THE

EXPRESSION
INSTRUMENT

UNIT 15
OF
MANNER,

MEANS

AND

OUTLINE
1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE NOTIONS OF MANNER, MEANS AND
INSTRUMENT.
2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notions of manner, means and instrument.
2.2. On defining manner, means and instrument: what and how.
2.3. Grammar categories: open vs. closed classes.
3. THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS, AND INSTRUMENT: AN INTRODUCTION.
3.1. Adverbs: main features.
3.2. Manner, means and instrument in terms of other grammatical categories.
3.3. A classification of adverbs: main functions.
3.2.1. The morphological function.
3.2.1.1. Simple adverbs.
3.2.1.2. Adverb formation by means of affixation.
3.2.1.3. Adverb formation by means of compounding.
3.2.1.4. Adverb formation by means of other constructions.
3.2.1.5. Spelling and pronunciation changes.
3.2.2. The syntactic function.
3.2.2.1. The notion of adverbial phrase.
3.2.2.2. Types of grammatical functions.
3.2.2.2.1. Disjuncts.
3.2.2.2.2. Conjuncts.
3.2.2.2.3. Subjuncts.
3.2.2.2.4. Adjuncts.
3.2.2.2.4.1. Predication adjuncts.
3.2.2.2.4.2. Clause adjuncts.
3.2.2.3. Adverbs and word order.
3.2.2.3.1. General considerations.
3.2.2.3.2. Particular cases.
3.2.3. The semantic function.
3.2.3.1. Disjuncts.
3.2.3.1.1. Style disjuncts: manner and modality, and respect.
3.2.3.1.2. Content disjuncts: certainty and evaluation.
3.2.3.2. Conjuncts.

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3.2.3.3. Subjuncts.
3.2.3.3.1. Wide orientation subjuncts: viewpoint and courtesy.
3.2.3.3.2. Narrow orientation subjuncts: item, intensifier, focus.
3.2.3.4. Adjuncts.
3.2.3.4.1. Space.
3.2.3.4.2. Time.
3.2.3.4.3. Degree.
3.2.3.4.4. Interrogative.
3.2.3.4.6. Modality.
3.2.3.4.7. Others.
3.2.3.4.8. Process: manner, means and instrument.
4. THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER.
4.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases.
4.2. By means of other adjuncts.
4.3. By means of prepositional phrases.
4.4. By means of noun phrases.
4.5. By means of clause structures.
5. THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS.
5.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases.
5.2. By means of prepositional phrases.
5.3. By means of noun phrases.
6. THE EXPRESSION OF INSTRUMENT.
7. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
8. CONCLUSION.
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
Unit 15 is primarily aimed to examine the different ways of expressing manner, means, and
instrument in English, namely achieved by means of adverbs, and also by means of prepositions,
noun phrases and other grammatical structures. In doing so, the study will be divided into eight
main chapters. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a theoretical framework for the notions of manner, means
and instrument, and in particular, of those grammatical categories which are involved in it.
Moreover, within the field of grammar linguistic theory, some key terminology is defined in
syntactic terms so as to prepare the reader for the descriptive account on the expression of manner,
means and instrument in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 3, then, presents and defines the notion of manner, means and instrument mainly regarding
adverbs and other grammatic al categories involved in it, such as prepositions, and other means.
Moreover, adverbs are classified according to their three main functions: morphological, in terms of
adverb formation processes (one-word phrase, affixation and compounding); syntactic, which is
introduced by the notion of adverbial phrase, and moves on to examine adverbs as functioning as
disjuncts, conjuncts, subjuncts, and adjuncts; and finally, semantic, in terms of different types of
adverbs (place,time, degree, and others).
This syntactic and semantic classification allows us to frame the notions of manner, means and
instrument within the label of process adjuncts. Once established within the linguistic framework,
we are ready to examine them individually. Therefore, Chapter 4 offers a descriptive account of the
expression of manner by means of adverbs or adverbial phrases, other adjuncts, prepositional
phrases, noun phrases and other types of phrase structures. Similarly, Chapter 5 does the same on
the expression of means, and Chapter 6 on the expression of instrument.
Chapter 7, then, provides an educational framework for the expression of manner, means and
instrument within our current school curriculum, and Chapter 8 draws a conclusion from all the
points involved in this study. Finally, in Chapter 9, bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

In order to offer an insightful analysis and survey on the expression of manner, means, and
instrument in English, we shall deal with the most relevant works in the field, both old and current,
and in particular, influential grammar books which have assisted for years students of English as a
foreign language in their study of grammar. For instance, a theoretical framework for the expression
of manner, means, and instrument is namely drawn from the field of sentence analysis, that is, from
the work of Flor Aarts and Jan Aarts (University of Nijmegen, Holland) in English Syntactic
Structures (1988), whose material has been tested in the classroom and developed over a number of

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years; also, another essential work is that of Rodney Huddleston, English Grammar, An Outline
(1988).
Other classic references which offer an account of the most important and central grammatical
constructions and categories in English regarding the expression of manner, means, and instrument,
are Quirk & Greenbaum, A University Grammar of English (1973); Thomson & Martinet, A
Practical English Grammar (1986); and Greenbaum & Quirk, A Students Grammar of the English
Language (1990).
More current approaches to notional grammar are David Bolton and Noel Goodey, Grammar
Practice in Context (1997); John Eastwood, Oxford Practice in Grammar (1999); Sidney
Greenbaum, The Oxford Reference Grammar (2000); Gerald Nelson, English: An Essential
Grammar (2001); Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language (2002); and. Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University Course in English
Grammar (2002).

2.

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE NOTION OF MANNER, MEANS, AND

INSTRUMENT.

Before describing in detail the different ways of expressing manner, means, and instrument in
English, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework for these notions, since they must be
described in grammatical terms. In fact, this introductory chapter aims at answering questions such
as where these notions are to be found within the linguistic level, what they describe and how and
which grammar categories are involved in their description at a functional level. Let us examine,
then, in which linguistic level these notions are found.

