Soil & Tillage Research, 4 (1984) 35--53

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

35

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE VARIATION OF SOME PROPERTIES OF

SOILS IN RELATION TO THEIR SUITABILITY FOR DIRECT DRILLING

P. STENGEL', J.T. DOUGLAS 2, J. GUt~RIF 1, M.J. GOSS ~, G. MONNIER' and

R.Q. CANNELL ~

l lnstitut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Station de Science du Sol,

Domaine Saint-Paul, 84140 Montfavet (France)
2Agricultural Research Council, Letcombe Laboratory, Wantage, Oxon, 0 X 1 2 9JT
(Great Britain)
(Accepted 19 April 1983)

ABSTRACT
Stengel, P., Douglas, J.T., Gu~rif, J., Gross, M.J., Monnier, G. and Cannell, R.Q., 1984.
Factors influencing the variation of some properties of soils in relation to their suitability for direct drilling. Soil Tillage Res., 4: 35--53.
Soils from fifteen field experiments in the United Kingdom and one in France that
compared direct drilling with mouldboard ploughing were examined with respect to their
composition and physical properties. Indices of the stability and shrinkage of soil aggregates were obtained by measurement and an index of compactability was derived from an
established relationship. It was hypothesized that these properties were possible determinants of soil responses to zero-tillage.
Aggregate stability and shrinkage were correlated with organic carbon and clay content,
respectively. Organic matter contents were greater at the surface of direct-drilled soils
than in the complete topsoil layer after direct drilling or ploughing. In some cases the increase in organic matter significantly improved the physical properties of the soils.
The three indices, of stability, shrinkage and compactability, were each ranked in high
intermediate or low groups, and the soils classified according to their ratings in these
groups. The resulting classification broadly agreed with a previous one of soil suitability
for sequential direct drilling mainly based on experimental agronomy.

INTRODUCTION

Despite significant advances in chemical control of weeds, drill design and

farmers' expertise, direct drilling does not always result in crop yields equivalent to those obtained by techniques involving tillage of the topsoil (Bodet
et al., 1976; Holmes, 1976; Ellis et al., 1982). Inadequacy of those topsoil
properties which influence water transfer, aeration and root growth is one
possible reason. For given environmental and management situations the
physical characteristics of the surface layer when tillage has been omitted
most probably depends on three aspects of soil behaviour: slaking by water
(the stability of the structure to excess water), compaction (the resistance to
0167-1987/84/$0.300

1984Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

36
mechanical stress), and fragmentation by swell/shrink activity and frost (the
possible natural recovery from damage to the soil).
Cannell et al. (1978) identified three types of factors likely to affect the
crop yield after sequential direct drilling which relate to site, climate and the
physical behaviour of soils. They proposed a provisional classification of suitability for sequential direct drilling for softs in the United Kingdom based on
yield comparisons, field experience, and some soil and climatic considerations
in a wide range of experiments. Therefore, strictly speaking, it is not a classification of soil suitability but rather, more broadly, of environment suitability. Although this grouping of softs incorporates much of what is known of
the requirements of autumn and spring-sown cereal crops, both specific and
extended application remains difficult. There was no complete evaluation of
any soil physical properties. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the potential for a classification of the probable physical state of soils after zerotillage, using characteristics of the structural behaviour of the top layer. In
addition an examination of changes induced in soil constituents, for example
organic matter content, may enable assessment of the possibility of enhanced
soil conditions after successive years of zero-tillage.
The work was carried out at the Agricultural Research Council, Letcombe
Laboratory, Wantage, Great Britain, and the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Station de Science du Sol, Montfavet (near Avignon),
France under the auspices of the Anglo--French Liaison Group on Minimum
Cultivation and Cereal Rotations. This group was established by the ARC
and INRA in 1976 to consider collaboration in research.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soils

Soil samples were collected from the topsoil (about 0--20 cm) and surface
3-cm layers from fifteen field experiments comparing direct drilling with
mouldboard ploughing in the United Kingdom. Seven experiments conducted by Agricultural Research Service Institutes and one by Leeds University,
were sampled before cultivation, and seven experiments conducted by the
Agricultural Development and Advisory Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food on private and experimental farms were sampled after cultivations in the autumn of 1979 (Table I). In addition soil was collected from
an Institut Techniques des C~r~ales et des Fourrages experiment at Boigneville, France. The quantity of material involved in this collaborative programme precluded comprehensive replication of soil samples. In most cases
representative samples were bulked and sub-sampled for testing. When bulking was not carried out three replicates were tested separately for organic
carbon and soil stability and standard erorrs of the means are reported. Details of management of the sites are too extensive to be described here but
can be found in publications from the institutes and organisations responsible

