showed
that the regularization pulls some of the parameters towards their nominal values, while the ecient parameters are free to t the data.
Method 2 was originally formulated for three variants.
For the
simulation-based evaluation variant M2:3 is the most accurate one, followed by M2:2 and M2:1.
221
M2:3+ both give reasonable estimates, and where M2:3+ is more exible to changes in operating condition of the two.
Considering the two cases of parameter uncertainty,
i 6= c,
i = c
and
it was found in the simulations that the second case was rec-
also include the model of the specic heat ratio developed in chapter 4.
This extended model, in chapter 4 named model
D1 ,
is simulated by
This inclusion
222
9
Summary and conclusions
9.1 A specic heat ratio model for singlezone heat release models
The rst part of the thesis is on single-zone heat release modeling, where
the specic heat ratio model constitutes a key part. Chapter 2 gives
an overview of single-zone heat release models, while chapter 3 gives
a more thorough description of the model components. In chapter 4
various specic heat ratio models are investigated.
The conclusions
for
[0.8, 1.2].
Fur-
224
and temperature
developed
in Krieger and Borman (1967) for the major operating range of a spark
ignited (SI) engine.
reasons for the burned mixture, then the temperature region should be
chosen with care which can reduce the modeling error in
With the knowledge of how to describe
by 25 %.
-model
during the combustion process, i.e. for a partially burned mixture. This
is done by interpolating the specic heats for the unburned and burned
mixture using the mass fraction burned
model of
, which results in
xb .
(T, p, xb ) =
lin
xb cKB
cp (T, p, xb )
p,b + (1 xb ) cp,u
=
KB + (1 x ) clin
cv (T, p, xb )
xb cv,b
b v,u
(9.1)
error in
that the
heat ratio to the Gatowski et al. (1984) single-zone heat release model is
rc
rc
225
it is important to take the heat transfer into account, and then only
rc .
from method 4 are smallest of all methods, but it suers from a high
computational time. Method 2 yields smaller condence intervals than
methods 1 and 3, and is outstanding regarding convergence speed. The
eects and trends shown in the simulation evaluation are also present
in the experimental data. Therefore the conclusions made in the simulation evaluation with respect to models, residuals, methods, heat
transfer and crevice eects are the same for the experimental evaluation.
Concluding recommendations
The accuracy of the compression ratio estimate is higher for motored
cycles with high initial pressures. Thus if it is possible to choose the
initial pressure, it should be as high as possible. Using motored cycles
assures that all pressure information available is utilized and the high
initial pressure improves the signal-to-noise ratio, while the eects of
heat transfer and crevice ows remain the same.
Two methods are recommended; If estimation accuracy has the
highest priority, and time is available, method 4 should be used. Method
4 yields the smallest condence intervals of all investigated methods for
both simulated and experimental data. In the simulation case where
the true value of the compression ratio is known, method 4 gave estimates with smallest bias. If computational time is the most important
property, method 2 is recommended.
226
Method 1
is based on using a singular value decomposition (SVD) of the estimated hessian, to reduce the number of estimated parameters one-byone. Then the suggested number of parameters to use is found as the
one minimizing the Akaike nal prediction error.
Method 2 uses a
300
in the linear
-model
for each parameter, but pays o in better estimates that are more robust to a false nominal parameter value. Once a choice of parameter
uncertainty has been done, no user interaction is needed.
Method 2 was originally formulated for three versions. The versions
dier in how they determine how strong the regularization should be.
For the simulation-based evaluation version M2:1 and M2:3 where found
to be the most accurate one for motored and red cycles respectively.
The chosen
228
Bibliography
Stat. Math.,
Ann. Inst.
(21):243347, 1969.
C.A. Amann.
Engine Control.
ISBN 91-7291-706-7.
W. J. D. Annand.
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230
E. Bergstedt.
Master's the-
. Bjrck.
Siam,
1996.
M.F.J. Brunt and A.L. Emtage.
analysis errors. In
(SP-1157),
M.F.J. Brunt and A.L. Emtage. Evaluation of burn rate routines and
analysis errors. In
(SP-1267),
In
bustion, 1998.
SI Engine Com-
1993.
proach.
Combustion
http://highered.mcgraw-
Regularization of inverse
hill.com.
problems.
4157-0.
L. Eriksson.
PhD thesis,
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231
J.W. Fox, W.K. Cheng, and J.B. Heywood. A model for predicting
residual gas fraction in spark ignition engines. 1993. SAE Technical
Paper 931025.
J.A. Gatowski, E.N. Balles, K.M. Chun, F.E. Nelson, J.A. Ekchian,
and J.B. Heywood. Heat release analysis of engine pressure data. 1984.
SAE Technical Paper 841359.
P.E. Gill, W. Murray, and M.H. Wright.
Practical Optimization.
Aca-
Rank-decient and discrete ill-posed problems: numerical aspects of linear inversion. Society for Industrial and Applied
P.C. Hansen.
Numerical Algorithms,
6(1):
135, 1994.
P.C. Hansen and D.P. O'Leary.
tic Computing,
http://link.aip.org/link/?SCE/14/1487/1.
T.K. Hayes, R.A. White, and J.E. Peters. Combustion chamber temperature and instantaneous local heat ux measurements in a spark
ignition engine. 1993. SAE Technical Paper 930217.
J. B. Heywood.
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232
M.
Klein.
tio estimation.
University,
specic
heat
ratio
Licentiate thesis,
2004.
model
and
compression
Vehicular Systems,
LiU-TEK-LIC-2004:33,
Thesis
ra-
Linkping
No.
1104,
http://www.fs.isy.liu.se/Publications/.
M. Klein and L. Eriksson.
zone heat release models.
2004-01-1464,
2005a.
Modeling of SI Engines,
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233
197211, 2006.
R.B. Krieger and G.L. Borman. The computation of apparent heat
release for internal combustion engines.
ASME, 1967.
P. Lindskog.
L. Ljung.
Prentice Hall,
Miller.
a
Analysis,
Least
prescribed
squares
bound.
1(1):5274,
1970.
methods
for
ill-posed
problems
10.1137/0501006.
http://link.aip.org/link/?SJM/1/52/1.
URL
M. Mladek and C.H. Onder. A model for the estimation of inducted air
mass and residual gas fraction using cylinder pressure measurements.
2000. SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-0958.
M. Morishita and T. Kushiyama. An improved method for determining the TDC position in a pv-diagram (rst report).
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V.A.
SAE Technical
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Morozov.
IFAC Workshop:
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SAE
Model Based Fault Diagnosis: Methods, Theory, and Automotive Engine Applications. PhD thesis, Linkpings Universitet,
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P.J. Shayler, S.A. May, and T. Ma. The determination of heat transfer
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J. Sjberg, Q. Zhang, L. Ljung, A. Benveniste, B. Deylon, P-Y. Glorennec, H. Hjalmarsson, and A. Juditsky. Nonlinear black-box modeling in system identication:
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SAE Inter-
Bibliography
I.I. Vibe.
235
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236
Bibliography
A
A specific heat ratio model
further details
Additional details and argumentation for the results in chapter 4 are
given in this appendix. Each section is referenced from various sections
in chapter 4, and this appendix is therefore a complement.
