Toward a New Energy Paradigm

JOSEP M. GUERRERO,
FREDE BLAABJERG,
TOSHKO ZHELEV,
KAS HEMMES,
ERIC MONMASSON,
SAMIR JEMEI,
MARIA P. COMECH,
RAMO N GRANADINO,
and JUAN I. FRAU

istributed generation

(DG) is emerging as
a new paradigm to
produce on-site
highly reliable and
good quality electrical
power. Thus, the DG
systems are presented as a suitable
form to offer highly reliable electrical
power supply. The concept is particularly
interesting when different kinds
of energy resources are available, such
as photovoltaic (PV) panels, fuel cells
(FCs), or wind turbines. The DG of different
kinds of energy systems allow
for the integration of renewable and
nonconventional energy resources.
Hence, the DG is becoming a part of
the strategic plans of most countries
to address current challenges associated
with energy management.
Today, electrical and energy engineering
have to face a new scenario in
which small distributed power generators
and dispersed energy storage
devices have to be integrated together
into the grid. The new electrical grid
will deliver electricity from suppliers
to consumers using digital technology
to control appliances at consumers
homes to save energy, reducing cost
and increasing reliability and transparency.
The idea behind this concept is
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIE.2010.935862 to have devices that plug into your
COMSTOCK

52 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010 1932-4529/10/$26.00&2010IEEE

outlet and you would plug your appliance

into this device. These devices
would communicate and report to the
electric companies at what time your
appliance used energy and how much
energy was used. This will in turn
charge youmore for the electricity that
you use during peak hours of late afternoon

and early evening. In this sense,

the expected whole energy system will
be more interactive, intelligent, and
distributed. Using DG of energy systems
makes no sense without using
distributed storage (DS) systems to
cope with the energy balances.
This article deals with the integration
of renewable distributed energy
resources as depicted in Figure 1.
Concepts about the DG combined
with storage energy systems will be
presented. The article highlights the
application of hydrogen generation
systems, FCs, and its combination
with renewable energy resources,
especially solar and wind, to integrate
these systems into the grid.
The trends in power electronics as an
interface between those prime sources
and the electrical grid will be
explained. Then, the control implementation
for these electrical interfaces
by using advanced digital devices
will be examined. Finally, examples of
those topics applied in the electrical
grid of Spain will be given, showing
this country as a paradigmatic case
of high penetration of the DG and
renewable energy.

Integrated Energy Systems

The challenges theworld is facingwith

relation to energy supply, sustainability,
and climate change are huge.
However, the question arises whether
or not our present organization of
research and development (R&D)
funding is appropriate for dealing with
those huge challenges. The call for
innovation and breakthroughs in science
and technology is loud, but we
tend to forget about innovation and
breakthroughs in the way we organize
institutions and R&D funding to reach
those objectives. Six forms of integration
can be distinguished [1], [2].
Integration of Components
into a System
Much of present energy research is
focused on the component level. It is
obvious that this is necessary, because
without components with a
long endurance and good performance
specifications, it is impossible to
Transformer
Fuel
Power Station
Solar Cells
Wind Turbine
Motor
Pump
Robotics
Refrigerator
Television
Light

Industry
=
Power Supply
ac dc
Compensator
FCs
Communication
Solar
Energy
Transport ~
Primary
Fuel
Energy
Storages
Facts/Cups
Heat
Loads
Energy
Storage
CHP
Combustion
Engine
dc
ac
dcac
33
3
3 1-3
FIGURE 1 The distributed electrical generation systems.

The integration of new technology in existing

installations can significantly speed up the
process of adaption of new technology.
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 53

construct well-functioning energy systems.

Still, the perception and relative
importance of the problems on the
component level is often different
from those from a system perspective.
Therefore, it is important to couple
R&D and also long-term R&D to
direct implementation as fast as possible
without losing a long-term vision,
depending on the specific development
phase of the technology.
Integration of Energy Sources
into Multisource Multiproduct
Energy Systems
The super-wind concept is an interesting
example of a multisource multiproduct
energy system. The fluctuating
renewable electricity production from
wind or solar is compensated by the
flexible coproduction of hydrogen and
electric power by a high-temperature
internal-reforming FC fueled by natural
gas or biogas (see Figure 2). It offers
the possibility to continuously produce
valuable economic products all
the time [2]. If less electricity is needed
from the FC (because of increased
wind), the operation can be changed
to produce more hydrogen. This concept