2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notions of manner, means, and instrument.
In order to offer a linguistic description of the notion of manner, means, and instrument, we must
confine it to particular levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of
language. Yet, although there is no consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be
distinguished, the usual description of a language comprises four major components: phonology,
grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological,
morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic (Huddleston, 1988).
First, the phonology describes the sound level, that is, consonants, vowels, stress, intonation, and so
on. Secondly, since the two most basic units of grammar are the word and the sentence, the
component of grammar involves the morphological level (i.e. the internal structure of words) and
the syntactic level (i.e. the way words are placed in th e sentence). Third, the lexicon, or lexical
level, lists vocabulary items, specifying how they are pronounced, how they behave grammatically,
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and what they mean. Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study
of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, to which all four of the major components are
related. We must not forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously
incomplete, and in particular, when dealing with the notions of manner, means, and instrument.
Therefore, we must point out that each of the linguistic levels discussed above has a corresponding
component when analysing these notions. Thus, phonology deals with pronunciation of adverbs (i.e.
usually, ever; late-later-the latest); morphology deals with comparative and superlative markers
(i.e. er, -est) or the addition of suffixes to form adverbs (i.e. -ly, -wise, -wards); and syntax deals
with which combinations of words constitute grammatical strings and which do not (i.e. She wants
to come also vs. She wants to come, too).
On the other hand, lexis deals with the expression of manner, means, and instrument regarding the
choice between adverbial phrases or prepositional phrases (i.e. He drives carefully vs. He drives in a
careful manner), lexical choices regarding different types of adverbs (i.e. source, goal, agency,
modality, degree, and so on), the use of specific adverbs (i.e. intensifiers: decreasing or
increasing), or other means such as other formal realizations of these notions (i.e. a noun phrase, a
verbless clause, a finite clause, etc); and finally, semantics deals with meaning where syntactic and
morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e. He was lying in the room- But where? This,
that, here, or there?).

2.2. On defining manner, means, and instrument: what and how.

On defining the terms manner, means, and instrument, we must link these notions (what they are)
to the grammar categories which express them (how they are showed). Actually, the terms manner,
means, and instrument are intended to add information about how a situation has happened, by
describing in detail in which manner, by which means and with which instruments an event
took place. We must point out that this function is mainly carried out by adverbs, but other
grammatical categories can also function like an adverb, thus prepositional phrases, adjectival
phrases, noun phrases or other grammatical expressions (to be developed further on).
Following Traditional Grammar guidelines, adverbs are classified according to their main semantic
roles: space (position, direction, goal, source, distance), time (position, forward and backward
position, relationship in time), respect, contingency (cause, reason, purpose, result, condition,
concession), modality (emphasis, approximation, restriction), degree (or quantity) (emphasizers,
amplifiers, downtoners), sentence (affirmative, negative, interrogative), doubt (relative adverbs:
where, when, why) and finally, for our purposes, the notion of process which includes the
expression of manner, means, instrument, and agency.
Moreover, these notions are also classified according to their syntactic function (conjuncts,
disjuncts, adjuncts), among which we shall deal with the category of process adjuncts, whose
function is to denote the process of the verb by describing manner, means, and instrument. These
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adverbs, then, answer to questions such as How did he react to your proposal?: with great courtesy
(manner), by means of a bribe (means), and with a gun pointing at me (instrument).Note that the
expression of manner, means, and instrument is mainly achieved by means of adverbial,
prepositional, adjectival and noun phrases (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973).

2.3. Grammar categories: open vs. closed classes.

In order to confine the notion of manner, means, and instrument to particular grammatical
categories, we must review first the difference between open and closed classes. Yet, grammar
categories in English can be divided into two major sets called open and closed classes. The open
classes are verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and are said to be unrestricted since they allow the
addition of new members to their membership, whereas the closed classes are the rest: prepositions,
conjunctions, articles (definite and indefinite), numerals, pronouns, quantifiers and interjections,
which belong to a restricted class since they do not allow the creation of new members.
Then, as we can see, when expressing manner, means, and instrument we are mainly dealing with
adverbs that, when taken to phrase and sentence level, may be substituted by other grammatical
categories, in particular, prepositional phrases, noun phrases and specific syntactic structures. The
classification of phrases reflects an established syntactic order which is found for all four of the
open word classes (i.e. verb, noun, adjective, and adverb) where it is very often possible to replace
open classes by an equivalent expression of another class (i.e. noun, adjective, preposition or
another adverb), and also closed classes (i.e. prepositions, conjunctions, quantifiers) as we shall see
later.

3.

THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS, AND INSTRUMENT: AN INTRODUCTION.

As stated before, the expression of manner, means, and instrument will be first examined through
the category of adverbs, and then we shall offer a descriptive approach through other grammatical
categories related to it, such as prepositions, adjectives, nouns and other grammatical structures like
periphrastic phrases, idiomatic expressions or verbless sentences as possible answers to the question
of How ...?
Moreover, before we continue, we must note that, although adverbs are mainly classified in two
groups following syntactic and semantic rules, as stated before, our study will be primarily based on
the notion of process adjuncts since it is this category that is constituent or a clause or sentence and
will lead us to the expression of manner, means, and instrument further on.

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In the following chapters, then, we shall examine the main issues that will provide the base for the
whole unit. Thus, (1) main features of adverbs; (2) the expression of manner, means, and instrument
in terms of other grammatical categories, (3) a classification of adverbs according to their main
functions, thus morphological, syntactic, and semantic. First, within the morphological function, we
shall examine the formation of adverbs. Second, within the syntactic function, we shall examine the
different types of syntactic organization. And finally, within the semantic function, we sha ll
examine the main issue of this unit.

3.1. Adverbs: main features.

First of all, in order to understand the main features of adverbs, we must trace back to the origin of
the word. From Latin adverbium, this word means ad + verbum, that is, next to the verb. In other
words, an adverb is the invariable part of the sentence which modifies verbs, adjectives, nouns, and
also other adverbs in order to change their meanings (Larousse, 2000). Adverbs in general are
intended to give information about the way something is done by someone by offering a description
or identification of the situation with a wide range of details which answer to the question How...?,
thus in which manner, by which means, and with which instruments something happened.
According to Huddleston (1988), adverbs have the following properties: (1) first, they modify
verbs, adjectives and other adverbs 1 (i.e. He ate yesterday, extremely unpolite, and really fast); (2)
second, adverbs commonly express manner, degree, time, place, and so on according to their
semantic role (i.e. very, no, last year, here, more, rather well); (3) Third, it is commonly the case
that many members, especially those belonging to the manner subclass, are morphologically derived
from adjectives (i.e. quick-quickly; usual-usually); and (4) finally, their syntactic similarity with
prepositional phrases, sharing the same function and essentially the same meaning (i.e. carefully vs.
with care/in a careful way; soon vs. in a short while, usually, on most occasions).

3.2. Manner, means, and instrument in terms of other grammatical categories.

Adverbs denoting manner, means, and instrument, then, play their role within a larger linguistic
structure in order to modify verbs, adjectives, nouns, or other adverbs by means of other categories
as well. For instance, the answer to How did you get out of that hole? may be drawn not only from
the grammatical category of verbs (i.e. crawling), but also from other categories, such as adjectives
(i.e. extraordinarily nervous), other adverbs (i.e. rather well), or other grammatical structures (i.e.
wishing to see the light again ). Therefore, the functions of the adverbial are also realized by:

Note that in languages which distinguish between adjectives and adverbs the primary difference is that adjectives modify
nouns while adverbs modify verbs. The modifiers of verbs, in turn, can to a large degree, also modify adjectives and
adverbs, so that we then extend the definition of adverb to cover modifiers of all three open classes other than nouns
(Huddleston, 1988).