The second is a
A.1.1
mtot
ref ,
is computed as
T =
TIV C
pV.
pIV C VIV C
(A.1)
238
Tb
(T )
Tu ,
as an interpolation of
Tu
T:
Tu,SOC = TSOC .
The unburned zone temperature
(A.2)
Tu = Tu,SOC
p
pSOC
11/n
= TSOC
ig
p
pSOC
Tu () =
T ()
T (ig )
p
p(ig )
(A.3)
11/n
11/n
Tu
is given by:
ig
> ig .
(A.4)
Energy balance between the single-zone and the two-zone models yields:
(A.5)
cv = cv,b = cv,u ,
T =
where
xb
mb T b + mu T u
= xb Tb + (1 xb )Tu ,
mb + mu
(A.6)
the weight of
Tb
since
cv,b
Tb =
T (1 xb )Tu
.
xb
cv
would be used,
(A.7)
239
The burned zone temperature is sensitive to low values of the mass frac-
xb .
xb < 0.01.
Tb
tion burned,
Therefore
for
Tad
for a constant
hu (Tu ) = hb (Tad , p)
where
hu
and
respectively.
hb
(A.8)
summarized as:
xb
in (A.1).
4.If
xb 0.01
Tu
using (A.4).
Tb
from (A.7).
5.Return
T , Tu
and
Tb
from (A.8).
Tb .
240
3000
Tb
2500
2000
T1zone
1500
Tu
1000
500
50
0
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
50
0
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
50
0.5
0
50
Figure A.1:
Upper:
and burned
Tb
ure 4.8.
Single-zone temperature
(=T1zone ), unburned
Tu
Bottom:
Property
Abbrev.
Bore
B
S
ar =
l
ncyl
Vd
Vc
rc
Stroke
Crank radius
Connecting rod
No. of cylinders
Displacement volume
Clearance volume
Compression ratio
S
2
Value
Unit
90
[mm]
90
[mm]
45
[mm]
147
4
[mm]
[-]
62.9
3
[cm ]
3
[cm ]
10.1
[-]
2290
Qin , pIV C
and
TIV C
The parameter
according to table A.2. All the other parameters remain the same.
The dierence between the
300
b
C1
C2
ig
d
b
Vc
Vcr
p
Tw
TIV C
pIV C
Qin
Kp
241
Description
Value
1.3678
8.13 105
2.28
3.24 104
-15
20
40
62.9
Vc ]
1.5%
440
341
50
760
Table A.1: Nominal parameter values for OP2 in the single zone model.
OP
1
pIV C
[kPa]
TIV C
[K]
Qin
[J]
25
372
330
50
341
760
100
327
1620
150
326
2440
200
325
3260
25
372
330
50
372
700
100
372
1420
150
372
2140
200
372
2850
Table A.2: Operating points (OP) for the simulated cylinder pressure.
ig , d and b
and p are
are changed, to
both set to zero
242
up a unit mass that enters the cylinder from the crevice volume. The
for every
-model
except
(A.9)
cv = xb cKB
x )clin in the second equalv,b + (1
b v,u
u
equality that cv =
for the burned mixture
T
V
and equation (2.31) for the linear approximation of the unburned mix-
u
u
300
and b are given in table 4.2.
Dierent modeling assumptions in terms of single-zone or two-zone
0
models result in dierent temperatures T . In these cases the temper0
ature T is as follows: For the single-zone model
where the coecients
Tw
T
dmcr < 0
dmcr 0,
(A.11)
T =
Tw
Tb
dmcr < 0
dmcr 0,
(A.12)
T0 =
Tw
Tu
dmcr < 0
dmcr 0
(A.13)
T =
for the burned zone
and according to
T0 = T,
i.e.
u0 u
for
-models (4.19)(4.31).
For
C1 , C3
and
C4
u0 u
R
b
ln
lin (T )1
lin (T )1
B1
(4.19):
(A.14)
u0 u
Model
Model
B3
B2
243
(4.20):
= uB2 (T 0 ) uB2 (T ).
(A.15)
(4.21):
B4
(A.16)
u0 u = (T 0 T ) R
.
B
(A.17)
(4.22):
4
Model
C1
(4.23):
R T0
u0 u =
R T 0C1
dT
R
b +(1x ) u +x bb (T 300)+(1x )bu (T 300)
xb 300
u
b
b
b
b
300
R T x b +(1x ) u +(xR bb +(1x )bu )(T 300) dT
b 300
b 300 0 b b
C1 (T )1
R
ln
b
u
C1 (Tb ,Tu )1 ,
xb b +(1xb )b
=R
dT
R T0
(A.18)
xb = 0, xb = 1 or
u
u
mixture 300 and b are
dmcr 0.
C2
(4.24):
u0 u = uC2 (T 0 ) uC2 (T ).
Model
C3
(A.19)
(4.25):
R T0
u0 u =
R T 0C3
dT
R
dT
u
xb KB +(1xb )lin
R T0 R
R T0
dT )
R(xb Tb KB dT + (1 xb ) Tu R
u
lin
u 0
(T )1
KB
0
KB
xb (u (T , p) u (Tb , p)) + (1 xb ) bRu ln lin
,
u (T )1
u
=R
lin
(A.20)
dmcr 0.
D1 (A.9).
C4 (4.26) the
term as for
For model
as for
C3 ,
u0 u
C3
xb = 0, xb = 1
or
i.e.
R T0
= T R
dT
C4
xb (ub (T 0 , p) ub (Tb , p)) + (1 xb )(uu (T 0 ) uu (Tu ))
(A.21)
244
ub ,
uu ,
xb = 0, xb = 1
whenever
or
dmcr 0.
C5
(4.27):
u0 u =
=
R T0
T
R
C5 (T,xb
) dT
C5 (T 0 ,0)1
R
ln
comp
b
C5 (T,0)1
(T 0 T ) C R1
5 0
C5 (T ,1)1
R
ln
exp
b
C5 (T,1)1
D4
xb < 0.01
0.01 xb 0.99
(A.25).
C4
(A.22)
xb > 0.99
xb < 0.01 is
to zero, but not when the start of combustion occurs after TDC.
Model
D2
u0 u
Model
(4.29):
D3
(A.23)
(4.30):
u0 u
Model
D4
u
lin
(T 0 )1
u (T )1
lin
u
(A.24)
(4.31):
u0 u
(A.25)
Vcr
Tw , TIV C
and
The
change in all the measures RMSE, maximum residual value and sensitivity
C4
will not have not a crucial eect on the nal result and conclusions
245
300
d
ig
Vc
Kp
Tw
Qin
b
pIV C
TIV C
b
p
C2
C1
1.3678
RMSE
Max Res
[kPa]
[kPa]
[-]
0.137
[-]
542.0
1471.10
5.40
15
[deg]
282.5
1081.2
0.60
-20
248.3
904.0
0.74
6.29
[deg ATDC]
3
[cm ]
217.5
632.2
1.80
0.1
[-]
188.4
477.2
1.56
[K]
108.7
283.5
0.86
[J]
103.6
271.9
0.81
62.9
1
440
44
1500
150
30
[deg]
105.2
412.7
0.46
100
10
[kPa]
97.5
221.5
0.77
340
44
[K]
1
[K
]
62.8
175.2
0.35
27.0
82.7
0.20
[deg]
10.6
32.7
0.2
[kPa]
10.0
10.0
0.2
[m/(s K)]
4.1
8.8
0.3
[-]
1.7
2.10
0.1
-8.13
0.4
105
-8.13
0.2
30
106
10
3.24
2.28
103
3.24
104
0.228
-model
the cylinder pressure model. This is primarily through its direct inuence by coupling the pressure, temperature and volume changes to each
other. The crevice eect is also directly dependent on the
here
-model, but
TIV C .
mass by
mtot .
pexh
mr
xr =
Vc
at pressure
temperature at
= 360
pman
and temperature
Tman .