that we called super-wind is a

promising alternative if a hydrogen
market is developing in the future, e.g.,
for the automotive sector. Other examples
are superheating, where steam in
an existing power plant can be superheated
by an external source (e.g.,
waste heat from a FC) and integration
of fossil energy with solar energy in the
thermal decomposition of natural gas
into hydrogen and carbon.
Integration of Industries into
Ecoparks (Industrial Ecology)
Industrial ecology has already developed
into a recognized area of research
in the science and technology.
The slogan cradle to cradle reflects
the principles of industrial ecology in
mimicking the closed cycles that exist
in nature.
Integration of New Technology
into the Existing Technology
The replacement of old, less-efficient
technology by a new and more-efficient
technology is a long process.
This is not only a consequence of the
long-development times and often necessary
cost reductions of new technology
but also because of the long
depreciation time of existing large
industrial (power) plants. The integration
of new technology in existing
installations can significantly speed
up the process of adaption of new
technology. An example is the application
of high-temperature FCs in a topping
cycle in existing power plants.
Integration of Sectors
The integration of the waste and energy
sectors is a form of integration on
the highest system level on a large
scale. This is an example of a successful
integration realized in waste incineration
plants. In the vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
concept, electrical vehicles charge up
their batteries from the electricity grid.
When the electrical vehicles become
hybrid FC-battery vehicles, it is also
likely that the FCs will deliver electrical
power to the electricity grid. This is an
example of the integration of the transport
and energy sector.
Integration of Functions
The development of a product dedicated
for just one function often leads
to an expensive product. Synergy and
cost reduction can be achieved by
multifunctional products. A very illustrative
example is the use of solar panels
or solar heat collectors instead of
roof tiles. Architects and industrial
designers are all educated to apply the
principles of integration of functions
to their designs. The engineers in the
field of energy technology usually do
not workwith those concepts.

Microreactor Technology for

Distributed Fuel Generation

The recent tendency to seek the best

way to capture CO2 green-house gas
(GHG) and to store it underground
seems to be a sustainable solution.
Mitigation of CO2 emissions is a major
concern because of the severe climate
changes resulting from uncontrolled
GHG emission. In parallel, the
depletion of fossil fuel reserves are
forcing scientists to look for alternative
fuel resources with minimal
changes and investments (if possible)
in new infrastructure.
Imagine returning home from college,
plugging your car into a socket,
and producing overnight your 10 L of
fuel for the next day. This may not be
a dream, but one of the options of
tomorrows distributed fuel generation.
The focus of this approach is:
n on the development of the concept
of distributed fuel-generation
technology
n on the parallel utilization of unwanted
CO2, which can derive
from thermal combustion, gasification,
or chemical conversion.
The background of the actual
process is CO2 capturing and its catalytic
conversion back to hydrocarbons.
This process includes absorption of
CO2 from the surrounding air or its separation
from combustion/pyrolysis/gasification
processes followed by reverse
water gas-shift process (CO2 reacts
with H2 to form CO and H2Osyngas)
and Fischer-Tropsch (FTS) process of
IR-FC
NG
E-Power
CO/H2
Heat
E-Power
FIGURE 2 The super-wind concept. An example of integrated multisource multiproduct
energy system.
54 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010

conversion of syngas (hydrogenation of

CO) to a series of hydrocarbons and
water. These processes are well known
and well established. The novel concept
in our case is the intent to perform
these catalytic processes in microreactors.
There are two main expected
advantages of this novel concept:
n the development of fundamentals
for possible distributed fuel generation
and
n the utilization of microprocessing
advantages, i.e., better heat and
mass transfer, higher reaction rates,
more controllable product quality,
lower temperatures and pressures,
better resources management, reduced
missions and cost, enhanced

safety and reduced environmental

impact.
Figure 3 presents the block diagram
of the process of CO2 conversion to
hydrocarbons. One should note that
there are four microreactors in a series
attributed to the reverse water gasshift
reaction. The reason is that this
reaction is reversible and to secure CO
generation and prevent its reconversion
back to CO2, at least one of the
products (here it is the water) has to
be removed as soon as possible. The
reactor is followed by a cooler/condenser
to secure water-vapor condensation
and separation.
Another important issue is the
provision of cheap, concentrated, and
pure CO2 for efficient conversion. Current
technologies are estimating the
cost of CO2 scrubbing at about US$30
per ton of CO2, which corresponds to
about six cents per kilogram. The
energy required for supplying the
required hydrogen is estimated to be
in the range of 5 kWhel/Nm3H2. Relying
on renewable energy resources
(wind) for hydrogen provision, the
current estimate shows that a liter of
liquid petroleum produced through
promoted technology would cost in
the range of e3. The authors of [3]
report that energy resynthesis penalty
is 82% ideally and 95% on a practical
basis. As the cost of offshore wind
power is predicted to be reduced by
Steam Reforming
Steam
FTS
Reactor
rWGS
Reactor
Syngas
Carbon
Dioxide
Hydrogen
Hot
Water
Distillation
Reboiler
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocracking
Heater
RWGS
FTS
Petrol
Diesel
Heavy Oil
Bypass
C1C4 to Self-Powered Combustion
O Heating Cooling 2 Feed
CO2 Feed
H2O

Separation
Fuel Gases 5.6 1.6
Naphtha 33.0 24.6
Kerosene 44.8 49.2
Gas Oil 16.6 24.6
Boiler
Water Oxygen
Electrolyzer
Resynthesized
Fuel Products
Undesirable
Short Chain
Hydrocarbons
Coolers
and
Condensers
(a)
(b)
Microreactors
Stack
FIGURE 3 (a) Block diagram of fuel resynthesis process and (b) microreactor system.
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 55

2020, this resyn jet fuel would be competitive

with conventional jet fuel,
especially if carbon taxes apply.
The described idea gives a radical
and promising way for reducing the
negative environmental impact of fuel
combustion and CO2 emission generation.
It adds the missing link among
biofuel generation, fuel combustion,
and CO2 emission mitigation [4], [5].