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(1) Another major kind of expression which can function like an adverb, that is, prepos itions, which
belong to the closed-class category and which connect two units in a sentence, specifying a
relationship between them (i.e. Adverbial: I dont like to drink out of a cracked glass; Adjective
complement: I was very grateful for your help ; and manner: the woman in the red dress).
(2) Adverbialisation (Huddleston, 1988) is also realized by means of noun phrases, although it is
not common (i.e. He came last week). However, time reference is not included in our study as a
main issue.
(3) Another kind of syntactic structure involves clause subordination, where we find two types.
Thus (a) the non-finite verb clauses (or infinitival clauses) which function as modifier of the verbal
phrase, and in which the verb is (i) an infinitive, as in He left at nine to catch the nine-thirty bus,
(ii) present participle ing, as in Hoping to see him as soon as possible, and (iii) past participle
ed, as in If urged by you, well stay in. Secondly, (b) we may find the finite content clause as
modifier of an adjectival phrase, as in I was so broke that I couldnt buy any food or The child
was playing although he was very tired.
(4) And finally, we may find another type of syntactic structure realized by verbless clauses, as in
She was shopping, unaware of the time.
Then, as we can see, all these items have the same function but belong to different grammatical
categories or class (i.e. noun, adjective, finite clauses, and so on ). We may observe that the degree
of adverbialisation is significantly less than in prepositional phrases in that although such
subordinate clauses have broadly the same function as adverbs, we do not normally find anything
like the close semantic equivalence to adverbs illustrated above for prepositional phrases.
Then, since both function and word class are relevant for our present purposes, we must examine
the expression of manner, means, and instrument through them. These expressions can be grouped
together into word classes (also called parts of speech) following morphological, syntactic, and
semantic rules but bearing in mind the phonological one when pronouncing adverbs or other
periphrastic expressions (i.e. in th e air).

3.3. A classification of adverbs: main functions.

Adverbs can also be classified according to their main functions whereby we may find three main
types: (1) the morphological function, by which adverbs are formed by means of affixation and
compounding processes; (2) the syntactic function, which is related to the structure and position of
adverbial phrases at the sentence level; and finally, (3) the semantic function, which is related to
intrinsic aspects of adverbs. We shall follow five main figures in this field in order to develop this
section, thus Quirk & Greenbaum (1973), Thomson & Martinet (1986), Huddleston (1988), Aarts
(1988), and Greenbaum & Quirk (1990).

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3.2.1. The morphological function.

The adverb class is, then, the most common repository for the expression of process (manner,
means and instrument) together with prepositional phrases. As seen before, adverbs may be primary
words which do not derive from any other (i.e. ever, just, only, yet, already, etc) or may be derived
from other words (i.e. adjectives, other adverbs, verbs) by certain morphological processes.
However, there are far fewer affixes forming adverbs than there are forming nouns or adjectives.
In fact, similar features of adjectives apply to adverbs, which can be inflected (i.e. hard-harderhardest), and also, many of them are derived from adjectives, adding the suffix -ly to the adjective
base (i.e. nice-nicely, coward-cowardly) although not all of them allow this derivational process
(i.e. NOT: old -oldly).
Huddleston (1988) uses the term adverbialisation for this variety of grammatical processes that
create adverbs or expressions that bear significant resemblances to adverbs or adverbial phrases
among which we namely distinguish between morphological processes yielding words actually
belonging to the adverb class (simple words and affixation) and syntactic processes yielding
expressions which are merely functionally similar to adverbs (compounding and periphrastical
constructions with prepositional phrases).
Thus, affixation and compounding are the most straightforward type of creating an adverb by
morphological processes, apart from those adverbs which are not related to any other word (simple
adverbs). Then, the classification is stated as follows: (1) simple adverbs, (2) adverb formation by
means of affixation, (3) adverb formation by means of compounding, and (4) adverb formation by
means of other constructions. Finally, (5) we shall examine spelling and pronunciation changes.

3.2.1.1. Simple adverbs.

Simple adverbs are a great number of adverbs which occur as one-word adverb phrase only,
resisting both pre- and postmodification (Aarts, 1988). These adverbs can be roughly classified into
the following groups:
(1) Adverbs of place (i.e. in, out, indoors, outdoors, abroad, ashore, hereabouts, home, underfoot,
underground, underwater). However, it is worth noting that Huddleston (1988) recognizes some of
these simple adverbs as the result of a derivational process of the prefix a-, as in ashore, abroad.
(2) Adverbs of time (i.e. already, beforehand, ever, forthwith, henceforth, hitherto, meanwhile, now,
nowadays, still, then, today, tomorrow, tonight, yesterday, and so on).

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(3) Interrogative adverbs (i.e. how, whither, when, whence, where, why, and so on). Aarts (1988)
points out that these adverbs are occasionally modified by intensifying postmodifiers such as on
earth and by the adverb ever.
(4) Intensifying adverbs and adverbs of degree (i.e. almost, altogether, enough, even, most, only,
quite, rather, somewhat, too, very, and so on ).
(5) Conjuncts (i.e. again, also, besides, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, next,
therefore, yet, and so on).
(6) And finally, Aarts (1988) mentions other adverbs (i.e. askance, just, needs, part-time, perhaps,
piecemeal, pointblack, somehow, thus, twofold, and so on).

3.2.1.2. Adverb formation by means of affixation.

Many adverbs can be identified on the basis of affixation, that is, typical derivational suffixes
whereby some adverbs inflect for comparison. It is worth remembering that some authors, and in
particular Huddleston (1988), recognize the process of affixation by means of prefixes (i.e.
derivational prefix a-, as in abroad, ashore) although in traditional grammar prefixation is not
included in adverb derivational processes since the prefix a- also forms adjectives (i.e. asleep,
ablaze).
Then, typical derivational suffixes for adverbs are: (a) the suffix ly, by means of which new
adverbs are created from adjectives (including participial adjectives) to indicate manner, as in oddoddly, interesting-interestingly, full-fully, wise-wisely, and so on. Yet, although ly is the most
productive of all suffixes, it should be borne in mind that not all words ending in ly are adverbs
(i.e. beastly, lonely, and friendly, which belong to the class of adjectives).
Moreover, other derivational suffixes are: (b) the suffix ward(s), added to a few
adverbs/prepositions, as in backwards, northward(s), homewards, outwards, upward(s), and so on.
Note that some simple adverbs may be added to this list, such as afterwards among others; (c) the
suffix wise, forming manner adverbs, such as clockwise, or adverbs in peripheral dependent
function, such as healthwise; (d) the suffixes -fashion and style indicate new trends (i.e. schoolboyfashion, cowboy style); and (e) the suffix ways, which indicates direction (i.e. sideways).