Tr
Vr
according to
Vr = Vc
p
exh
pman
1/n
(A.26a)
246
Tr = T6
The rest of the cylinder volume
Vaf = V Vr .
i.e.
xr
man
pexh
Vaf
n
n1
(A.26b)
xr
as
mr
=
maf + mr
p
1+
Tr
Tman
pman Vr
RTr
pman Vaf
pman Vr
RTman + RTr
pman
rc
pexh
pman
pexh
= ...
(n1)/n !!1
(A.27)
TIV C = Tr rc xr
where
pman
pexh
(A.28)
C8 H18
Since the actual fuel composition can dier over both region of country
and time of year, it is interesting to see what happens with the specic
heat ratios when the fuel composition is changed. Consider the general
fuel
Ca Hb Oc ,
1
Ca Hb Oc + (O2 + 3.773N2 )
(a + b/4 c/2)
y1 O + y2 O2 + y3 H + y4 H2 + y5 OH
+y6 H2 O + y7 CO + y8 CO2 + y9 N O + y10 N2 ,
where
a, b
and
(A.29)
Then a
similar investigation is made for unburned mixtures. Finally the properties of partially burned mixtures and their inuence on the cylinder
pressure are examined.
247
p1 = 7.5
and
p2 = 35
bar
A.6.2
Considering more general fuels such as alcohols, the specic heat ratio
of methanol
CH3 OH
shows what inuence the extra oxygen atom brings about, and the
comparison with iso-octane yields the dierence to the fuel used here as
a reference fuel. The specic heat ratios are computed using
D4
(4.31).
The results are displayed in gure A.3, where the upper plot shows
dierence in
respectively. In gure A.3 and table A.5 the results for the fuels are
compared to methanol instead of iso-octane due to three reasons; First
of all this allows for a direct comparison of the results for methane
and methanol. Secondly, it allows for a comparison of methanol and
iso-octane.
Thirdly
to compute the thermodynamic properties for methanol and then estimate the coecients in the Krieger-Borman polynomial (4.9) in a least
squares sense.
248
C8H18
CH
4
C7.76H13.1
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
Difference in []
10
x 10
CH4
C
H
7.76 13.1
5
0
5
500
Figure A.2:
1000
Upper:
Ca Hb
Fuel
Methane
Iso-octane
Gasoline 1
Gasoline 2
Lower:
CH4
C8 H18
C8.26 H15.5
C7.76 H13.1
C7.76 H13.1 ,
and gasoline 2
NRMSE @
p1
Dif-
compared to
NRMSE @
p2
0.19 %
0.17 %
0.16 %
0.15 %
2.25
1.88 0.06 %
0.05 %
0.05 %
0.04 %
1.69 0.09 %
0.07 %
0.07 %
0.07 %
Table A.4: Burned mixtures: Dierent fuels and their chemical composition. The NRMSE( ) is formed as the dierence compared to isooctane, and evaluated at
p1 = 7.5
and
p2 = 35
=1
bar respectively.
and
B,
for
249
C H
8 18
CH
4
CH OH
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
500
1000
Difference in []
0.015
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
C8H18
CH
4
0.01
0.005
500
Figure A.3:
methane
Upper:
for
CH4 .
ference in
1000
Fuel
CH3 OH
Ca Hb Oc
compared to iso-octane
NRMSE @
A
Methanol
Methane
Iso-octane
Lower:
methanol
CH4 O
CH4
C8 H18
p1
Difand
p2
NRMSE @
C8 H18
0.80 %
0.75 %
0.81 %
0.72 %
0.73 %
0.60 %
0.70 %
0.60 %
Table A.5: Burned mixtures: Dierent fuels and their chemical composition. The NRMSE is formed as the dierence for methanol compared
to methane and iso-octane respectively, and evaluated at
temperature regions
tively.
and
B,
for
p1 = 7.5
and
p2 = 35
= 1
and
bar respec-
250
Comparing
gasoline 1 with the linear model of the unburned mixture given in table 4.2, one see that it introduces an NRMSE which is of the same order.
A trend in the results shows that for hydrocarbons, the specic heat ratio is more accurately determined for burned mixtures than unburned.
This conclusion can be drawn by comparing tables A.4 and A.6. For
the alcohol methanol it is the other way around, compare tables A.5
and A.6.
Fuel
Methane
Iso-octane
Gasoline 1
Gasoline 2
Methanol
Table A.6:
Ca Hb Oc
CH4
C8 H18
C8.26 H15.5
C7.76 H13.1
CH3 OH
Unburned mixtures:
NRMSE
2.57 %
2.25
1.88
0.18 %
1.69
0.39 %
0.50 %
composition.
[300, 1000]
y = b/a
= 1
K.
for the pressure in table A.7, as well as the NRMSE and MRE for
Iso-octane is used as the reference fuel.
cylinder pressure impact (RMSE(p)) of the fuels listed in table A.7 are
larger than the impact of
D1 ,
for all fuels except gasoline 1. However for all fuels but methane, the
RMSE(p) introduced is increased with less than 75 % compared to
iso-octane, which is acceptable.
The goal is to nd a model that approximates the actual
Model
D1
well.
evaluation. Table A.8 evaluates the impact the use of the polynomials
in model
D1
MRE:
[%]
NRMSE:
[%]
251
RMSE:
[kPa]
Methane
2.8
2.0
36.6
Iso-octane
0.0
0.0
0.0
Gasoline 1
0.20
0.12
2.2
Gasoline 2
0.40
0.29
5.3
Methanol
0.85
0.63
5.1
Fuel
MRE:
Methane
[%]
NRMSE:
2.7
1.9
[%]
RMSE:
[kPa]
34.3
Iso-octane
0.27
0.10
2.8
Gasoline 1
0.27
0.15
1.5
Gasoline 2
0.47
0.29
3.3
1.1
0.70
5.4
Methanol
D4
D1
The table shows that the RMSE(p) for gasolines 1 and 2 are close to
the one found for iso-octane. In fact, the RMSE(p) is only increased by
20 %. It can therefore be concluded that model
D1
[1.69, 2.25]
Note that
D1
is 2.
This also explains why the RMSE(p) are smaller in table A.8 compared
to table A.7.
252
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
cv,b
Region
A
B
C
D
E
clin
v,b
T
[500, 3500]
[500, 3000]
[500, 2700]
[500, 2500]
[1200, 3000]
KB
cv,b
MRE
NRMSE
MRE
NRMSE
0.68 %
0.20 %
0.42 %
0.21 %
0.68 %
0.23 %
0.09 %
0.03 %
0.68 %
0.27 %
0.04 %
0.02 %
0.68 %
0.30 %
0.04 %
0.02 %
0.38 %
0.20 %
0.09 %
0.04 %
Table A.9: Maximum relative error (MRE) and normalized root mean
square error (NRMSE) of specic heat
regions at
=1
and
p = 7.5
bar.
cv,b
cv,b
tions, i.e. the linear and the Krieger-Borman model respectively. The
linear approximation has poor performance over the entire temperature region, and does not capture non-linear behavior of the reference
model very well.