New Trends in FC Systems

Among the different technological

alternatives, FC power generation becomes
a more and more interesting
and promising solution for both automotive
industry and stationary power
plants. However, many technological
hurdles must still be overcome before
the development of industrial and
competitive products in these fields.
The FCs convert fuel and air directly
to electricity, heat, and water in an
electrochemical process. Figure 4 depicts
the general scheme of an FC, as
well as the power electronics converters
and the related controller.
There are several different types
of FCs, but they are all based around a
central design, which consists of two
electrodes, a negative anode and a
positive cathode. These are separated
by a solid or liquid electrolyte
that carries electrically charged ions
between the two electrodes. A catalyst
such as platinum is often used to
speed up the reactions at the electrodes.
The FCs are classified according
to the nature of the electrolyte and
their operating temperature.
Considering automotive applications,
proton exchange membrane
FCs (PEMFCs) are the most appropriate.
Compared with other types of

FCs, PEMFCs generate more power for

a given volume or weight of FC. This
high-power density characteristic
makes them compact and lightweight.
In addition, the operating temperature
is less than 100 _C, which allows rapid
start-up. These traits and the ability to
rapidly change power output are
some of the characteristics that make
the PEMFC the top candidate for automotive
power applications.
To produce power, an FC system is
made of several components thatwork
together. The basic system requirements
for a PEMFC system include four
major circuits. Considering the air circuit,
a compressor must be placed at
the inlet of the FC so as to provide oxygen
for the electrochemical reaction
and to raise its efficiency by increasing
the air pressure. Considering the hydrogen
circuit, hydrogen can be directly
stored on board or supplied
through a reforming system. Special
care must also be taken on the water
management system. In fact, the PEM
must always be maintained in a wellhydration
state so as to ensure the
migration of protons H from the
anode to the cathode. Moreover, in
most cases, a special water-coolant circuit
exists within the stack. The aim is
to obtain a self-sufficient water system.
Finally, an electrical convertermust be
placed at the output of the FC, providing
the electrical power to the dc
electrical bus of the vehicle. It has to
be noticed that the electrical response
of the FC does not only depend on the
stack but also on the time response of
the ancillaries that are located around
the FC.
One of the othermain objectives of
FC research is to reduce costs in the
production of FC systems and their
related components. During the last
decade, a cost reduction of a factor of
ten has been achieved, but more
research is needed to reduce the cost
of FC systems to a competitive level
(e.g., the amount of noble catalyst has
to be reduced_0.5mg/cm2 today).
The general technological barriers
to be overcome include the cost, the
fuel choice, the need tomake improvements
to achieve higher specific
powers and power densities, and the
electrical engineering part.
Different barriers considering an
FC system have been presented previously.
Among all these challenges, the
authors would point out one of the
major priority concerning FCs. Indeed,
an FC system has to be demonstrated
as durable and reliable. To succeed in
this task, highly efficient models have

to be developed to fully control the

FCs behavior and/or to improve the
performances of the FC system. Furthermore,
real-time diagnosis and efficient
control laws have to be
implemented to increase the durability
and lifetime of the FC system. The
FC lifetime requirements vary significantly,
from 5,000 h for light-vehicle
applications to 30,000 h for trucks.
The operation of an FC is usually subject
to inherent uncertainty in various
operating parameters (fuel and oxidant
stack starvation, FC temperature,
membrane hydration, or pressure variations),
which can cause severe transients
in the performance of the cell.
That is why it is necessary to design
some robust control laws for the FC
parameters. Furthermore, the technological
choices made for various FC
ancillaries have to be evaluated and
adapted to increase the lifetime and
durability of the FC systems [6].
One way to optimize simultaneously
the performances, lifetime, and
durability is to performan online diagnosis
of the PEMFC. Narjiss et al. [7]
developed an online detection of the
FC dysfunction in embedded applications
without additional hardware
PEM Fuel Cell dc-Link

Inverter HF Transformer Rectifier

dc/dc Converter
Diagnosis Control
DSP Controller
FIGURE 4 Block diagram of an FC system, including the power electronics converter and
the digital controller.
56 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010