37

~o

~o

o~
,.~'~

z ~
0
0
"0

"0"0~

'~,

"d'N
e~

~ .~

-~o~

=~

~z~

z
,c:

~-~

.~~

~.~

'O

--~
~00

.~

.~

~
O0

~ ,- ~ ~ ~,

~:~'~ ~'~'~ ~o

38
(Bodet et al., 1976; Hodgson et al., 1977; Cannell et al., 1980; Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1980; Pidgeon, 1980; Ellis et al., 1982).
Methods
The prediction of changes in soil structure from quantitative data (e.g. loss
or gain of pore volume or aggregation) is, even in the simplest case of untilled soil, still very unreliable. The only way to assess the physical responses
determining such changes are comparative and largely empirical laboratory
tests. Measurements are usually made under standard conditions on intact or
'disturbed' samples. If significant relationships exist between results of those
tests and the mineral and organic composition of the soils a prediction of
physical behaviour is possible. Particle-size distribution, a determinant of
m a n y soil characteristics, and organic matter c o n t e n t of the surface few cm,
which can be changed by direct drilling (Monnier et al., 1976; Douglas and
Goss, 1982), are therefore of major interest.
Aggregate stability
Three methods were employed to assess soil stability. At Avignon a series
of empirical tests (H~nin and Monnier, 1956) was used to obtain a measure
of stability for aggregates < 2 mm; at Letcombe wet-sieving and turbidimetric
techniques (Douglas and Goss, 1982) were used to estimate relative stability
of aggregates in the size class 1.4--2.8 mm.
(1) The m e t h o d of H~nin and Monnier (1956) is based on a set of tests,
which, in combination, show the relative importance of the two main factors
controlling stability: wet cohesion and absorptivity. The sample was airdried, ground and sieved over a 2 m m sieve. Next, in three tests, with or
without pretreatment of the soil, the proportion o f aggregates > 200 pm, retained after mechanical wet-sieving under standard conditions, was measured. The quantity of dispersed particles < 20 ~ m was measured by sedimentation of the filtrate.
The first test, consisting o f wet-sieving without pretreatment, gave the
proportion of aggregates, Age % (w/w), relative to the bulk of the soil. In
the second test, the sample was saturated with ethyl alcohol prior to wetsieving. This pretreatment allows water imbibition without any increase in
the internal pressure, thus water action only provokes the normal decrease of
cohesion due to swelling and in some cases to clay dispersion. This particular
mechanism was indicated by the proportion of aggregates after pretreatment
with alcohol, Ag a % (w/w). In the third test, the sample was pretreated with
benzene. This liquid, immiscible with water, emphasizes the hydrophobic
characteristics of the pores coated with organic matter and this pretreatment
reveals the influence o f soil absorptivity on aggregate breakdown. The
proportion of aggregates remaining after benzene pretreatment, Ag b % (w/w),
is a very sensitive indicator of the influence of organic matter.
In order to appreciate the whole behaviour of a soil it is necessary to com-

39
bine the results of the three tests into a stability index (S) of which the form
and interpretation were empirically verified according to field behaviour.
Thus:

S =]
Aga
\|

particles < 20 p m (%, w/w)

+

Age
3

Agb

) - - 0.9 (particles > 200 pm, %, w/w)

in which: particles < 20 p m (%, w/w) is that separated by the most dispersive
pretreatment. The mean value of the proportion of aggregates retained after
the three pretreatments is corrected b y subtracting 0.9 times the proportion
of coarse sand (size class 200--2000 pm) in order to take into account only
the true aggregates. The arbitrary factor 0.9 was used to avoid infinite values
of S. Instability is generally expressed by log 10S, which varies from 0 to 3;
the majority of softs falls in the range of 1 < log 10S < 2 (Monnier et al.,
1981). Unfortunately, in the United Kingdom, safety regulations put restrictions on the laboratory use of benzene and, therefore, place a limitation on
the measurement of Ag b and the calculation of log 10S.
(2) Wet-sieving at 500/am: The principle of this test is similar to the Age
test in the previous method. The main differences were that the test was
carried out manually on aggregates of 1.4--2.8 mm diameter and the sieve
mesh was greater (Douglas and Goss, 1982). The stability index was given
by Kemper (1965):

WS =

weight of aggregates retained > 500/am

original weight of aggregates

x 100 (%, w/w)

(3) Turbidimetric technique: After shaking soil aggregates (1.4--2.8 mm

diameter) in water for 1 min, an optical measurement was made of the density of suspended material (< 4 0 / a m ) , to obtain index T1 (Douglas and Goss,
1982).