T < 2800
A,
BE,
cKB
v,b
is immensely
nomial works well for temperatures below 3000 K. Actually the KriegerBorman polynomial has poorer performance than the linear model for
high temperatures, as seen by comparing the NRMSE:s for temperature region
A.
T of (4.10) with
T > 3000 K in gure A.4.
erties can then be computed using CHEPP (Eriksson, 2004), and all
coecients estimated in a least squares sense.
The corresponding results for specic heat
cp,b
ure A.5 and table A.10, from which the same conclusions as for
cv,b
can
be drawn.
Region
A
B
C
D
E
clin
p,b
T
[500, 3500]
[500, 3000]
[500, 2700]
[500, 2500]
[1200, 3000]
cKB
p,b
MRE
NRMSE
MRE
NRMSE
0.51 %
0.17 %
0.39 %
0.19 %
0.51 %
0.19 %
0.08 %
0.03 %
0.51 %
0.23 %
0.03 %
0.02 %
0.51 %
0.25 %
0.03 %
0.02 %
0.31 %
0.17 %
0.08 %
0.03 %
Table A.10: Maximum relative error (MRE) and normalized root mean
square error (NRMSE) of specic heat
regions at
=1
and
p = 7.5
bar.
cp,b
254
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
500
1000
1500
cp,b
2000
2500
Temperature [K]
3000
3500
-models
xr
Qin
pexh
TIV C ,
is com-
-models
bles A.11 and A.12 summarizes the maximum relative error and nor-
255
Pressure [MPa]
10
100
50
50
100
100
50
0
50
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
Pressure [MPa]
10
Figure A.6:
1-5.
Lower:
Upper:
6-9.
table A.13
summarizes the root mean square error for the cylinder pressure
ures A.7 to A.10 display the approximative
-model
-models and
p.
Fig-
the reference
respectively, for the cylinder pressure trace given in gure 4.8. In those
gures, the reference model
CE
-model
brings along.
256
OP
B1
B2
B3
B4
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
D1
D2
D3
4.1
5.9
5.2
7.7
2.3
7.3
2.2
2.1
8.1
0.29
0.28
0.049
4.1
5.9
5.2
7.8
2.3
7.3
2.4
2.3
8.4
0.27
0.26
0.039
3.6
5.5
4.7
7.4
1.9
6.9
2.3
2.1
8.6
0.26
0.25
0.036
3.3
5.1
4.4
7.2
1.8
6.5
2.1
1.9
8.6
0.26
0.25
0.036
3.1
4.9
4.1
2.1
6.3
1.8
8.7
0.26
0.25
0.036
4.1
5.9
5.2
7.7
2.3
7.3
2.2
2.1
8.1
0.29
0.28
0.049
3.5
5.3
4.6
7.2
1.7
6.7
1.8
1.7
8.1
0.26
0.25
0.049
4.8
4.1
6.7
1.4
6.2
1.5
1.5
8.1
0.24
0.24
0.05
2.7
4.5
3.8
6.4
1.7
5.9
1.4
1.3
8.1
0.24
0.23
0.05
2.5
4.2
3.6
6.2
5.7
1.3
1.2
8.1
0.23
0.22
0.05
Mean
3.4
5.2
4.5
7.1
1.9
6.6
1.9
1.8
8.3
0.26
0.25
0.044
OP
B1
B2
B3
B4
C1
C2
1.4
2.6
1.8
4.2
0.62
4.1
1.3
2.7
1.8
4.5
0.69
1.2
2.6
1.7
4.6
0.82
1.2
2.4
1.6
4.5
0.93
3.9
1.1
2.4
1.6
4.4
3.8
1.4
2.6
1.8
4.2
0.62
4.1
1.2
2.4
1.7
4.1
0.57
1.1
2.3
1.6
0.69
3.8
1.1
2.2
1.5
3.9
0.81
3.8
2.1
1.5
3.9
0.91
Mean
1.2
2.4
1.7
4.2
0.77
C3
C4
C5
D1
D2
D3
0.59
0.52
1.5
0.11
0.1
0.016
4.1
0.65
0.58
1.5
0.098
0.094
0.014
0.62
0.55
1.6
0.095
0.091
0.014
0.58
0.5
1.7
0.096
0.091
0.014
0.56
0.47
1.7
0.097
0.092
0.014
0.59
0.52
1.5
0.11
0.1
0.016
0.51
0.44
1.6
0.098
0.092
0.017
0.44
0.38
1.6
0.094
0.088
0.017
0.4
0.34
1.7
0.092
0.086
0.017
3.7
0.38
0.32
1.8
0.092
0.086
0.017
3.9
0.53
0.46
1.6
0.097
0.092
0.016
Table A.12: Normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) [%] for
models.
OP
B1
B2
B3
B4
C1
C2
61.6
C3
9.7
C4
26.1
37.3
33.3
29.5
17.2
8.6
52.3
85.8
76.0
62.8
39.8
98.4
74.1
98.4
D1
D2 D3
1.3
1.2
0.1
82.9
2.8
2.6
0.3
5.9
5.3
0.7
9.2
8.2
1.0
28.7
37.3
33.3
29.5
17.2
42.0
70.0
62.7
49.6
28.5
73.1
91.5
45.3
130.9 117.7
C5
34.2
61.6
9.7
8.6
34.2
1.3
1.2
0.1
75.2
2.5
2.2
0.3
4.9
4.3
0.7
58.0
7.4
6.4
1.1
68.2
9.9
8.5
1.5
56.6
5.8
5.1
0.7
Mean
84.9
Table A.13: Root mean square error (RMSE) [kPa] for cylinder pressure.
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
100
100
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
100
100
100
100
1.3
1.3
C2: []
1.4
1.2
1.2
C : []
100
1.1
1.4
1.1
1
1.2
1.1
1
100
B4: []
1.4
B : []
257
B2: []
1.4
B : []
1.1
1
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
Figure A.7:
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
for models
B1
to
C2 (solid
line) at
D4
found by CHEPP.
258
1.3
1.3
C4: []
1.4
C3: []
1.4
1.2
1.1
1.2
100
1.1
100
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.1
100
100
100
1.2
100
1.1
100
1.3
1.3
D3: []
1.4
D2: []
1.4
1.2
1.1
D1: []
1.4
C5: []
1.4
100
1.2
1.1
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
Figure A.8:
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
for models
C3
to
D3 (solid
line) at
D4
found by CHEPP.
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.1
259
1.2
1.1
B4 []
B3 []
1.1
B5 []
B2 []
1.4
B6 []
B1 []
1.2
1.1
for models
B1
to
C2
(solid line) at
D4
found by CHEPP.
1.4
1.3
1.3
C4 []
1.4
C []
260
1.2
1.4
1.3
1.3
D1 []
1.4
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.3
1.3
D3 []
1.4
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.1
D []
1.1
C []
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.1
for models
C3
to
D3
(solid line) at
D4
found by CHEPP.