(Hw) component. Indeed, the power

converter usually coupled with the FC
is, here, used to performthe diagnosis
strategies.
In addition, many different kinds of
physical phenomena are involved in
the performances of an FC. Independently
of the problems of cost, reliability,
and durability, the use of PEMFC
in a vehicle requires also to fully control
its behavior and thus to have at
ones disposal a highly efficient model.
Many different kinds of models are
developed in our research group
based on electrochemical impedance
measurements, polarization curves,
and semiempirical models.
Jemei et al. [8] explored a powerful
solution provided by an artificial neural
network. Indeed, black box models
allow getting a behavioral model without
identifying all the FC parameters.
They are based on a set of easily
measurable inputs such as temperature,
current, or pressures within the

stack and are able to predict the output

voltage of the FC stack. The first
step to achieve this kind of model is
to study the behavior of the FC to
determine the most relevant parameters
that govern the FC behavior.
Thanks to a methodology based on
fast Fourier transform, a recurrent
neural network dynamic model of the
FC is performed. This model covers
the whole range of possible FC current
frequency solicitations. This
modeling strategy provides an interesting
and powerful solution even in
dynamical operating modes (errors
on the computed voltage versus
measured ones is below 2.5%).
Different technological challenges
considering the FC power generation
have been presented in this section.
The main research objective is cost
reduction in all aspects of FC production,
materials, systems, and applications,
together with those of related
components. To overcome these barriers,
our research group proposes
different technical and engineering
challenges to investigate, which will
allow improving FC performances
and decreasing the FC system cost.
To reach these objectives, many
points still have to be studied: water
management issues, cold start-up,
efficient and real-time control, online
diagnosis, power electronics topologies,
real and large-scale experimental
tests and evaluation, and power electronics
topologies.

Power Electronics in
Renewable Energy Systems

The global electrical energy consumption

is still rising, and there is a steady
demand to increase the power capacity.
It is expected that it has to be doubled
within 20 years. The production, distribution,
and use of the energy should be
as technological efficient as possible,
and incentives to save energy at the
end user should also be set up. Deregulation
of energy has lowered the investment
in larger power plants, which
means the need for new electrical
power sources may be very high in the
near future. Two major technologies
will play important roles to solve the
future problems. One is to change the
electrical power production sources
from the conventional, fossil (and short
term) based energy sources to renewable
energy resources. Another is to
use high-efficient power electronics in
power generation, power transmission/
distribution, and end-user application.
In classical power systems, large
power-generation plants located at
adequate geographical places produce

most of the power, which is then

transferred to large consumption centers
over long distance transmission
lines. The system control centers monitor
and regulate the power system continuously
to ensure the quality of the
power, such as frequency and voltage.
However, now the overall power system
is changing, a large number of DG units,
including both renewable and nonrenewable
sources such as wind turbines,
wave generators, PV generators, minihydro,
FCs, and gas/steam-powered
combined heat and power stations, are
being developed and installed.
A wide-spread use of renewable
energy sources in distribution networks
and a high-penetration level will
be seen in the near future in many places.
Denmark has a high-power capacity
penetration (>20%) of wind
energy, having presence inmajor areas
of the country, and today, 18% of the
whole electrical energy consumption
is covered by wind energy. The main
advantages of using renewable energy
sources are the elimination of harmful
emissions and inexhaustible resources
of the primary energy. However, the
main disadvantage, apart from the
higher costs, e.g., PV, is the uncontrollability
[30]. The availability of renewable
energy sources has strong daily
and seasonal patterns, and the power
demand by the consumers could have
a very different characteristic. Therefore,
it is difficult to operate a power
system installed with only renewable
generation units because of the
characteristic differences and the high
uncertainty in the availability of the
renewable energy sources.
Wind turbine technology is one of
the most important emerging renewable
technologies. It started in the
1980s with a few tens of kilowatt
production power to today with multimegawattsize wind turbines that are
being installed. It also means that, in
the beginning,wind power production
did not have any impact on the power
system control, but now because of
their size, they have to play an active
part in the grid. Earlier, the technology
used in wind turbines was based
on a squirrel-cage induction generator
connected directly to the grid. By that,
power pulsations in the wind are
almost directly transferred to the
electrical grid. Furthermore, there is
no control of the active and reactive
power, which typically are important
control parameters to regulate the
frequency and voltage [9], [10]. As the
power range of the turbines increases,

Real-time diagnosis and efficient control laws

have to be implemented to increase the

durability and lifetime of the FC system.
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 57

these control parameters become

more important, and it is necessary to
introduce power electronics as an
interface between the wind turbine
and grid. Power electronics is changing
the basic characteristic of the
wind turbine from being an energy
source to be an active power source.
The electrical technology used in
wind turbine is not new. It has been
discussed for several years, but now,
the price per produced kilowatt hour
is so low, that solutions with power
electronics are very attractive.
Power electronics has changed
rapidly over the last 30 years, and the
number of applications has been increasing,
mainly because of the developments
of the semiconductor devices
and the microprocessor technology.
For both cases, higher performance is
steadily given for the same area of silicon,
and at the sametime, they are continuously
reducing in price. Figure 5
shows a typical power electronic system
consisting of a power converter,
load/source, and control unit. The power
converter is the interface between
the load/generator and grid. The power
may flow in both directions, of course,
dependent on topology and applications
[11], [12].
Three important issues are of concern
using such a system: reliability,
efficiency, and cost. For the moment,
the cost of power semiconductor
devices is decreasing between 1 and
5% every year for the same output
performance, and the price per
kilowatt for a power electronic system
is also decreasing. The trend of
power electronic conversion is shrinking
in volume and weight. This shows
that integration is an important key to
be competitive, as more available functions
can be implemented in such a
product. Accordingly, power electronics
will be a key point to allow the
change from the traditional centralized
grid to a more distributed and smart
grid, as depicted in Figure 6.