3.2.1.3. Adverb formation by means of compounding.

Compound adverbs are usually formed by an adverb + a preposition/relative pronoun/noun (i.e.
herein, somewhat, indoors). The most common compoundings are realized by the adverbs here,
there, where + preposition (Snchez Benedito, 1975). According to him, they are quite old-

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fashioned but still used in legal documents, official reports, and similar writings. Therefore we
distinguish three main types:
(a) here + preposition (i.e. hitherto, herein, hereto, heretofore, herewith, hereby, hereafter); (b)
there + preposition (i.e. therefrom, therein, thereto, therewith, thereby, thereof, thereafter); and (c)
where + preposition (i.e. wherein, whereof, wherefore,whereon, whereby, whereupon). Also, we
may find compounds of some + how, where, what, and so on (i.e. somehow, somewhere, somewhat,
etc).

3.2.1.4. Adverb formation by means of other constructions.

As seen before, adverb formation may be realized by other constructions such as prepositional
phrases, which keep the same properties as adverbs (i.e. microscopically vs. with a microscope). In
general, prepositional phrases only allow a modest amount of modification, less than open classes
do, and obviously then cannot function in all occasions as adverbs, as in Who is the guy with the
funny hat on? where we cannot substitute the preposition by an adverb.
Other type of constructions, already mentioned, are verbless clauses, finite and non-finite clauses,
noun phrases, and so on.

3.2.1.5. Spelling and pronunciation changes.

It is worth remembering that, when adding these suffixes to the corresponding adjectives, we may
find first, spelling changes and second, phonological modification of the stem.
Regarding (a) changes in spelling, there are some special spelling rules for the addition of ly to the
base form of the adjective:
(1) The general rule to follow is to add the suffix ly to the positive form of the adjective (i.e. slowslowly; calm-camly).
(2) When adjectives end in e/-ee, they retain the same ending and are only added the suffix ly (i.e.
extreme-extremely, brave-bravely). However, there are some exceptions, such as true vs. truly, due
vs. duly, and whole vs. wholly .
(2) When adjectives end in able/-ible, they drop the final e and add y (i.e. capable vs. capably,
sensible vs. sensibly).
(3) When adjectives end in y, it is changed to i (i.e. happy happily; easy-easily).

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(4) Adjectives which end in a vowel + single consonant letter l, they double the final consonant
(i.e. final-finally ; beautiful-beautifully ).

(b) Regarding phonological changes, it is worth remembering that, suffixation (the addition of ly, wise, -wards) is not only accompanied of changes in spelling but also in pronunciation. For
instance, we may observe the following changes:
(1) First, the stop consonant /k/, usually pronounced in final position (i.e. clock ), is silent when
added the suffix wise to that word (i.e clockwise).
(2) And second, the lateral consonant /l/, usually pronounced as dark l in the positive degree, turns
into clear l when suffixes are added (i.e. final-finally; beautiful-beautifully ).

3.2.2. The syntactic function.

Regarding the syntactic function, adverbs, as seen, play their role within a larger linguistic structure
in order to modify verbs, adjectives, and nouns by means of other categories as well. For instance,
the answer to How did you manage to buy it? may be drawn not only from the grammatical
category of verbs (i.e. saving money), but also from other categories, such as prepositional phrases
(i.e. with real enthusiasm), or other adverbs (i.e. really fast). As we can see, all these items have the
same function although they belong to different grammatical categories or class.
Consequently, both function and word class are relevant for our present purposes since we must
examine the expression of manner, means and instrument through them. In doing so, we may assign
words to the same class which implies they share a number of properties but are placed differently
within the sentence structure. Then, following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), in terms of their
grammatical functions, adverbs fall into four main categories: disjuncts, conjuncts, subjuncts and
adjuncts.

3.2.2.1. The notion of adverbial phrase.

However, before classifying and defining adverbs according to their syntactic function, we must
address the notion of adverbial phrase since it is an essential element in syntactic analysis. An
adverbial phrase is a constituent which can be identified on the basis of the word class membership
of adverbs, in this particular case, the relationship it holds among its immediate constituents is
referred to as sentence level.
Following traditional nomenclature, in the structure of the adverb phrase we can distinguish two
functions: head and modifier. The head of an adverb phrase is realized by an adverb, and the
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function modifier may be realized by a constituent preceding the head (premodifier), by a

constituent following the head (postmodifier) and by an interrupted constituent on either side of
the head (discontinuous modifier). It should be noted that adverb phrases with postmodification
only are rare. On the other hand, heads as adverb phrases are regularly modified by discontinuous
modifiers, just like adjectival heads (Aarts, 1988).
(a) The premodifiers of the adverb phrase head can only be realized by intensifying adverb phrases
(i.e. very seldom, perfectly well, too optimistically, much more carefully, quite soon, etc ). On the
other hand, (b) postmodifiers, although rare, may be realized by (i) the adverb enough and (ii) a
finite clause (after comparative adverbs in er).
(i) First, adverbial heads can be postmodified by the adverb enough, which, as in the case of
adjectival postmodification, can be followed by an infinitive clause (i.e. well enough, intelligently
enough to win). Secondly, comparative adverbs in er can be postmodified by finite clauses
introduced by than (i.e. They worked harder than we had expected ).
(c) The last type, discontinuous modifiers may modify adverbial heads. Again we distinguish four
cases: (i) so + adverb + that-clause/as to -clause (i.e. They worked so hard that they finished before
we expected); (ii) as + adverb + as + (reduced) comparative clause or noun phrase (i.e. She loves
her husband as much as she did 25 years ago); (iii) more/less + adverb + than + (reduced)
comparative clause or noun phrase (i.e. The boys participated more actively than we expected); (iv)
and finally, the structure too + adverb + infinitive clause (i.e. We are travelling too slowly to get
there by nine).
It is worth noting that there are a great number of adverbs which occur as one-word adverb phrases
only (simple adverbs), as seen before, which resist both pre- and postmodification, and which are
classified into different groups. Thus, adverbs of place (i.e. abroad, ashore); time (i.e. lately,
eventually, presently, already); interrogative adverbs (i.e. when, how, where); intensifying and
degree adverbs (i.e. almost, hardly, even, mostly, practically, really); conjuncts (i.e. again,
consequently, firstly, secondly, etc ); and other adverbs (i.e. just=simply, perhaps, somehow, thus).

3.2.2.2. Types of grammatical functions.

Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), in terms of their grammatical functions, adverbs fall into
four main categories: disjuncts, conjuncts, subjuncts and adjuncts, which later on will lead us to the
semantic classification of process adjuncts. Briefly, we can make a further distinction among them,
in which disjuncts and conjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence vs. subjuncts and
adjuncts which are relatively more integrated within the structure of the clause.
Thus, disjuncts usually function as comment words (i.e. frankly, briefly); conjuncts function as
connecting links in at a sentence level (i.e. however, because, though); subjuncts work at the
sentence level, expressing viewpoint (i.e. in my view), courtesy (i.e. please), and so on; and finally,
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adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila dances beautifully) answering
to the question How...?