250
150
200
100
150
50
100
0
50
261
B2: p [kPa]
200
B : p [kPa]
50
100
100
250
100
100
100
100
200
B : p [kPa]
150
100
100
B : p [kPa]
200
50
100
100
100
400
100
300
C2: p [kPa]
150
50
200
C : p [kPa]
0
50
100
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
B1
to
C2
(solid line)
262
80
80
60
C : p [kPa]
C : p [kPa]
60
20
20
0
100
100
200
6
D1: p [kPa]
250
150
100
C : p [kPa]
20
40
40
50
0
100
100
100
100
4
2
0
100
100
D : p [kPa]
0.5
D : p [kPa]
2
0
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
0.5
100
0
100
Crank angle [deg ATDC]
C3
to
D3
(solid line)
C5
is
B
Compression ratio
estimation further details
Further details and argumentation for the results found in chapter 5 are
given in this appendix. Each section is referenced from various sections
in chapter 5 and this appendix is therefore a complement.
residuals
(B.1)
(B.2)
and
C1 = ln C
and
C2 = C
1/n
, the following
relation is obtained
1a
= n ln p1/n ln C2 n + n ln(Vid () + Vc )
C2 p()1/n
= n ln
Vid () + Vc
Vid () (C2 p()1/n Vc )
= n ln 1
Vid () + Vc
1b
= n ln 1
.
Vid () + Vc
263
264
1b Vc Vid () + Vc ,
n ln 1
1b
Vid () + Vc
n
1b .
Vid () + Vc
(B.3)
1a (, x)
n
1b (, x),
Vid () + Vc
(B.4)
y.
Rewrite
(y, z)
such that
x = (y z)T ,
xk = (yk , zk )
where
(y, z)
as
(B.5)
and set
xk+1/2 = (yk + yk , zk ).
pk
at
xk+1/2 ,
where
(B.6)
(yk+1/2 , zk ))
C(xk+1/2 ) = (F (zk ), z
i.e. solve
(B.7)
trix.
3.Set
ln p() = C2 n ln(Vd () + Vc ).
This equation is linear in the parameters
in
Vc
C2 = ln C
and
(B.8)
n and nonlinear
and applies to the form given in (B.5). With the notation from the
265
Vd () = C1 p()1/n Vc .
(B.9)
This equation does also t into the form of (B.5). However this formulation is not as appropriate as (B.8), due to that the parameters
C1 = C 1/n and n are coupled.
Property
Abbrev.
Bore
B
S
ar = S2
l
ncyl
Vd
rcmax
rcmin
xof f
v
Stroke
Crank radius
Connecting rod
No. of cylinders
Displacement volume
Maximum compression ratio
Minimum compression ratio
Pin-o
Tilting angle
Value
Unit
68
[mm]
88
[mm]
44
[mm]
158
[mm]
[-]
1598
3
[cm ]
14.66
[-]
8.13
[-]
[-2.2,
[0,
4.7]
[mm]
4]
[deg]
Tw and TIV C
Tw = 440 K
TIV C = 340
Compared to ta-
ble 3.1 the following parameters are changed; The clearance volume
Vc
oset
266
Par.
300
b
C1
C2
ig
d
b
Vc
Vcr
p
Tw
TIV C
pIV C
Qin
Kp
Description
Value
1.3678
8.13 105
2.28
3.24 104
0
-20
15
30
3
single aggregate crevice volume [cm ]
pressure bias in measurements [kPa]
mean wall temperature [K]
22.845.7
1.5%
Vc (rc = 11)
0
440
340
100
500
C
Prior knowledge approach
further details
Further details and argumentation for the results found in chapters 68
are given in this appendix.
the measured cylinder pressure and the modeled cylinder pressure, i.e.
by minimizing the prediction error.
First to describe how the parameter estimation is performed when using the Levenberg-Marquardt procedure. Secondly as a comparison to
the expressions given in section 6.4.2 for method 2, where a regularization term is included in the criterion function. The rst subsection
states the equations used when minimizing the prediction error for a
nonlinear estimation problem. The Levenberg-Marquardt procedure is
then presented as a special case. The next subsection concerns issues
such as stopping criteria, local minima, scaling of the parameters and
asymptotic variance of the estimate.
267
268
C.1.1
When the estimation problem is non-linear in the parameters, typically the minimum of the loss function can not be computed analytically as in the linear case.
Z =
[y(1), u(1), y(2), u(2), . . . , y(N ), u(N )] of inputs u(t) and outputs y(t),
N
is found by minimizing
a good model M(x) describing the data set Z
must be used (Bjrck, 1996).
t = 1, 2, . . . , N
(C.1)
y(t) is the output of the system and y(t|x) is the predicted output
M(x). The prediction error is also termed residual. The
prediction error is minimized by using a norm on (t, x) and minimize
where
of the model
the size of it. A quadratic norm is our choice here and it can be written
as
VN (x, Z N ) =
The term
VN
N
1 X1 2
(t, x).
N t=1 2
M(x)
(C.2)
x
(Z N ) = arg min VN (x, Z N ).
(C.3)
VN0 (x, Z N ) =
where
(t, x)
(t, x) =
N
1 X
(t, x)(t, x),
N t=1
(C.4)
d
d
y(t|x)
(t, x) = y(t|x) =
dx
dx
x1
...
y(t|x)
xd
T
(C.5)
(t, x)
269
tion, as
(t, x)
(t, x + xj ) (t, x)
.
xj
xj
(C.6)
VN00 (x, Z N ) =
Dierentiating the
N
N
1 X
1 X 0
(t, x) T (t, x) +
(t, x)T (t, x),
N t=1
N t=1
(C.7)
d
0 (t, x) = dx
(t|x). It is however computationally heavy to
2y
2
0
compute all d terms in (t, x). An approximation is therefore desirwhere
Thus close to x the second sum in (C.7) will be close to zero, and the
following approximation can be made close to optimum (Ljung, 1999,
p.328):
VN00 (x, Z N )
N
1 X
(t, x) T (t, x) = HN (x, Z N ).
N t=1
(C.8)
HN (x, Z N )
is as-
xi+1 (Z N )
where
i
= x
i (Z N ) iN [RN
(
xi , Z N )]1 VN0 (
xi , Z N )
= x
i (Z N ) + di (
xi , Z N ),
HN
di
(C.9)
i
RN
is
in this
M(x)
ZN
is not infor-
HN .
i
i
RN
(
xi , Z N , ) = HN
(
xi , Z N ) + I
(C.10)
270
x
i+1 (Z N , ) =
=
For
> 0,
i
x
i (Z N ) iN [RN
(
xi , Z N , )]1 VN0 (
xi , Z N )
x
i (Z N ) + di (
xi , Z N , ).
(C.11)
i
RN
(
xi , Z N , )
is guaranteed to
=0
di (
xi , Z N , )
in (C.11) is
a descent direction. This can happen if the prediction errors are large
or if (C.6) is not a good approximation (close to the optimum) (Eriksson, 1998).
VN (
xi+1 , Z N ) > VN (
xi , Z N ) occurs,
i+1
i+1
i+1
d
and x
> 0,
and if
Stopping criteria
A stopping criterion must be stated in order for the optimization procedure to terminate. In theory this should be done when the gradient
VN0 is zero, so an obvious practical test is to terminate once kVN0 k is
small enough. Another useful test is to compute the relative dierence in loss function
VN
dierence is less than a given tolerance level. The algorithm can also
terminate after a given maximum number of iterations.