Digital Control of
Power Electronics

Another important topic is regarding

the control of the DG energy systems.
Indeed, these new systems are requiring
very performing and flexible
controllers. In this context, digital
technology is of big interest since it
allows implementing complex control
strategies easily. On the other hand,
analog controllers, despite of their

drawbacks such as parameter drifting

or lack of integration, still remain the
reference in terms of rapidity and
bandwidth.
That is the reason why digital controller
execution times must be reduced
while keeping the inherent
flexibility of all digital solution. This
can only be achieved with the help of
efficient digital platforms. Today, such
digital platforms exist, some of them
also integrate analog functions such as
analog-to-digital conversion, and they
can be developed by the use of performing
design tools. This concept is
also known as system-on-programmablechip (SoPC). In this area, a
mature technology is the digital signal
processor (DSP) controller [13]. This
platform has the great advantage to
integrate within the same component
a performing 32-b DSP core and a collection
of peripherals. This architecture
is clearly optimized for the
control of electrical systems, but it suffers
from a lack of customization, thus
limiting the achievable bandwidth of
the controlled systems. For example,
no concurrency is allowed between
the tasks.
Another possibility is the use of
field programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs) [14]. These components
take benefits of a high-integration
rate and, as DSP controllers, they can
be programmed by software (Sw)
even if, in this case, the developed Sw
is only devoted to the description of
the architecture that will support the
final application (VHDL or verilog languages).
Thus, by using an FPGAbased
controller, the designer is able
to build a fully dedicated digital system
that is perfectly adapted to the
algorithm to implement. Depending
of the cases, the resulting architectures
can be all Sw, Hw, or mixed Sw/
Hw. This customization of the architecture
allows reducing significantly
the execution time of the control algorithm.
The obtained performances
are then closed of their analog counterparts.
However, to better understand
the effect of this new degree of
freedom in the design of the controller,
one has to examine in details the
different possible cases that exist in
the field of power converter control.
These cases can be divided in two
main groups: high-demanding applications
and constrained switching
frequency applications. The highdemanding
applications consists of
applications where timing constraints
are so stringent that it is the digital
controller that represents the main

limitation of the whole control loop.

This group can be classified in two
subtypes. The first subtype concerns
the control of static converters where
power is segmented to reduce the
stress of the power switches, such as
Appliance
Industry
Communication
Renewable
Sources
Load/
Generator
2/3 2/3
Power Converter
Bidirectional Power Flow
Electrical
Network
Reference
(Local/Centralized)
Control
FIGURE 5 Power electronic system with the grid, load/source, power converter,
and control.
58 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010

interleaved choppers and multilevel

converters [15]. These topologies of
converters imply to control concurrently
multiple channels of the process
[see Figure 7(a)]. The second
subtype concerns applications where
the sampling frequency is very high
(equal or above megahertz) same as
that for switch-mode power supplies
[16]. In such case, no option but having
a performing Hw architecture
[see Figure 7(b)].
The constrained switching frequency
applications consists of application
where sampling is not critical
because of switching frequency limitation
(acceptable level of switching
losses in the power converter). In this
case, Sw implementation is possible.
However, even in this case, using
dedicated Hw architecture can be of
great interest, since this way, control
processing time can be drastically
reduced up to a fraction of the switching
period. The reduction of processing
time, beyond its immediate improvement
of the closed-loop bandwidth, is
also interesting for three other reasons.
All of them take benefits of the remaining
time between the end of the control
tasks and the next sampling time. The
first reason is the possibility to simplify
the complexity of the control algorithm
by accurately choosing the moment
where the different control tasks are
executed within the switching period.
For example, in [17], no filter is required
since the exact average current is
measured [see Figure 7(c)]. The second
reason is the possibility of sharing the
controller between different processes

like in [18] where a single FPGA-based

controller is used to control up to four
ac-drives in 50 ls [see Figure 7(d)].
Finally, the third reason is the possibility
of adding a new control functionality
during this remaining time such as
health monitoring [19] or predictive
control [20] [see Figure 7(e)].
To conclude, FPGA-based customized
digital control platforms are
definitely an attractive solution for
implementing always ever more complex
DG energy systems. The main
advantages are the ability to reach
quasi-analog control performances
by means of flexible digital solutions
with the addition of new control functionalities
such as health-monitoring
and performing communications.
Nuclear
Oil
Coal
Central Power Plants
Transmission Network
Distribution Network
Commercial
Buildings Industry
Central
Power
Plants
Central
Power Plants
Houses
Houses
Local
CHP Plant
Commercial
Buildings
PV
Power Plant
Storage
Industry
Power
Quality
Device
Power
Quality
Device
Storage
Transmission
Lines
Storage
Wind
Power
Plant
Electricity
Electricity
Heat
Houses
Generators
Generators
Transmission Network