3.2.2.2.1. Disjuncts.
Syntactically, disjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat detached from
and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because most of them are
prepositional phrases or clauses which express the speakers authority for, or comment on, the
accompanying clause (i.e. Honestly , I want to go home; From my point of view, you should not go).
3.2.2.2.2. Conjuncts.
Syntactically, conjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat detached from
and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because they serve to conjoin two
utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by expressing at the same time the semantic
relationship obtaining between them (listing, result, contrast, etc). Moreover, conjuncts from
different sets can appear in the same sentence (i.e. Moreover, he had in addition a headache).
3.2.2.2.3. Subjuncts.
Syntactically, as stated before, subjuncts (together with adjuncts) are integrated within the structure
of the sentence rather than being a peripheral element. However, subjuncts have a subordinate and
parenthetic role in comparison with adjuncts since they lack the grammatical parity with other
sentence elements.
3.2.2.2.4. Adjuncts.
And finally, as seen before, adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila
dances beautifully ) since they are totally integrated in it when answering to the question How...?.
They will lead us to the further classification of process adjuncts in order to develop our unit.
Adjuncts, more than other adverbials, have grammatical properties resembling the sentence
elements subject, complement and object and as such, can be the focus of a cleft sentence (i.e. It was
because of the fine that he got so furious; Who helped Sarah?).
This means that irrespective of their word order position, adjuncts function like other post-operator
elements in coming within the scope of predication ellipsis or pro-forms (i.e. He became a fireman
(complement) in 1996 (adjunct) and her wife also became a firewoman (c) in 1996 (a) vs. In 1996,
he became a fireman and so did her wife). As we can see, functioning as pro-forms or being
ellipted does not change the meaning of adjuncts.
In fact, there are four main syntactic features of adjuncts (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973): First, they
can come within the scope of predication pro-forms or predication ellipsis, as seen above. Second,
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they can be the focus of limiter adverbials such as only (i.e. They only want the car for an hour= for
an hour and not for longer). Third, they can be the focus of additive adverbials such as also (i.e.
They will also meet afterwards = afterwards in addition to some other time ). And fourth, they can
be the focus of a cleft sentence (i.e. It was when we stayed in Miami that we saw Julio Iglesias).
Yet, while these characteristics hold generally for all adjuncts, Greembaum & Quirk (1990)
distinguish three subcategories ranging in centrality from the obligatory predication adjunct
(functioning as an object in being both indispensable and fixed in position) to the clause adjunct
whose position is more variable and whose presence is always optional. In many cases, it is worth
seeing predication adjuncts as obje ct-related and clause adjuncts as subject-related. Hence, we
divide adjuncts in (1) predication adjuncts and (2) clause (or sentence) adjuncts.

3.2.2.2.4.1. Predication adjuncts.

As their name implies, predication adjuncts are mainly integrated within the predication, the postoperator section, and since they function as objects, they become indispensable and fixed in position
(normally placed at the end of the sentence it is modifying). Compare then He put the keys on the
table (obligatory, impossible omission) vs. He found the keys on the table (optional, acceptable
omission).
3.2.2.2.4.2. Clause adjuncts.
On the other hand, clause adjuncts may be more variable and their presence is optional, since the
information they add to the sentence is not essential, as in He kissed me on the cheek/at the front
door/yesterday, etc. However, when we have position reference, they may be naturally placed at
the front of the sentence, as in At the front door, he kissed me.

3.2.2.3. Adverbs and word order.

Before we move on to a semantic classification of adverbs, we shall examine adverb position in the
sentence since in our study it is relevant to know where to place the expression of manner, means
and instrument in the sentence. As we have seen, both syntactic and semantic classification will be
addressed for the placement of adverbs. Therefore, we may distinguish two different types of
considerations with respect to syntactic and semantic terms: (1) general considerations and (2)
particular cases.

3.2.2.3.1. General considerations.

Generally, we observe that English adverbs do not have so much freedom as Spanish ones to be
placed within the sentence, for instance, adverbs such as always, yet, already,and just among others,
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have their fixed positio n within the sentence structure (i.e. I will always love you; I have just
sneezed; he hasnt appeared yet) whereas some English adverbs, such as now and sometimes are
free-positioned. However, it is worth pointing out that it is not sensible to establish strict rules
regarding adverb position but general considerations as follows:
(1) Following Eastwood (1999), there are three main positions in the sentence where an adverb can
go. They are called initial/front position (at the beginning of a sentence), mid position (in the middle
of the sentence) and end/final position (at the end of the sentence). We shall see many different
types of adverbs in different positions depending on syntanctic and semantic guidelines (i.e.
syntactic: I am always happy; semantic: He is playing in the garden).
Word order is normally determined by the adverb syntactic function, that is, depending on the
grammatical element it modifies. Thus, on modifying a verb, it is placed after it (i.e. they worked
very hard; he shaved really fa st); on modifying an adjective/adverb, it is placed before (i.e.
extremely good; very well), except with enough, when it is placed after it (i.e. intelligent enough;
quick enough); on modifying a sentence by means of an adverbial/prepositional phrase, it has final
position (i.e. They will go to Murcia tomorrow/in the morning ), although when found in initial
position, it implies emphasis (i.e. Tomorrow they will go to Murcia ).
(2) The most common position is the mid one, that is, when adverbs are placed close to the verb
(i.e. just, always, often, definitely, really, probably, etc). They are applied in different positions as
follows:
(a) when there is a first auxiliary (i.e. is, are, has, dont, etc), the adverbs goes after it (i.e. The
visitors are just leaving; He should never cry).
(b) If there is no auxiliary, then the adverb comes before the main verb (i.e. She always tells you the
same; they never go home on Saturdays). This position is the usual one for adverbs of frequency
(i.e. often, always, nor mally, etc) although phrases like every day, once a week or most evenings go
in initial or final position (i.e. Every day we go swimming; Theres a news summary every hour).
(c) Note that this rule is also applied in questions (i.e. Has he always hated Jenny?; Do you usually
go for a walk?).
(d) When we are dealing with the verb to be or modal verbs, the adverbs usually comes after them
(i.e. Your boss is always angry; he must certainly sleep just a few hours).
(e) When there is stress or emphasis on the main verb to be or on the auxiliary, then the adverb
usually comes before it (i.e. You certainly are right; she really has a bad day ).
(3) Final position is restricted to certain grammatical categories, such as adverbial and prepositional
phrases, and semantically, with non-essential information since emphasis places adverbs in initial

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position. In addition, note that there can be more than one adverb or adverbial phrase in end
position (i.e. He turned up at the door entrance(place) in a wet T-shirt (manner) last night (time)).
(a) Usually a single -word adverb (i.e. hard) usually comes before a phrase (i.e. It has been a hard
day for me).
(b) Moreover, when there is a close link in meaning between a verb and an adverb, the adverb goes
next to the verb, especially with verbs of movement (i.e. come, go, move, jump, turn, etc), as in My
children go to school every day ). It is worth noting that a phrase of place comes before time (i.e.
She came here (place) last night (time)). But often two adverbial phrases can go in either order (i.e.
The concert was held at the stadium two weeks ago or two weeks ago at the stadium).