VN (x, Z N ).
lem may only have one local minimum, i.e. the global one, the function
VN (x, Z N ) can have several local minima due to the noise in the data
Z N . To nd the global minimum, there is usually no other way than to
start the iterative optimization routine at dierent feasible initial valinit
ues x
and compare the results (Ljung, 1999, p.338). Therefore, the
initial values should be chosen with care by e.g. using prior knowledge.
Good initial values generally pays o in fewer iterations and a faster
convergence of the optimization procedure. For instance the Newtontype methods have good local convergence rates, but not necessarily
far from optimum.
Scaling of parameters
The optimization procedure works best when the size of the unknown
parameters are all in the same order (Gill et al., 1981, p.346). From
271
xs = Dx,
(C.12)
parameters is given by
(C.13)
(C.14)
0 (t, xs ) = DT xD1 .
x#,s = Dx# ,
(C.15)
is =
1
i
2N ( Di,i
)2
2
Di,i
.
2N i 2
(C.16)
N (
x x ) converges asymptotically to a Gaussian distribution with
P.
This is formalized as
(
xx
) AsN (0,
P
).
N
(C.17)
272
is
estimated by
!1
N
1
1 X
T
N HN (
(t, x
) (t, x)
=
x, Z N )
,
N t=1
N
PN =
N
X
N = 1
2 (t, x
),
N t=1
(C.18a)
(C.18b)
is the gradient of
y,
x
, and
x
i . When
thereby give a
(C.17) is valid,
xi is formed
the
(1 )-condence
Z
N
P (|
x x | > ) q
exp(y 2 N/2PNii )dy,
ii
|y|>
2 PN
i
(C.19)
PNii
is the
i-th
x
i 1.96
PNii
.
N
(C.20)
diculties with an ill-posed problem is illustrated by the following rankdecient example partly from Hansen (1994);
273
(C.21)
where
and
are given by
0.16 0.10
0.27
A = 0.17 0.11 , b = 0.25 .
2.02 1.29
3.33
The true solution is
(C.22)
0.16 0.10
0.01
1.00
b = 0.17 0.11
+ 0.03 .
1.00
2.02 1.29
0.02
(C.23)
1.1 103 ,
are nearly
xLS
(C.24)
Introducing constraints on the parameters results could result in better estimates, however the diculty now lies in how to chose the cont
straints. When setting the constraints to |x x | , for equal to
(C.25)
xLS
is not included in
the interval.
This example illustrates three main diculties with ill-posed problems (Hansen, 1994):
1. The condition number of
is large.
274
2. Replacing
does
C.2.1
We now return to example C.2 for the two methods presented in section 6.4.
x2
x1
For
x .
Nominal
T
x#
[1 1]
[1.05 1]T
[1 1.05]T
[1.05 1.05]T
M1(x1 xed)
T
[1 1.01]
[1.05 0.94]T
[1 1.01]T
[1.05 0.94]T
M1(x2 xed)
T
[1.01 1]
[1.01 1]T
[0.98 1.05]T
[0.98 1.05]T
M2
[1.01
[1.02
[1.01
[1.00
1.00]T
0.98]T
1.01]T
1.01]T
[1 1].
Table C.1 shows that when the prior is true, the estimate is close
to the true estimate and approximately the same for methods 1 and 2.
This is also the case for method 1, as long as the prior is true for all
spurious parameters, in which case a better estimate is found than for
method 2.
275
10
10
RMSE(xx ) []
10
5%
10
10
10
10
0%
0.9
10
Figure C.1:
0.8
10
0.7
10
RMSE() [bar]
0.6
10
(0 %) and false prior (5 %), i.e. case 1 and 4 in table C.1. The circles
correspond to the estimates in the corners of the L-function.
Note also that the bias depends upon which parameter that has the
false prior, as illustrated by comparing rows 2 and 3 for method 2.
In this case the false prior in
x2
x1 .
section is on ring cycles, while the results and conclusions are valid
for the motored cycles as well.
Consider gure C.2 where the upper plot displays the L-curve corresponding to OP1 for experimental ring cycles using method 2 and
i = c,
i.e. the same L-curve as in gure 8.7. In the lower plot the cor-
276
10
M2:3
M2:3+
M2:2
M2:1
RMSE(x ) []
10
10
10
10
Curvature []
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
RMSE() [bar]
Upper:
Figure C.2:
method 2 and
the legend.
i = c
Lower:
L-curve for
at OP1.
experimental
from (6.23).
10
RMSE(#) []
10
10
M2:3
M2:3+
M2:2
M2:1
10
Curvature []
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
RMSE() [bar]
Figure C.3:
and
Upper:
i = c
from (6.23).
L-curve for
at OP1.
Lower:
simulated
10
277
RMSE(#) []
10
M2:3
M2:3+
M2:2
M2:1
10
Curvature []
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
RMSE() [bar]
Upper:
Figure C.4:
method 2 and
the legend.
L-curve for
i = c
Lower:
at OP1.
experimental
x ,
from (6.23).
not show up in the simulated case in gure C.3, and is thus believed
to correspond to a false corner. Such a corner is believed to be due
to that the measurement noise causes a jump in
dierent local minima. The same behavior occurs for case 2. It will be
shown in the evaluation of case 1 and 2 for experimental red cycles, see
section 8.2.4, that the estimates for experimental cycles for M2:3 are
less accurate than the estimates for M2:1. This is shown in tables 8.18
and 8.19 for case 1 and 2.
The correct corner is instead close to M2:1, here exemplied by
both gure C.2 and gure C.3. Therefore the extension of M2:3 is to
use a smaller region
of
x .
from
M2:1 is used as a mid-value for this region. The lower and upper limit
of this region
x ,
is positive for
x .
is an
278
x :s
12
x#
i
and
2.Compute boundaries
x Rd1 .
= x diag(i ).
with
x x ,
5.Find the
WN
x .
interpolation.
6.Minimize
WN
(6.7) w.r.t.
using
from step 5.
x, .
Steps 1 and 2 in algorithm C.1 correspond to steps 1 and 2 in algorithm 6.3 (M2:1), step 3 computes the region
correspond to steps 25 in algorithm 6.5 (M2:3).
x ,
279
Property
Abbrev.
Bore
B
S
ar =
l
ncyl
Vd
Vc
xof f
rc
Stroke
Crank radius
Connecting rod
No. of cylinders
Displacement volume
Clearance volume
Pin-o
Compression ratio
S
2
Value
Unit
86
[mm]
86
[mm]
43
[mm]
145.5
[mm]
4
58.8
[-]
3
[cm ]
3
[cm ]
0.8
[mm]
9.5
[-]
1998
N , pIV C
and
TIV C
The parameter
according to table C.3. All the other parameters remain the same.
Compared to table 3.1 the following parameters are changed; The
constant
300
slope coecient
The
is set to 0.1 CAD, a smaller value than in table 3.1, since 0.1 CAD is
the approximate value for a well-calibrated measurement system. The
clearance volume
Vc
Vcr
for
280
Par.
300
b
C1
Vc
Vcr
p
Tw
TIV C
pIV C
Kp
Description
Value
1.40
1 104
2.28
0.1
58.8
3
single aggregate crevice volume [cm ]
400
370
50
Table C.2: Nominal parameter values for motored cycles at OP1 in the
single-zone model.