Transmission Network
Distribution Network
Distribution
Network
Consumers
Consumers
Informational Flow
Informational Flow
Power Flow
Power Flow Green Power
DG
Power
Flow
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 6 Power plants toward distributed power generation: (a) traditional power systems and (b)
decentralized future power systems.
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 59

Integrating Renewable Energy

into Transmission Grids

Spain is a paradigm example of renewable

energy integration into the electrical
grid, with the following features:
high external-energy dependency (84%
in 2008), high electricity consumption
growth rates, 70.6% between 1996
and 2008: significant growth of the
economic activity (57.8% between
1996 and 2008). Electrically speaking,
Spain is a peninsula with weak electrical
interconnections with the European
Union.
Red Electrica de Espana (REE) was
the first company in the world dedicated
exclusively to power transmission
and the operation of electrical
systems [system operator and transmission
network owner (TSO)]. As
the system operator guarantees the
continuity and security of the power
supply and the proper coordination
of the production and transmission
system, performing its functions
based on the principles of transparency,
objectiveness, and independence
(see Figure 8). In addition, REE
is the manager of the transmission
grid and acts as the sole transmission
company on an exclusive basis. Over
the last decade, wind generation in
Spain has experienced an extraordinary
growth, continuously increasing
its contribution to demand supply.
This external requirement together
with the unique properties associated
with wind power management,
which may affect the secure operation
of the power system, has encouraged
REE to create a Control Centre
of Renewable Energies (CECRE).
CECRE allows the maximum amount
of production from renewable energy
sources, especially wind energy, to
be integrated into the Spanish power
system under secure conditions.

The particular features of the

Spanish system within the European
context and its electrical connection
emphasize the ambitious objectives
in renewable energy:
n formerly in 2010: 12% in primary
energy (_30% in electric energy)
n currently in 2020: 20% in final
energy (_40% in electric energy).
CECRE is an operation unit integrated
into the Electrical Control Center
(CECOEL) of REE. The generation
of the renewable energy producers,
which have been set up in our country
are managed and controlled by
CECRE. In addition, this center is the
sole interlocutor in real time between
CECOEL and each one of the authorized
generation control centers, to
which the wind farms are connected.
Its main function is to supervise and
control the renewable energy generators,
mainly wind power. It also articulates
the integration of its production
to the power system in a way compatible
with its security.
Figure 9 shows an excellent application
example of DG and storage,
(k)Ts (k + 1) Ts
(k + 1) Ts
(k 1) Ts (k + 1) Ts
(k + 1)Ts
(k)Ts
(k)Ts
(k)Ts
First Plant Control
Second Plant Control
Added
Treatment
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
FIGURE 7 Performing FPGA-based digital controllers. (a)(e) Timing charts (Ts is the
sampling period, which is also equal to the switching period, in blue: A/D conversion,
in orange: control tasks).

The main advantages of using renewable energy

sources are the elimination of harmful emissions
and inexhaustible resources of the
primary energy.
60 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010

allowing the global optimization of

the electrical system, thus delaying
the building of conventional infrastructures,
i.e., lines and substations.
It consist of a 3-MW PV system combined
with a 4-MW 3 3-h battery set
located in a certain area of the Spanish
operator Empresa Nacional de
Electricidad S.A. (ENDESA), in which
it is optimized the demand curve,
shaving the peak and delaying the

need for a new substation of 66/15 kV.

Low-Voltage Ride Through

for Wind Turbines

The present wind energy penetration

into the electrical network has forced
system operators to adapt their grid
codes to this new generation, preventing
an unacceptable effect on the system
safety and reliability [21][26].
One of these new connection requirements
regarding wind energy is fault
ride-through capability. In the past
[27], wind generators were not allowed
to remain connected to the utilitywhen
voltage at the point of common coupling
(PCC) fell below 85%, forcing
their disconnection even when the
fault happened far from the wind farm
[28]. This is the reason why, in grids
with significant wind energy penetration,
the voltage dip and subsequent
wind farm disconnections would create
an important stability problem [29].
System operators of the different
countries have established diverse voltagelimit curves for fault ride through.
Wind turbines must remain connected
to the grid when facing voltage dips, as
long as voltage at the PCC remains
above the specified voltage profile.
Compliance with grid codes can be
checked by means of simulation of validatedmodels.
Today, there are models
for the different generator types required
for grid stability studies through
dynamic simulation. However, to certify
the validity of the simulation models
when testing voltage dip ride-through
capability, the obtained results must be
validated by the ones measured on a
field test. Once this validation is made,
compliance with grid requirements can
be certified using simulations of the
validated model.
Taking into account the requirements
exposed previously, the main
characteristics that a voltage dip generator
should have are variable sag
depth, adjustable sag duration, and
flexible input. The last requirement is
needed to present high-input impedance
during the dip, compared with
the short-circuit power of the grid, preventing
the system from affecting significantly
its voltage.
The voltage-dip generators are
based on the use of two impedances
[Figure 10(a)]. The parallel impedance
enables the generation of the fault
while the series impedance immunizes
the grid from the dip, and the
test can be performed without affecting
other systems connected to it. In
Special Regime International ExchangesREE
Transmission GridREE System OperatorREE
Market OperatorOMEL

Consumers Under
Approved Tariffs Distribution Companies
Suppliers and
Market Price
Consumers Demand Bids
Communications
Energy Flows
Demand Bids
Distribution
Network < 132 kV
Outages
Accepted Bids
Technical Constraints
TSO (Foreign)
Generators
FIGURE 8 Electricity sector in Spain (courtesy of Red El_ectrica de Espan a).