Shrinkage potential
The aggregates submitted to the test were obtained by sieving air-dried
samples between 2 and 3.15 mm. They were then re-wetted on a porous
plate in a partial vacuum of a b o u t 70 kPa in a pressure cell and submitted to
a 1-cm water suction. The time allowed to attain equilibrium was at least
three days. Bulk density of the aggregates was measured after saturation with
kerosene, and after oven-drying, according to Archimedes' principle, using
the same liquid (Monnier et al., 1973). The specific density of the different
soils was measured b y the water p y c n o m e t e r technique. The degree of
shrinkage, Sp, which could be achieved b y the soil aggregates was calculated
using the equation
Sp = emax -- ed
in which emax is aggregate void ratio at the m a x i m u m of re-wetting (at a

40
water potential of - 0 . 1 kPa) and ed the aggregate void ratio after oven drying. The degree of shrinkage given by this test was the maximum which
could be achieved by aggregates and generally was greater than in situ shrinkage, mainly because soil water potential variations are smaller in the field.
Nevertheless, Sp is highly correlated with the degree of shrinkage measured
between soil water potentials - 1 0 kPa and - 1 , 6 0 0 kPa for example (Pinochet, 1981). We made the assumption that Sp would be a good indicator of
a soil's potential for restructuring or self-mulching during the shrinkage/
swelling process. This hypothesis is mainly supported by field observations
(H6nin and Bosquet, 1964; Osty, 1971) and by a detailed study of the evolution of soil structure under grass (Tri and Monnier, 1973).
Compactability
The dry bulk density (din, g cm -3) at the Proctor optimum water content
(Proctor, 1933) was chosen as a compactability indicator. It was calculated
from the equation obtained by Gu6rif and Faure (1979):
1~din = 0.197 C + 2.645 OM + 0.503

(r = 0.87**)

in which C is clay content (%, w/w) and OM is organic matter content (total
organic carbon content 2, %, w/w). The equation was established for
ninety-one softs with widely varying mineral and organic composition, using
the Proctor test at the standard compaction energy of 590 103 J m -a. The
confidence limit (5% level) on dm values is 0.055.
Particle-size distribution
Mechanical analyses of the ploughed topsoils were made in France by the
Laboratoire d'Analyses de I'INRA, Arras. The method used was that of
applying standard peroxide treatment for oxidation of organic matter and
sodium hexametaphosphate for dispersion (e.g. Bascomb, 1974).
Organic carbon
Total organic carbon content was measured by the method of Anne
(1945). The content of free organic carbon was determined by the method
of Anne, following separation by the method of Monnier et al. (1962).
RESULTS

Particle-size distribution

The results are shown in Table II.

Organic carbon

Results of the analyses made on subsamples from all the British soils are
shown in Table III. In each soil the content of organic carbon (total) was

41

TABLE

II

Particle-size distribution (%, w/w)

Soil series

Clay (< 2 urn)

Silt (2--50 ~m)

Sand (> 50 ~m)

Andover a
Ashley a
Denchworth
Fincham
Hamble
Hanslope (Boxworth) a
Hanslope (Hundon) a
Lawford
Luffness
Macmerry
Newchurch
Newport
Wicken
Winton
Wothersomea
Boigneville

32
16
44
12
15
40
32
37
8
18
32
8
43
17
26
24

53
17
40
20
53
32
38
34
7
24
54
17
33
25
33
67

15
67
16
68
32
28
30
39
85
58
14
75
24
58
41
9

aSoils containing calcium carbonate.

greatest in the surface 3 cm of the direct-drilled soil; mean values indicated

that 25% more organic matter was present in this layer than in the ploughed
or direct-drilled topsoil horizons. This difference was attributable largely to
the greater content of " f r e e " organic carbon, though in all b u t the sandiest
soils (Luffness and Newport series) a similar trend in " b o u n d " organic carbon contributed to differences in total content. Despite the greater organic
matter levels at the surface of direct-drilled soil there was no significant
difference between the complete topsoil layers (about 0--20 cm) of ploughed and direct-drilled land. The sandy loam soils from Scotland (Macmerry
and Winton series) contained much more " f r e e " organic matter than the
other soils. It is likely that the greater c o n t e n t of this c o m p o n e n t of the
organic matter is a consequence of the cooler climate and absence of strawburning at these sites.