OP
TIV C
[K]
370
2
3
pIV C
[kPa]
[rpm]
50
1500
310
50
1500
370
100
1500
310
100
1500
370
50
3000
310
50
3000
370
100
3000
310
100
3000
Table C.3: Operating points (OP) for the simulated motored cylinder
pressure.
300
is
set to 0.1 CAD, a smaller value than in table 3.1, since 0.1 CAD is
the approximate value for a well-calibrated measurement system. The
clearance volume
Vc
Par.
300
b
C1
C2
ig
d
b
Vc
Vcr
p
Tw
TIV C
pIV C
Qin
Kp
281
Description
Value
1.35
7 105
2.28
3.24 104
0.1
-15
20
20
58.8
3
single aggregate crevice volume [cm ]
0.588
480
414
50
503
Table C.4: Nominal parameter values for red cycles at OP1 in the
single-zone model.
Parameter
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
OP5
OP6
N [rpm]
pIV C [kPa]
TIV C [K]
Tw [K]
Qin [J]
ig [deg ATDC]
d [deg]
b [deg]
1500
3000
1500
3000
1500
3000
50
100
50
100
50
100
414
370
414
370
414
370
480
400
480
400
480
400
503
1192
503
1192
503
1192
-15
-15
-20
-20
-25
-25
20
20
15
15
15
15
20
20
30
30
30
30
Table C.5: Operating points (OP) for the simulated red cylinder pressure.
282
i = c
and
i 6= c
respectively.
i = c
and
i 6= c
6.27
0.32
6.54
0.09
2.70
0.11
0.0
2.28
2.0
59.0
0.7
0.3
59.1
0.1
0.5
57.8
0.4
0.6
58.8
RME
x (M 2 : 2)
est
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
est
RME
x (M 2 : 3+)
est
RME
x#
314
0.3
11
357
64.4
567
75.0
18
550
12.4
56.4
-1.3
0.6
53.8
-33.9
0.4
32.8
-39.6
1.5
34.1
-3.2
0.4
53.8
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
-1.8
0.007
1.393
-2.0
0.002
1.371
-2.1
0.002
1.370
1.1
0.009
1.396
[-]
300
9.3 105
0.0
8.7 105
2.9 106
-79.8
2.1 107
3.4 108
-99.7
3.0 107
1.2 107
-0.6
b
1
[K
]
8.8 105
2.5 106
400
-0.2
373
68.1
11
741
78.1
34
712
-12.7
10
370
[K]
Tw
0.882
0.0
4.48 105
0.882
-25.8
0.0528
0.597
-27.4
0.393
0.64
1.8
0.00511
0.883
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-1.4
0.0
0.8
1.3
-64.3
0.1
-0.3
-76.7
0.2
-0.4
-0.7
0.9
1.1
[kPa]
0.47
-90.0
0.10
0.47
-78.7
0.01
0.11
-67.7
0.03
0.15
-89.9
0.14
4.48
[deg]
1.000
-1.3
0.003
0.999
73.5
0.020
1.658
103.9
0.071
1.596
-1.6
0.005
0.998
[-]
Kp
0.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
73.5
73.5
103.9
103.9
5.8
5.8
5.8
[%]
#
x
( i
= c),
Table C.6: Mean value, standard deviation (est ) and RME of the estimate for the four versions of method 2 using case 1
149.6
175.0
5.9
0.11
0.7
[K]
358
[-]
2.70
58.0
x (M 2 : 1)
est
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
3.54
0.84
2.72
0.05
2.72
0.05
19.1
2.28
57.5
0.4
-2.1
57.7
0.3
-1.7
57.7
0.3
-1.8
58.8
x (M 2 : 2)
est
RME
x (M 2 : 3)
est
RME
x (M 2 : 3+)
est
RME
x#
0.07
314
14.2
359
14.8
359
17.2
12
368
14.2
56.4
-4.8
0.4
53.7
-4.8
0.4
53.7
-4.6
0.4
53.8
-4.8
0.3
53.7
[kPa]
pIV C
1.400
-0.4
0.005
1.394
-0.5
0.006
1.394
-0.8
0.007
1.389
-0.5
0.004
1.394
[-]
300
9.3 105
-6.5
8.7 105
2.6 106
-9.0
8.7 105
2.6 106
-5.8
8.8 105
9.7 106
-6.2
b
1
[K
]
8.7 105
2.1 106
400
-7.2
371
-6.0
371
1.4
37
406
-7.1
372
[K]
Tw
0.882
0.0
3.73 107
0.882
0.0
3.6 10
0.882
7
0.0
3.61 106
0.882
0.0
4 10
0.882
7
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-1.4
-403.3
0.5
1.4
-401.2
0.5
1.4
-387.6
0.6
1.0
-414.9
0.4
1.4
[kPa]
0.47
5.0
0.02
0.49
3.6
0.02
0.49
-2.8
0.04
0.46
5.0
0.02
0.49
[deg]
1.000
-0.0
0.000
1.000
0.0
0.000
1.000
0.2
0.002
1.002
0.0
0.000
1.000
[-]
Kp
0.0
14.7
14.7
14.7
15.8
15.8
15.8
21.0
21.0
21.0
14.7
14.7
14.7
[%]
L #
x
0.0
34.5
34.5
34.5
35.4
35.4
35.4
36.7
36.7
36.7
34.4
34.4
34.4
[%]
#
x
(i
6= c),
Table C.7: Mean value, standard deviation (est ) and RME of the estimate for the four versions of method 2 using case 2
23.7
55.5
19.7
0.2
-1.8
RME
[K]
359
[-]
2.73
57.7
x (M 2 : 1)
est
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
x :
284
57.5
57.4
56.8
57.8
58.6
58.8
58.8
58.2
58.4
58.7
58.9
59.0
14
13
12
11
10
2.28
2.28
58.8
58.8
4.43
2.28
3.78
3.45
3.04
3.15
414
414
414
537
499
561
50.0
50.0
50.0
49.7
49.7
49.9
49.8
51.3
51.6
52.5
52.1
49.0
51.0
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.34
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.34
1.33
[-]
300
]
-7e-005
7 105
5.42 105
6.1 105
5.6 105
7.3 105
7.21 105
7.2 105
6.95 105
7.12 105
7.05 105
6.84 105
7 105
b
[K
Tw
480
480
480
373
476
393
561
525
552
[K]
0.59
0.59
0.59
0.2
0.14
0.49
0.27
Vcr
3
[cm ]
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.3
3.4
2.9
2.1
2.4
3.5
2.5
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.08
[deg]
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.05
1.02
[-]
Kp
RMSE
RMSE
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
2.85 10
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
503
503
503
506
508
504
503
508
518
556
554
559
516
544
[J]
Qin
ig
-15.0
-15.0
-15.0
-15.9
-15.8
-15.6
-15.8
-15.9
-16.0
-16.0
-16.1
-16.1
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.1
20.1
20.1
20.1
20.2
20.1
21.0
20.9
20.7
20.8
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.3
21.3
[deg]
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
19.9
19.9
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.1
20.0
20.0
[deg]
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.7
2.0
2.2
2.8
6.5
24.0
24.1
25.4
11.8
20.5
tx
[%]
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.7
2.0
2.2
2.8
6.5
24.0
24.1
25.4
11.8
20.5
#
x
[%]
[deg ATDC]
[kPa]
x
xt
1
#
58.8
49.8
57.5
50.4
57.3
[kPa]
pIV C
15
[K]
[-]
16
TIV C
C1
Vc
3
[cm ]
d#
286
Method 2; OP8
Zoomed version
10
10
10
2
RMSE( # ) []
10
10
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure C.5: L-curve (solid line) for one (motored) engine cycle at OP8
with false prior
(#t
) (dotted line), when using setup 2 and
x
case 1 of the i (i = c). The results for the three versions of method 2
RMSE
RMSE
N [rpm]
pman [kPa]
ig [deg ATDC]
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
OP5
OP6
1200
1500
1500
2000
3000
3500
32
55
130
123
103
120
-33
-26
-5
-12
-28
-24
58.8
58.8
58.8
58.8
58.8
58.8
OP1
OP2
OP3
OP4
OP5
OP6
Vc
3
[cm ]
392
400
394
407
425
153.3
132.2
152.3
162.5
68.6
40.8
[kPa]
pIV C
1.335
1.335
1.339
1.339
1.335
1.336
[-]
300
]
7.42 105
7.42 105
7.42 105
7.42 105
7.42 105
7.42 105
b
[K
Tw
475
475
475
475
475
475
[K]
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.882
Vcr
3
[cm ]
-2.7
-3.8
-2.8
-2.2
0.6
0.5
[kPa]
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
[deg]
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
[-]
Kp
3.24 10
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
3.24 104
C2
[m/(s K)]
4
1797
1502
1756
1864
731
373
[J]
Qin
ig
-24.4
-28.0
-12.3
-5.3
-26.0
-32.6
[deg ATDC]
Table C.10: Nominal parameter values for experimental ring cycles at operating points OP16.