Wind turbine technology is one of the most

important emerging renewable technologies.
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 61

the proposed voltage-dip generator

[Figure 10(b)], the series impedance is
made up of a three-phase series
impedance at the system input and
the parallel branch consisting of a tap
transformer and a three-phase impedance
grounded through a control
switch in the secondary of the transformer.
The system includes some
other control elements to perform the
voltage dip generation, a 100% voltage
dip can be achieved, and the impedance
banks have single-phase switches
to have the possibility of performing
single-phase, two-phase, and threephase
tests in wind turbines up to
20 kV and 5 MW.

Conclusions

This article has shown the concept of

DG as a way to integrate energy systems.
As an example, it was illustrated
using microreactors for the DG CO2 or
hydrogen, which can be used to
empower FC systems. DG of electricity
by using FCs and dispersed microreactors
can be used to support renewable
energy systems integration. The wind
energy integration was presented as
an application of large-scale integration
of DG and DS concepts. However,
it was pointed out that to enhance the
penetration of renewable energy systems
into the grid, power electronics
and digital control systems are required.
Finally, the electrical grid in
Spain was presented as a paradigm
for renewable energy integration.
Voltage Dip Generator
Network
Series Impedance
Reducing the Impact of
the Fault on the Grid
and Bypass Switch
Parallel Impedance

Allowing the
Generation of the
Fault by Means of
the Series Switch
Wind Turbine
RST
RST
Transformer
RST
RST
MV Network
Wind Turbine
MV Position
Impedances
Impedances
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10 Voltage-dip generator scheme: (a) general system and (b) proposed system.
25,000
Low Load
Storage from
Grid System
Demand
PV Generation
to Grid
Storage
Discharging
Grid
Demand
Customers
Demand
Net Load
from Grid
(Shaved)
Battery
Discharging
to Grid
PV
Generation
to Grid
Storage
from PV
Storage
from Grid
PV (to Battery and Grid)
(a)
(b)
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0123456789
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

19
20
21
22
23
25,000
(kVA) (kVA)
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0
1
23456789
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
SINEU Zone (Day: Peak 2025Winter)
Peak 2025

FIGURE 9 (a) Demand curve and (b) load curves of the PV plus the storage system.
62 IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE n MARCH 2010

Biographies

Josep M. Guerrero received the

B.S. degree in telecommunications
engineering, the M.S. degree in electronics
engineering, and the Ph.D.
degree in power electronics from
the Technical University of Catalonia,
Barcelona, Spain, in 1997, 2000,
and 2003, respectively. He is an
associate professor with the Department
of Automatic Control Systems
and Computer Engineering, Technical
University of Catalonia, Barcelona,
where he currently teaches
courses on DSP, FPGAs, microprocessors,
and renewable energy. Since
2004, he has been responsible for
the Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Escola Industrial de Barcelona. He is
a Senior Member of the IEEE. He is
the editor-in-chief of International
Journal of Integrated Energy Systems.
He is an associate editor for IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics,
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,
International Journal of Power
Electronics, and International Journal

of Industrial Electronics and Drives.

His research interests include PVs,
wind energy conversion, uninterruptible
power supplies, storage energy
systems, and microgrids.
Frede Blaabjerg received the
M.Sc.E.E. degree from Aalborg University,
Denmark, in 1987, and the
Ph.D. degree from the Institute of
Energy Technology, Aalborg University,
in 1995. He is currently with
Aalborg University, where he became
the dean of the Faculty of Engineering
and Science in 2006. He is an
associate editor of Journal of Power
Electronics and the Danish journal Elteknik.
He has authored or coauthored
more than 300 papers and is the
author of Control in Power Electronics.
He is an associate editor of IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications
and IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.
In 2006, he became the editorinchief of IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics. He received the 1995
Angelos Award and the Annual Teacher
Prize at Aalborg University in 1995.
In 1998, he received the Outstanding
Young Power Electronics Engineer
Award from the IEEE Power
Electronics Society. He received five
IEEE Prize Paper Awards over the last
six years. He is a Fellow of the IEEE.
His research interests include power
electronics, static power converters,
ac drives, switched reluctance drives,
modeling and characterization of power
semiconductor devices and simulation,
wind turbines, and green
power inverters.
Toshko Zhelev received his bachelors
degree in chemical engineering
and masters degree in chemical
cybernetics from Moscow University
of Chemical Technology, and his Ph.D.
degree in energy conservation from
the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
He is a professor at the Department
of Chemical and Environmental Sciences,
University of Limerick, Ireland,
where he is a director of the
postgraduate program known as
Graduate Diploma in Chemical Engineering.
He holds a position of a visiting
professor at the University of
Surrey, United Kingdom and a position
of extraordinary professor at
the University of Pretoria, South Africa.
He is a member of the CAPE Working
partybranch of the European
Federation of Chemical Engineers
and a member of the executive board
of its educational branch EURECHA.
He is a member of the executive
board of the Charles Parsons Institute
in Energy and Sustainable Environment.