Aggregate stability
Results of aggregate stability analyses obtained at L e t c o m b e and Avignon
can be compared for the British soils. Consideration of the five treatment
trends in the results from the single-sieve wet-sieving test (index WS) provided a suitable basis for comparison of the other tests b y indicating agreement,
or otherwise, between WS and the other indices. The five trends were: WS of
direct-drilled surface (0--3 cm) greater or less than WS of direct-drilled topsoil, WS of direct-drilled surface greater or less than WS of ploughed topsoil,

42

0 0 0
+~ +l

..

,,,.,

+1 +l

0 0 0

C~ ~

0
+i

~ 0 0

+l

+1 ~

0 0 0

+1 +1 +i

C~

+1

+1 +1 +1

C~

C~ 0

.~

.~

+1 +1 +1

0 0 0

0 0 0

+l

+l

0 0 0

0
'(3

"~

+1

0 0 0

43
WS of direct-drilled topsoil greater than WS of ploughed topsoil. The wetsieving index was chosen as the "standard" because (a) it is probably the
most widely used m e t h o d and (b) ~it tended to give the greatest numerical
difference between soils, depths and cultivation treatments.
The outcome of this analysis showed that overall agreement between the
different tests was generally good (Table IV); wet-sieving (WS) and turbidimetry (T1) results concurred most frequently and WS and Aga (ethyl alcohol
pretreatment) and WS and log 10S least frequently. Agreement over all tests
ranged from 27% in the Macmerry series to 93% in the Newport series. Index
WS was significantly correlated with Age, Agb and Aga (r = 0.753***,
0.600"** and 0.617"**, respectively) but only just significantly correlated
with the combined index log 10S (r = - 0 . 3 3 8 * ) . When the results were
analysed in two groups, i.e. for clayey soils (clay > 18%) and sandy soils
(clay < 19%) then agreement between tests tended to be greater in the clay
soils; WS and log 10S were significantly correlated in each case: r = - 0.743" * *
and - 0 . 6 0 5 * * , respectively. The main contradiction between the chosen
standard, WS and the combined index, log 10S, was that the latter indicated
relatively greater stability of the sandy softs than the former. According to
the French interpretation (Monnier et al., 1981) of the results of Henin's
stability test (Table V), eight of the ploughed topsoils would be classified as
"very stable" (log 10S < 1) and only one as "unstable" (log 10S > 1.7). This
interpretation is based on observation of field behaviour in French conditions and its extrapolation to British ones must be considered with caution.
It suggests that in most cases structural stability would not be the limiting
factor for sequential direct-drilling. In ten cases the soil surface had become
more stable than the ploughed topsoil after direct drilling (Table V). This
beneficial effect of direct-drilling must be related to the increase in organic
carbon content in the surface layer. The effect of organic matter content on
stability depends on clay content (Monnier, 1965). The results obtained
agree with this conclusion: log 10S was not significantly correlated with organic carbon content (total, bound or free) but was significantly related to
the ratio of total-carbon/clay contents, bound-carbon/clay contents, and
free-carbon/clay contents, r = - 0 . 6 7 9 " * * , - 0 . 7 8 0 " * * and - 0 . 4 6 6 " * * , respectively. In twelve cases the index WS indicated greater stability of the
direct<lrilled surface layer compared with topsoil that was ploughed annually. WS was related to total (r = 0.607***, Fig. 1 ) a n d bound (r = 0.706***)
organic carbon.
Shrinkage
Results of shrinkage tests are shown in Table VI. The main factor of variation between soils was clay c o n t e n t (Fig. 2), which was highly correlated
with Sp (r = 0.937***, n = 43). Variation that was n o t accounted for would
include that caused by analysing Sp for each depth and t r e a t m e n t with the
one value of clay content obtained from the ploughed soil. Clay mineralogy

44
TABLE IV
C o m p a r i s o n o f aggregate stability indices relative t o t r e n d s in wet-sieving i n d e x (WS)
Treatment/depth
comparison

Soil series

Stability index a

T~

Ag a

Ag b

Ag e

Logl0$

Lawford
Newchurch
H a n s l o p e (Box.)

+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

H a n s l o p e (Hun.)
Wicken
Wothersome
Lawford
H a n s l o p e (Box.)
Newchurch
Wothersome
Hanslope (Hun.)