3.2.2.3.2. Particular cases.

When dealing with particular cases, we shall deal with the placement of the expression of manner,
means and instrument although details will be further develop in subsequent sections. Now we shall
examine them briefly.
(a) First of all, when dealing with verb + object, an adverb does not usually go between the verb
and the direct object, so we place it in final position, after the object (i.e. He ate his breakfast very
quickly ; she likes rock music very much). Sometimes we may find a long object, and then, we place
the adverb before the object (i.e. Tell me quickly everything you know about it; the police examined
carefully the accident site).
(b) Secondly, when the adverb is to be placed next to a phrasal verb (i.e. sit down), we must avoid
placing the adverb in between the verb and its particle (i.e. NOT: she sat impatiently down at the
waiting room but She sat down impatiently at the waiting room). The adverb is to be placed after or
before the verb, except for degree adverbs (i.e. right and well) which are placed before the particle
since they modify it directly (i.e. He knocked him right out).
(c) Thirdly, adverbs are placed differently depending on their semantic classification. For instance,
(i) adverbs of manner usually go in final position since they tell us additional information about
how something happens in predicative position (i.e. We asked permission politely ). However, when
adverb end in ly, they can sometimes go in middle position (i.e. We politely asked permission).
(ii) Adverbs of place and time usually go in final positions as well (i.e. Is there a cinema nearby?;
We shall meet at the entrance), although sometimes they can go in front position (i.e. Last week we
had nothing to do). Moreover, some short adverbs of time can also go in middle position (i.e. He
will soon find out the truth; Your cousin is now looking at us ).
(iii) Adverbs of frequency, as stated before, usually go in middle position (i.e. Mark is often
disappointed with us; I sometimes feel depressed). However, certain adverbs can also go in front or
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final position (i.e. normally, sometimes) and certain phrases like every day, twice a month or every
evening go in front or final position.
(d) Sentence adverbs, which are a word or phrase like certainly, probably, of course, fortunately,
etc, can go in initial, middle or final position. Sometimes we put a comma after or before the
adverb, especially in front or final position (i.e. Fortunately, the weather is fine today; Michael is
late, of course). In a negative sentence, probably and certainly come before auxiliaries (i.e. We
probably wont get there until midnight). Furthermore, the additive adverb also usually goes in
initial or middle position (i.e. Also, she wants to come; she also wants to come) whereas too and
well go in final position (i.e. She loves cats too/as well).

3.2.3. The semantic function.

Following Aarts (1988), the syntactic classification brings about the semantic function, in which
disjuncts usually function as comment words (i.e. frankly, briefly); conjuncts function as
connecting links in at a sentence level (i.e. however, because, though); subjuncts work at the
sentence level, expressing viewpoint (i.e. in my view), courtesy (i.e. please), and so on; and finally,
adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila dances beautifully) answering
to the question How...? by adding information to the action about the process, place, time, and
other nuances.

3.2.3.1. Disjuncts.
As stated before, semantically, disjuncts express an evaluation of what is being said either with
respect to the form of the communication or to its meanin g. They usually function as comment
words, whereby they provide the speakers comment on the content or form of the utterance (i.e.
Frankly, unfortunately, wisely).
There are two main types of disjuncts, each with subtypes. First, we have the relatively small class
of (1) style disjuncts, conveying the speakers comment on the style and form of what is being said
and defining in some way the conditions under which authority is being assumed for the
statement, which can be subdivided into (a) the expression of manner and modality, and (b) respect.
Secondly, (2) we find content disjuncts, which may relate to the expression of (a) certainty and (b)
evaluation.
3.2.3.1.1. Style disjuncts: manner and modality, and respect.
Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), many style disjuncts can be seen as abbreviated clauses in
which the adverbial has the role of manner adjunct. For instance, Frankly, I am tired meaning I
tell you frankly that I am tired. Sometimes, the disjunct may be realized by a clause, as in If I may
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say so, I think your house looks awful. More often, it may be realized by other type of
constructions, such as that of non-finite clauses (i.e. to be frank, considered candidly ).
Semantically speaking, the semantic roles of disjuncts fall under two main headings: manner and
modality, and respect. Regarding (1) manner and modality, we find disjuncts such as crudely,
frankly, honestly, seriously, personally, strictly speaking, to be honest, to be precise, to put it
briefly, in all honesty, and so on. Regarding (2) respect, they often appear in metalinguistic
comments. For instance, strictly, generally, from what he said, in a word, in other words, and so on.
3.2.3.1.2. Contenct disjuncts: certainty and evaluation.
Content disjuncts may be of two kinds, first, expressing certainty, and second, expressing
evaluation in declarative clauses. Regarding (1) certainty, these disjuncts comment on the truth
value of what is said, firmly endorsing it, expressing doubt, or posing contingencies such as
condit ions or reasons, as in undoubtedly, apparently, perhaps, obviously, of course, to be sure,
which is not surprising, and so on.
Regarding (2) evaluation, these disjuncts express an attitude to an utterance by way of evaluation,
expressing a judgment on the utterance as a whole, including its subject, as in correctly, foolishly,
rightly, stupidly, certainly, unquestionably, possible, presumably, theoretically, technically,
hopefully, wrongly, wisely, and so on.

3.2.3.2. Conjuncts.
As stated before, conjuncts function as the connecting link between the sentence in which they
occur and the preceding context. Semantically, they may express listing (in the first place, secondly;
furthermore, moreover), summative (therefore, in sum, to sum up), appositive (for example, that is,
i.e., specifically, in particular), resultive (as a result, in consequence), inferential (in that case,
then), contrastive (better; on the contrary, on the other hand; however, nevertheless, yet), and
transitional references (by the way, now; meanwhile, eventually). As we can see manner, means and
instrument are not reflected in them.

3.2.3.3. Subjuncts.
In semantic terms, subjuncts work at the sentence level answering to the question How...? by
expressing viewpoint (i.e. in my view) and courtesy (i.e. please), among others. Hence, they show
their subjunct character by trying to establish a link with the rest of the sentence through a particular
relationship with one of the clause elements, especially the subject. Thus, there are two main types
of relationship: wide and narrow orientation (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990). (1) Wide orientation
adverbs refer to (a) viewpoint and (b) courtesy; on the other hand, (2) narrow orientation adverbs

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refer to (a) items (subject and predication), (b) intensifiers and emphasizers, and (c) focusing
subjuncts.