His research interests

include process systems engineering,
process integration, and sustainable
industrial resources management.
Kas Hemmes received his masters
degree in experimental and
theoretical physics from Groningen
University in 1983 and his Ph.D. degree
in perpendicular magnetic recording
from Twente University in
1986. He became assistant professor
and then associate professor in the
Department of Materials Science of
TU Delft, where he was responsible
for the molten carbonate fuel cell
projects carried out within the framework
of the National Fuel Cell Research
Program for 15 years. In
November 2001, he joined the Energy
and Industry sections of Technology,
Policy, and Management responsible
for the Dutch Greening of Gas project,
which is a large feasibility study
on the addition of hydrogen into the
natural gas grid in The Netherlands.
In October 2005, he joined the section
Technology Dynamics and Sustainable
Development of the same
faculty, working on innovative energy
systems in the wider context of
sustainability.
Eric Monmasson is currently a
full professor and the head of the
Institut Universitaire Professionnalis
_e de G_enie Electrique et dInformatique
Indutrielle, University of CergyPontoise, Cergy-Pontoise, France. He
is also with the Syste`mes et Applications
des Technologies de lInformation
et de lEnergie (SATIE, UMR
CNRS8029). At SATIE, his current
research interests include the advanced
control of electrical motors
and generators and the use of FPGAs
for energy control systems. He is the
chair of the technical committee on
electronic systems-on-chip of the
IEEE Industrial Electronics Society.
He is also a member of the steering
committee of the European Power
Electronics Association and of the
number one technical committee of
the International Association for
Mathematics and Computers in Simulation
(IMACS). He is an associate
editor of IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics. He is the author or
coauthor of two books and more
than 100 scientific papers. He is a
Senior Member of the IEEE.
Samir Jeme received his masters
degree from the University of
Franche Comt_e, Belfort, France, in
2001, and his Ph.D. degree in engineering
sciences from the University
of Franche Comt_e and the University

of Technology of Belfort-Montb_eliard,
France, in 2004. Since 2005, he has
been a research engineer and works
on fuel cell systems for transportation
in the Fuel Cell Laboratory
Institute of Belfort, France, with the
Energy team (ENISYS/FEMTO-ST).
His research interests include fuel
cell systems dedicated to automotive
applications, modeling, fuel
cell system characterization, and
compressors.
MARCH 2010 n IEEE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE 63

Maria P. Comech received her

M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical
engineering from the University of
Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain, in 2003
and 2008, respectively. Her Ph.D.
thesis was on the subject of modelling
and testing wind turbines
before network contingencies.
Ramon Granadino earned his
degree in industrial engineering in
1990 at the Polytechnic University of
Madrid, Spain, and his M.Sc. ECE
degree in 1993 from the University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, United
States. He has worked with REE
since 1994, managing projects for
the development of the 220 and 400
kV Spanish networks. He is currently
the director of REE in the Balearic
Electric System and project manager
for the HVDC Submarine Interconnection
between the Spanish Peninsula
and Mallorca. He has been the
project manager of significant transmission
projects in the Spanish electric
grid. He was a member of CIGRE
WG B1-19. He is currently a member
of the Tutorial Advisory Group of SC
B1 (Insulated Cables) and is the Spanish
representative for CIGRE SC B1
(Insulated Cables).
Juan I. Frau received the M.S. and
Ph.D degrees in electrical engineering
from the Polytechnic University of
Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain, in 1988
and 1991, respectively. From 1988 to
1992, he was an associate professor
with the Department of Automatic
Control Systems and Computer Engineering,
Polytechnic University of Catalonia,
and in 1992, he joined ENDESA.
From 1993 to 2001, he collaborated
with the University of the Balearic
Islands as an assistant professor,
teaching courses on instrumentation
systems and power electronics. He
is the director of Network Planning
in Balearic Islands (ENDESA Distribution)
since 2002 and has been involved
in several RDi projects.
He has been a consultant of the
UNFCCC (Bonn) to develop the clean
development mechanism (CDM) methodology

(AM0067) to estimate CO2

emissions reduction due to energy
efficient transformers. He will lead
from ENDESA the ECCOFLOW project
(20102013), cofinanced by the
EC, to develop and perform the field
test of a superconducting fault current
limiter (HTS based on coated
conductor YBCO tape) for operation
in electricity networks.

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