--

--

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+
-+
-+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
-+

+
+
+
+
+
--

+
+
-+
-+
+
+
+
+
+

+
--+

.
-+
+

-+
+

67

Clay soils a
DD surface > DD t o p s o i l
DD surface < DD t o p s o i l

DD surface > P t o p s o i l

DD surface < P t o p s o i l
DD t o p s o i l > P t o p s o i l

Wicken
Lawford
H a n s l o p e (Box.)

Hanslope (Hun.)
Newchurch
Wicken
Wothersome
A g r e e m e n t w i t h wet-sieving i n d e x
(% o f t o t a l n u m b e r o f c o m p a r i s o n s )

-+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+
+

89

78

72

78

__

S a n d y soilsa
DD

surface > D D

topsoil

DD surface < DD t o p s o i l
DD s u r f a c e > P t o p s o i l

DD

topsoil > P topsoil

Fincham
Hamble
Newport
Winton
Macmerry
Luffness
Fincham
Hamble
Luffness
Macmerry
Newport
Winton
Fincham
Hamble
Luffness
Macmerry
Newport
Winton

A g r e e m e n t w i t h wet-sieving i n d e x
(% o f t o t a l n u m b e r o f c o m p a r i s o n s )
aSee t e x t ( M e t h o d s a n d Results) for d e f i n i t i o n s .
b+, A g r e e m e n t ; - n o a g r e e m e n t .

__

__

__

--

--

__

--

--

--

--

4-

--

67

56

78

67

67

45
TABLE V
Aggregate stability indices WS and log 10S f o r ploughed (P) topsoil (0--20 cm) and directdrilled (DD) 0--3 c m layer
Soil series

WS

Log 10S

P
Andover
Ashley
Denchworth
Fincham
Hamble
Hanslope (Boxworth)
Hanslope (Hundon)
Lawford
Luffneas
Macmerry
Newchurch
Newport
Wicken
Winton
Wothersome
Boigneville

68
7
78
16
18
37
50
44
37
8
11
16
51
29
19
8

1
1
1
3

2
8
1
1
2
4
6
1

DD

DD

-18 1
-32 3
46
42 -+ 3
31
70
48 1
20 2
20 2
27 4
20 3
52
32 1
22 a

0.38
0.90-+
0.58
0.82
1.33
1.04
1.01
0.56
0.00
1.01
1.85
0.80
1.44
0.56
1.39
1.59

-0.83
0.28
0.72
0.81
1.12
1.10
0.45
0.00
0.86
1.44
0.59
1.44
0.46
0.98
--

0.01
0.10
0.04
0.05

0.05
0.01
0.11

0.04
0.03
0.05
0.03

0.02
0.01
0.03

aDD 0--5 c m layer.

T A B L E VI
Shrinkage (Sp) and c o m p a c t a b i l i t y (din) indices f o r direct-drilled (DD) and p l o u g h e d (P)
soils

Soil series

Andover
Ashley
Denchworth
Fincham
Hamble
Hanslope (Boxworth)
Hanslope (Hundon)
Lawford
Luffness
Macmerry
Newchurch
Newport
Wicken
Winton
Wothersome
BoigneviUe

Sp

dm

DD
0--3 c m

DD
topsoil

P
topsoil

P
topsoil

-0.22
0.66
0.13
0.15
0.60
0.46
0.71
0.10
0.16
0.43
-0.42
0.24
0.38
--

-0.22
0.76
0.10
0.16
0.65
0.46
0.62
0.04
0.16
0.38
0.02
0.47
0.15
0.33
--

0.69
0.18
0.64
0.12
0.14
0.50
0.43
0.61
0.07
0.21
0.40
0.01
0.55
0.18
0.40
0.39

1.20
1.69
1.23
1.76
1.71
1.46
1.53
1.40
1.68
1.48
1.55
1.72
1.47
1.36
1.57
1.67

46
100

~8o
.J

Winton and Macmerry series soils

Other series soils

OO

{
~ 6c
.~_
>,

2~

~ 4c

.f

~ 20

y : 11'57x +12'75

r =0.61***

Total organic-carbon content C, w/w)

Fig. 1. Relationship between stability index (WS) and total organic-carbon content.
0'8

0
ear

eLd

D
IHB

.t~ ..B

06

D
eWk

eLd

.I

-~04

eHB

HN OHH

iWk

eNh

IWk

c"