3.2.3.3.1. Wide orientation subjuncts: viewpoint and courtesy.

Wide orientation subjuncts express either a viewpoint or a courtesy formulaic tone of politeness.
Both of them may involve the semantic category of manner but are quite distinct from manner
adjuncts. Thus, within the first one, (a) viewpoint, manner is expressed by non gradable adverb
phrases (i.e. from a personal point of view, looked at politically, etc ), and also by adverbs ending in
wise (i.e Weatherwise, healthwise, etc ), as in Weatherwise, the outlook is dismal.
Within the second one, (b) courtesy, a small number of adverbs in ly, along with please, serve to
convey a tone of politeness (i.e. You are cordially invited; Would you please check it?). Again,
courtesy subjuncts obviously involve the semantic category of manner but differ strongly from
manner adjuncts, as in He kindly invited me for dinner (subjunct meaning: He was so kind to
invite me for dinner) vs. He invited me for dinner kindly (adjunct meaning: He invited me for
dinner in a kind manner). In this case, it is adverb word order which tells us the difference.

3.2.3.3.2. Narrow orientation subjuncts: item, intensifiers, focus.

Narrow orientation subjuncts inclu des items, intensifiers and focusing ones. Within the firt class, (a)
item subjuncts, the commonest item to be associated to subjuncts is the subject of a clause, with the
subjunct operating in the semantic area of manner but distinguished from the corresponding manner
adjunct by being placed at initial and medial position, as in They have repeatedly rejected my
proposal (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990).
Regarding (b) intensifiers, they mainly deal with the semantic category of degree (i.e. amplifiers:
fully, completely, badly, very much, etc; downtoners: practically, rather, sort of, only, in the least,
etc) whereas emphasizers mainly deal with the semantic category of modality (i.e. just, really,
simply, always, well, etc), so they shall not be considered in our study.
Finally, regarding (c) focusing subjuncts, special attention may be called to place them in close
proximity to the part required (i.e merely, only, also, not, even, etc). The usual position is
immediately before the part to be focused (i.e. I merely wanted to know her name).

3.2.3.4. Adjuncts.
Semantically, adjuncts add extra information to the action or process by means of descriptions
about place (at the station), time (yesterday morning), manner (with patience/in jeans), means (by
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bike), or instrument (with a fork ) among others. Since our study will focus on manner, means and
instrument, we shall review them in depth whereas the rest of the classification will be briefly
examined.
Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), we may classify adjuncts according to: (1) place (or space)
adjuncts; (2) time adjuncts, including time-position, duration and span, time-frequency, and time relationship adjuncts; (3) degree (intensifiers, emphasizers); (4) interrogative; (5) other adjuncts;
and finally, (6) process adjuncts, including manner, means, instrument, and agency, respect, and
contingency.

3.2.3.4.1. Place adjuncts.

Place adjuncts are mainly realized by means of prepositional phrases (i.e. in the park, out of my
house, etc) since these roles can be clearly and conveniently specified through the respective
prepositional meaning (i.e. in-out, from-to, up-down, through, onto, etc) although sometimes we
need noun phrases to amplify meaning (i.e. a very long way, several miles away).
Place adjuncts mainly refer to position (where?), direction (where?), source (where from?), and
distance (how far?) with stative or dynamic verbs. For instance, position and distance use stative
verbs (live, stay) whereas direction and source use dynamic verbs (go to, come fro m).
3.2.3.4.2. Time adjuncts.
Time adjuncts refer to figurative spacial dimensions which are mainly realized by means of
prepositional phrases, with figurative adaptation of the prepositional meaning, for instance, the
music stopped at midnight or on the following day, we decided to set out at two. Time
expressions make reference to time-position (some hours ago; at 14.15), duration and span (for
several years, for three weeks, until five oclock; since we arrived), time-frequency (twice, daily,
usually, continually), and time-relationship (previously, again, once more).
3.2.3.4.3. Degree adjuncts
Degree adjuncts include the use of intensifiers to measure the action (i.e. definitely, kind of, etc).
They are divided into three main types: emphasizers (definitely, actuallly, clearly, obviously,
plainly, and so on); amplifiers (completely, absolutely, entirely, fully, quite, etc), and downtoners
(partly, hardly, almost, slightly, in part, to some extent, etc). Note that some of them indicate
manner, and how the action takes place: completely, quite, fully, slightly, and so on.
3.2.3.4.4. Interrogative adjuncts.
Interrogative adjuncts are those which state the question to the action. For our purposes, the most
relevant interrogative adjunct is How...? since manner, means and instrument answer to this
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question. Other interrogative particles are How far...? (distance), How long...?(duration),
When...? (time), Why ...?(purpose), and so on.
3.2.3.4.5. Other adjuncts.
Snchez Benedito (1975) distinguishes other types of semantic classification, such as (a) quantity
(i.e. little, much, once); probability (i.e. maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably); and affirmative and
negative adjuncts (i.e. affirmative: certainly, indeed, naturally, of course, surely, yes, and negative:
never, no, not, not at all). Note that some of these adverbs have been previously classified according
to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) in syntactic terms.
3.2.3.4.6. Process adjuncts.
And finally, process adjuncts are those which define in some way the process denoted by the verb.
They are mainly realized by adverbs or adverbial phrases, by like-phrases, as-clauses, and by
prepositional or noun phrases involving such nouns as way and manner. Common pro-forms for
process adjuncts answering to the question How...? are in that way, that way (informal), and like
that.
Process adjuncts are divided into the semantic subclasses of (a) manner, (b) means, instrument and
agency, (c) respect, and (d) contingency, but we shall only focus on the expression of manner,
means and instrument in our study. Following Quirk & Greenbaum (1973), we may mention the
general features for all of them:
(1) They co-occur with dynamic verbs, but not with stative verbs (i.e. He ran away awkwardly
but NOT he liked them awkwardly).
(2) They favour final position, since they usually receive the information focus. Indeed, no
other position is likely if the process adjunct is obligatory for the verb (i.e. They live
frugally but not they frugally live).
(3) Since the passive is often used when the need is felt to focus attention on the verb, process
adjuncts are commonly placed in middle position rather than finally when the verb is in the
passive (i.e. Tear gas was indiscriminately sprayed on the protesters).
(4) Process adjuncts realize d by units other than adverb phrases often occur initially, that
position being preferred if the focus of information is required on another part of the
sentence (i.e. By pressing this button you can stop the coffee machine).
(5) Co-occurrence of process adjuncts is by no means unusual (i.e. She was accidentally
(manner) wounded with a racket (instrument) by her partner (agent)).

Once we have examined the very origin of the expression of manner, means and instrument, that is,
process adjuncts, we are ready for analysing them individually.

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4.

THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER.

As stated before, the expression of manner may be mainly realized by adverbs, adverbial phrases,
and prepositional phrases but also by other semantic types of adjuncts, noun phrases, or clauses (i.e.
like phrases, as-clauses, etc ). They are usually placed in mid position (i.e. She was accidentally
struck because of the emphasis on how the action took place). We must bear in mind that thus
associated with the greatest rhetorical weight in a clause, there is no simple interrogative device for
eliciting them. In this section we shall provide a general overview on all types of manner
expression.