2.28
2.28
2.28
2.28
2.28
450
[K]
[-]
2.28
TIV C
C1
21.1
22.0
17.3
15.4
19.9
27.5
[deg]
19.1
18.7
19.1
19.0
16.0
20.3
[deg]
288
Method 2; OP8
Zoomed version
10
10
10
RMSE( L # ) []
x
10
10
10
10
M2:3
M2:2
M2:1
Optimal
10
10
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
10
RMSE( ) [bar]
Figure C.6: L-curve (solid line) for one (motored) engine cycle at OP8
with weighted false prior
(L #t
) (dotted line), when using
x
RMSE
i (i 6= c).
D
Notation
The parameters are given in appendix D.1, and the abbreviations are
summarized in appendix D.2. In the thesis various evaluation criteria
are used, and they are summarized in appendix D.3.
D.1 Parameters
In system identication literature, e.g. (Ljung, 1999), the convention
is to name the parameters by
parameters are instead named
.
x.
as the crank
D.1.1
C1
C2
hc
p
p0
T
T0
Tw
up
w
Heat transfer
[-]
[m/(s K)]
2
[W / (m K)]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[K]
[K]
wall temperature
[K]
[m/s]
characteristic velocity
[m / s]
289
APPENDIX D. NOTATION
290
D.1.2
Engine geometry
A
Ach
Alat
Apc
ar
B
l
rc
S
V
Vc
Vcr
Vd
Vid
v
xof f
D.1.3
Kp
N
p
p
pexh
pm
pman
Tman
Tw
ig
ppp
2
[m ]
2
[m ]
2
[m ]
2
[m ]
crank radius
[m]
cylinder bore
[m]
[m]
[-]
piston stroke
[m]
crank angle
[rad]
3
[m ]
3
[m ]
3
[m ]
3
[m ]
3
[m ]
tilt angle
[deg]
pin-o
[m]
Engine cycle
[-]
engine speed
[rpm]
cylinder pressure
[Pa]
pressure bias
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[K]
[K]
crank angle
[rad]
[rad]
ignition angle
[rad]
[rad]
D.1. PARAMETERS
D.1.4
( FA )s
a
b
cv
cp
dmi
dmcr
hi
Mi
m
ma
maf
mb
mf
mr
mtot
n
Q
Qch
Qht
Qin
qHV
R
Tb
Tr
Tu
U
Vr
W
xb
xi
x
i
xr
yi
300
b
u
f
b
cd
d
= 1
291
[-]
Vibe parameter
[-]
(2.30)
[1/K]
J
kgK ]
J
[
kgK ]
kg
[
s ]
kg
[
s ]
J
[ kg ]
[kg/mole]
[
Vibe parameter
[-]
air mass
[kg]
[kg]
[kg]
fuel mass
[kg]
[kg]
[kg]
polytropic exponent
[-]
transported heat
[J]
[J]
[J]
[J]
J
[
kg ]
J
[
kgK ]
[K]
[K]
[K]
internal energy
[J]
3
[m ]
mechanical work
[J=Nm]
[-]
i
i
residual gas fraction xr = mr /mc
CHEPP coecient for specie i
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
(2.30)
[-]
[-]
[-]
combustion eciency
[-]
[rad]
[rad]
[rad]
[-]
[-]
APPENDIX D. NOTATION
292
D.1.5
Parameter estimation
a
d
dk
FP
HN
L
M(x)
m
m
P
PN
VN (x, Z N )
VN
v
WN
x
x
x
x
x,
xef f
xef f
xi
xk
xinit
xs
xsp
xt
x#
x#,s
y(t)
y(t|x)
ZN
i
x
x
tx
tx
#
x
#
x
M(x)
k
1/2
weighting matrix, L = ()
model for
estimate of parameter
signicance level
regularization matrix
diagonal element in
regularization parameter
x
y(t) y(t|x)
or residual
D.2. ABBREVIATIONS
#t
x
0
N
293
D.2 Abbreviations
AFR
AHR
ATDC
After TDC
CAD
CHEPP
CI
Compression Ignited
ECU
EVO
FAP
FAR
FP
FPE
GDI
IVC
MAP
Maximum A Posteriori
MDP
MFB
MRE
NRMSE
RCI
RE
RME
RMSE
SI
Spark Ignited
SOC
Start Of Combustion
SVC
SVD
TDC
TWC
Three-Way Catalyst
APPENDIX D. NOTATION
294
v
u
M
u 1 X
t
RM SE =
(y t yj )2 .
M j=1 j
(D.1)
v
u
M
u 1 X
yjt yj
N RM SE = t
)2 .
(
M j=1
yjt
(D.2)
M RE = max |
j
yjt yj
|.
yjt
(D.3)
RM E =
M
1 X yjt yj
.
M j=1 yjt
(D.4)
M
1 X 1.96j
RCI =
,
M j=1 yjt
where
(D.5)
(D.6)
M DP = P (not
reject
H 0 |rc est
/ NF) = P (T < J|rc est
/ NF).
(D.7)
D.3.
EVALUATION CRITERIA
295
tx :
tx = y y t ,
(D.8)
v
u
M
u 1 X
t
t
x = RMSE(x ) = t
(
yj yjt )2 .
M j=1
Nominal parameter deviation
(D.9)
#
x:
tx = y y # ,
(D.10)
v
u
M
u 1 X
#
#
x = RMSE(x ) = t
(
yj yj# )2 .
M j=1
Nominal parameter deviation from true values
#t
= y# yt.
x
(D.11)
#t
:
x
(D.12)
296
Notes
Notes
297
298
Notes
Notes
299
300
No. 7
No. 6
No. 5
No. 4
No. 3
No. 2
No. 1