O3

0'2

.~,.,~A
.wn

r_- 0'94 ******

.L

00

"~
Clay content C ,w/w)

Fig. 2. Relationship between shrinkage index (Sp) and clay content. Data points: A: Ashley; Ar: Andover; B: BoigneviUe; D: Denchworth; F: Fincham; H: Hamble; HB: Hanslope
(Boxworth); HH: Hanslope (Hundon); Ld: Lawford; Ls: Luffness; M: Macmerry; Nh:
Newchurch; Nt: Newport; Wk: Wicken; Wn: Winton; We: Worthersome series.

a n d organic m a t t e r c a n i n f l u e n c e s h r i n k a g e t h o u g h n e i t h e r c o u l d be evaluated here. N o t r e n d s in Sp b e t w e e n tillage m e t h o d s or soil d e p t h s w e r e

apparent.

Compactability
T h e ranges o f clay a n d organic m a t t e r c o n t e n t s f r o m w h i c h t h e regression
was c a l c u l a t e d include t h e values d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e British soils. T h e values

47

for the calculated compactability index for the ploughed topsoils are shown
in Table VI. Variations in 'free' organic carbon significantly affect compactability (Gu~rif, 1979). The main source of error in applying this model
to British softs is due probably to the greater accumulation of 'free' organic
matter in cooler and wetter regions.
DISCUSSION

It was hypothesized that aggregate stability, shrinkage potential and compactability were the three principal properties essential for gauging soil responses to direct drilling. In order that the soil properties might usefully be
discussed in relation to agronomic responses to direct drilling we have devised an empirical classification scheme using the results from the ploughed
soils as the standard. Prediction of the state of soils after two or more years
of sequential direct drilling required consideration of the results from the
direct-drilled soils, particularly the surface layer.
F r o m the range and distribution of the measured stability and shrinkage
indices and the derived compactability index we identified three arbitrary
groups for each index. A classification of field behaviour, albeit for French
conditions, relating to log 10S is already in existence: the first group, log
10S < 1.3, includes "very stable" and "stable" soils, the second, log 10S between 1.3 and 1.7, contains soils of average stability and the third group, log
10S > 1.7, contains "unstable" soils (Table VIII).
Each soil was scored 1, 2 or 3 for each of the three properties WS, Sp and
din, e.g. a score of 1 indicating highest stability, shrinkage potential and
resistance to compaction, (Tables VII and VIII) and then classified according
to their overall rating (Table IX). The soils would be allocated to the same
classes by simply totalling the group numbers of each index pertaining to
each individual soil. For example, for the Ashley, Fincham, Hamble and
Newport series the scores were stability (WS)3, shrinkage 3 and compactability 3 (total 9) (Table VIII) and t h e y were therefore lacking in the properties
which aid maintenance or regeneration of good soil structure. For the A n
dover, Denchworth and Lawford series the total score was 3, indicating the
presence of characteristics likely to p r o m o t e good structure. As described
earlier (see Results) the major contrast between WS and log 10S occurred
with the sandy soils; however, these soils have low (group 3) ratings in
TABLE VII

Grouping of stability, shrinkage and compactability indices

Index
Range

Group

Stability

Shrinkage

WS
>40 40--20 <20
1
2
3

>0.5
1

Sp
0.5--0.25 <0.25
2
3

Compactability

<1.4
1

dm
1.40--1.60 >1.60
2
3

48
TABLE VIII
Groups of the stability, shrinkage and compactability indices of ploughed topsoil (P) and
direct-drilled 0--3 cm layer (DD) (derived from Tables V, VI and VII)
Soil series

Stability

Andover
Ashley
Denchworth
Fincham
Hamble
Hanslope(Boxworth)
Hanslope(Hundon)
Lawford
Luffness
Macmerry
Newchurch
Newport
Wicken
Winton
Wothersome
Boigneville

Shrinkage,
Sp

Compactability,
dm

WS

Log 10S

P DD

P DD

1
3
13
3
2
1
1
2
3
3
3
1
2
3
3

1
1
I
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
2
2-

1
3
1
3
3
1
2
1
3
3
2
3
1
3
2
2

1
3
1
3
3
2
2
1
3
2
2
3
2
1
2
3

-3
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2

-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1

TABLE IX
Grouping of soil series with respect to their suitability for direct drilling
Soil class

No indices in group 3
and more than one
index in group 1

No indices in group 3
and less than two in
group 1

One or more indices

in group 3

Suitability for
direct drilling

No or few limitations
to successful direct
drilling

Possibly some limitations to successful

direct drilling

Likely to be problematic with direct drilling

Soil seriesa

Andover (I)
Denchworth (II)
Lawford (II)
Wicken (II)

Hanslope (Boxworth)

Ashley (II)
Fincham (HI)
Hamble (III)
Luffness (III)
Macmerry (II) b
Newchurch (III)
Newport (III)
Winton (III)
Wothersome (II) c
Boigneville (II) d

(II)
Hanslope (Hundon)

(II)

aI = suitable, II = intermediate, I I I = unsuitable for sequential direct drilling (Cannell et

al., 1978).
bB.C. Ball, Scottish Institute of Agricultural Engineering, personal communication, 1982.
CD.R. Hodgson, University of Leeds, personal communication, 1982.
dSee text.

49
shrinkage or compactability, or both, and would be placed in the lowest class
o f soils, irrespective of stability index. For the purpose o f the following discussion the stability groups used will be those based on WS values.
The properties of four of the topsoils, namely the clays of the Denchworth, Lawford and Wicken series and the silty clay loam of the Andover
series were such that topsoil structural limitations to successful direct drilling
were likely to be absent. The only group 2 rating was in the compactability
of the Wicken series, an o u t c o m e of its relatively low organic matter content.
The only soils in the intermediate class, in which scores of 2 for properties
were typical, were those of the Hanslope series; the soil from Boxworth had
top-rated shrinkage resulting from a greater clay content than its counterpart
from Hundon, which had greater stability.
Ten o f the soils tested appeared to have critically low ratings in one or
more of the properties and four of these, the Ashley, Fincham and Newport
series sandy loams and the Hamble series silt loam, were rated in the lowest
group for all three properties. Luffness and Macmerry series and Boigneville
soil had low ratings in two properties, shrinkage and compactability, shrinkage and stability, and stability and compactability, respectively. The Newchurch and Wothersome had low stability and the Winton soil had low
shrinkage potential.
It should be noted that on the basis of the groups of stability index log
10S some softs would be placed in different classes, though none of the
changes would be by more than a single class. Hanslope (Boxworth) series
would be placed in the 'no or few limitations' class and the Wicken and
Wothersome series would be moved to the intermediate class (Tables VII and
VIII). Furthermore, a grouping of the softs using just two of the indices,
those for stability (WS) and shrinkage (Sp), would not differ from that using
all three indices. This is because the third index, dm, was derived from
organic matter and clay contents which have been shown to have a dominant
influence on the measured indices (Figs. 1 and 2).
It was appropriate to compare the groupings made above with the categorization of their suitability for sequential direct drilling proposed by Cannell
et al. (1978). This latter classification, as mentioned earlier, was based on
yield comparisons, field experience and consideration of some soil and
climatic factors and identified three categories of suitability:
(I) soils with favourable properties on which yields similar to those from
well-managed conventional cultivations can be expected, from both autumn
and spring-sown crops;
(II) soils where with good management the yield of winter cereals is likely
to be similar after direct drilling and conventional cultivation, but where the
yield o f spring crops is likely to be appreciably less;
(III) softs on which there is a substantial risk of loss of yield after direct
drilling, especially of spring-sown crops.
The scheme of soil assessment based on physical properties described in
this paper was successful in identifying those softs on which the likelihood

50
of a favourable o u t c o m e with direct<lrilled cereal crops was judged to be low
(Category III, Table IX). In most cases allocation to suitability category III
was probably a consequence of poor stability or little resistance to compaction c o m p o u n d e d by a small potential for recovery of structure because of
limited shrinkage. The first two limitations resulted because, in view of their
particle-size distribution these softs should have a greater organic matter
status to maintain soil strength than was observed. Small potential for
recovery of structure (the third condition) was related to low clay content.
In both classifications many of the soils were assigned to the lowest category. This suggests that, except when organic matter content is sufficiently
high to modify markedly their physical properties, direct drilling on soils
with a sand content of > 65% (w/w) or silt content > 50% (w/w) would involve a large risk factor. An exception to these particle-size limits was the
Ashley series calcareous sandy loam which over t w o experimental years
yielded as a category II soft.
As a consequence of its low stability and resistance to compaction the
Boigneville soil was allocated to the lowest class. As the basis of classification
was mainly the range and distribution of indices among the range of softs
studied, this strictly means that compared to British soils the Boigneville soil
was physically of limited suitability for direct drilling. In terms of yields,
Boigneville is at least a category II soft: winter wheat yields are similar under
direct drilling and conventional cultivation (Bodet et al., 1976). But this
classification is inadequate in French conditions because of differences in
environmental conditions (rainfall pattern particularly) and crop systems
(types of spring-sown crops).
Of the softs with no serious topsoil limitations all b u t the Andover series
were in category II of Cannell et al. (1978). These allocations were the
consequence of imperfect drainage characteristics resulting from relatively
impermeable subsoils.
Analysis of the variations in soil constituents, and the indices which they
affect, reveals information on the potential for improvement with sequential
direct drilling. The results reported here show the strong dependence of
shrinkage on clay content but the proportion of this soil constituent would
n o t be significantly changed by altering soil management. On the other hand
there was clear evidence that the content of organic matter close to the soil
surface increased and this constituent influences b o t h stability and compactability. Therefore, suitability for direct drilling n o t evident in the first
year may become apparent in subsequent years. In the course of time, on the
Newchurch and Wothersome series experiments, aggregate stability at the
surface of the direct-drilled soil changed from group 3 to group 2 (Table
VIII), thereby elevating these soils from the set "likely to be problematic
with direct drilling". In the case of the Hamble series the lack of potential
restructuring by shrinkage m a y be alleviated by the marked improvement in
stability (from group 3 to group 1}. The effect of increased organic matter
content in the surface layer on compactability is difficult to evaluate by us-

51
ing only the regression equation presented before. This equation suggests
that an increase of about 1.5% (w/w) in organic matter content is necessary
to get a 0.1 decrease in bulk density at the Proctor optimum. Among the
softs with limiting compactability, such a large change in organic matter sta
tus was only observed for the Hamble series silt loam where the index would
change from group 3 to group 2. Nevertheless, this is insufficient to estimate
the probable improvement in compactability. Free organic matter appears to
be more effective than bound organic matter in protecting soils against compaction (Gu~rif, 1979), and as the ratio free carbon/total carbon increased in
the direct-drilled 0--3 cm layer this could result in a greater protective condition, though effects on deeper layers where the organic matter content is not
modified are unknown.
The validation of the predictive aspect of soil suitability for direct drilling
requires further study in two areas. Firstly, extension of physical measure~
merits to a wider range of soils would increase the precision of the described
classification which is based on combined physical properties and, secondly,
the link must be made between soil properties {e.g. stability and shrinkage)
and soil structural state (e.g. pore size and geometry), taking due account of
climatic, hydrological and faunal inputs. The latter can only be achieved by
analysis of soil structure in a variety of situations and management regimes.
We conclude from the relationships between measured properties and soil
composition that it may be possible to classify softs with respect to the
latter. Indeed, this approach may be more satisfactory than ranking responses to empirical tests, such as those for stability, which are dependent
partly on method. In addition, variation between sets of values for clay and
organic carbon content, obtained for the British softs at the collaborating
institutes, was much less than that observed in the stability tests. However,
deviations from the soil property--soil constituent relationships were evident: for example, the high organic-carbon content of the Macmerry and
Winton sandy loams did not confer high stability (Fig. 1) and the shrinkage
of the Andover series was greater than could be expected from its clay c o n
tent alone (Fig. 2). The influences of free organic matter, calcium carbonate
and clay mineralogy warrant more detailed examination.
CONCLUSIONS
(1) A ranking of softs based on selected indices of stability, shrinkage and
compactability was in agreement with an earlier classification of the soils'
suitability for sequential direct drilling.
(2) The measured properties, aggregate stability and shrinkage, were related to organic carbon and clay content, respectively. Soils with low clay contents and high proportions o f sand or silt were identified as those likely to
be problematic with direct drilling.
(3) In some cases the physical properties of 'problematic' soils were significantly improved by increased organic-carbon content at the soil surface
after direct drilling.

52

(4) There is potential for classifying the suitability of soil for direct
drilling using their physical properties, or mineral and organic composition,
or both. It is necessary, however, to establish the relationship between the
chosen criteria and soil structure in the field.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank staff of the organizations who supplied softs from their
experiments, in particular Dr. D.B. Davies, Agricultural Development and
Advisory Service, Cambridge, who also advised on the choice of soils, Dr.
B.D. Soane and staff of the Soil Section, Scottish Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, and Dr. D.R. Hodgson, University of Leeds. We are grateful to
innumerable members of the ARS and INRA who provided information and
technical services.

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