4.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases.

First of all, we shall deal with the expression of manner in terms of adverb or adverbial phrases (i.e.
She always drive carefully/in a careful manner). An adverb manner adjunct can usually be
paraphrased by in a ... manner or in a ... way with its adjective base in the vacant position.
Where an adverb form exists, it is usually preferred over a corresponding prepositional phrase with
manner or way. Hence, She always drives carefully is more usual than She drives in a careful
manner.
Adverbs as heads of manner phrase adjuncts are an open class. The main method of forming
manner adverbs is by adding a ly suffix to an adjective. Three minor methods are also used by
adding wise, -style, or fashion to a noun (i.e. snake-wise, clown-style, peasant-fashion ). With
these forms the prepositional paraphrase would include postmodification: in the manner of a snake,
in the style of clowns, in the fashion of peasants.

4.2. By means of other adjuncts.

Manner may also be expressed by other type of adjuncts, such as manner with result and
intensification (i.e. The soldiers wounded him badly=to such extent that it resulted in his being in a
bad condition); manner with time expressing duration (i.e. He was walking slowly = in such a way
that each step took a long time); manner with time when (i.e. Put it together again=in the way
that it was before).
Semantically speaking, not only disjuncts may express manner, such as crudely, frankly, honestly,
seriously, personally, strictly speaking, to be honest, to be precise, to put it briefly, in all honesty,
and so on. Moreover, also subjuncts may express manner through narrow and wide orientation
types. Narrow orientation subjuncts operate in the semantic area of manner by being placed at
initial and medial position, as in They have repeatedly rejected my proposal (Greenbaum & Quirk,
1990).

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Wide orientation subjuncts also involve the semantic category of manner by non gradable adverb
phrases (i.e. from a personal point of view, looked at politically, etc ), and also by adverbs ending in
wise (i.e Weatherwise, healthwise, etc), as in Weatherwise, the outlook is dismal: Moreover,
courtesy subjuncts obviously involve the semantic category of manner but differ strongly from
manner adjuncts, as in He kindly invited me for dinner (subjunct meaning: He was so kind to
invite me for dinner) vs. He invited me for dinner kindly (adjunct meaning: He invited me for
dinner in a kind manner).

4.3. By means of prepositional phrases.

Another major kind of expression which can function like an adverb, that is, prepositions, which
belong to the closed-class category and which connect two units in a sentence, specifying a
relationship between them (i.e. Adverbial: I dont like to drink out of a cracked glass; Adjective
complement: I was very grateful for your help ; and manner: th e woman in the red dress).
Similarly to adverbs, prepositional phrases may be morphologically simple (i.e. on) or complex (i.e.
onto); syntactically, they may function as complement of an open class item (i.e. grateful for your
help; The house that you bough relative pronoun-) or a whole sentence (i.e. In my view, you
shouldnt do it); and semantically, they also refer to a wide-range of meaning (i.e. place, time,
degree, and so on), among which we highlight the reference to manner (i.e. microscopically vs. with
a microscope; there vs. to/at that place); means (i.e. by train, by looking at her); and instrument
(i.e. with a pen; without her husband).
Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) claims that deferred prepositions, that is, prepositions which cannot
precede their complements due to certain circumstances (i.e. passive: we have paid for the car vs.
the car has been paid for; thematization: It is unpleasant to work with that woman vs. that woman
is unpleasant to work with), are superficially resembling preposit ional adverbs. Although these
adverbs are identical in form with the corresponding prepositions, they are never unstressed (i.e.
You must stay in the house vs. You must stay in).
Moreover, prepositional phrases can also function like adjectives since the sharp distinction
between adjectives and adverbs is not retained in the process of adjectivalisation/adverbialisation by
means of prepositions (i.e. Compare a patient woman vs. a woman with a lot of patience). However,
not all prepositional phrases may function as an adverb (i.e. with temporal prepositions: before,
after, because, since, and so on).
Note the case of adjuncts of manner that can be gradable, for instance in microscopic detail =
microscopically, we may find (quite) microscopically.

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4.4. By means of noun phrases.

Following Huddleston (1988), adverbialisation is also realized by means of noun phrases, although
it is not common (i.e. He came last week). However, time reference is not included in our study as
a main issue.

4.5. By means of clause structures.

Another kind of syntactic structure involves clause subordination, where we find two types. Thus
(a) the non-finite verb clauses (or infinitival clauses) which function as modifier of the verbal
phrase, and in which the verb is (i) an infinitive, as in He left at nine to catch the nine-thirty bus,
(ii) present participle ing, as in Hoping to see him as soon as possible, and (iii) past participle
ed, as in If urged by you, well stay in. Secondly, (b) we may find the finite content clause as
modifier of an adjectival phrase, as in I was so broke that I couldnt buy any food or The child
was playing although he was very tired. Also, we may find another type of syntactic structure
realized by verbless clauses, as in She was shopping, unaware of the time.

5.

THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS.

According to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), there are close semantic similarities between means,
instrument and agency, which respectively respond to the question How...?(except for agency)
with by used for means, by used for agency and with/without for instrument. There is also
considerable overlap in realization since the means and the agent are both expressed with byphrases, although the latter is grammatically distinct in correlating with the passive, and hence,
corresponding to a transitive clause (i.e. He was caught by his father = His father caught him).
However, a manner adjunct can easily occur in a transitive clause (i.e. She influenced me by her
behaviour).
But let us concentrate on the expression of means, which apart from being realized with by-phrases,
it is often realized with ly suffixes or the words by means of ... (i.e. He decided to treat her
surgically=by means of surgery, My father goes to work by tube=by means of transport or He
entered the mob by means of a bribe).
Also, the expression of means is elicited by how-questions, as in How are you travelling to Italy?
By air/By Iberia whose answers are prepositional phrases but some are adverb phrases and others
are noun phrases without an article. With means of transport, on + article implies means and not
locative (i.e. I often go to work on the 7.30 bus). In general, the expression of means is realized:

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5.1. By means of adverbs or adverbial phrases.

Means adjuncts are mainly realized by adverbs taking the ly suffixes, but often share realizations
with instrument adjuncts, thus means in They decided to treat him surgically = by means of
surgery.

5.2. By means of prepositional phrases.

As stated before, prepositiona l phrases are quite useful in the expression of means, especially when
substituting adverbs (i.e. microscopically = by means of a microscope or with a microscope).

5.3. By means of noun phrases.

Also, we may find realizations by means of noun phrases, which are related to prepositional phrases
(i.e. He sent it by air mail; Fly with/by Iberia; He travelled (by) first class).

6. THE EXPRESSION OF INSTRUMENT.

The expression of instrument differ from both means and agent adjuncts in generally being realized
by with-phrases (i.e. He was shot with a Magnum Parallelum) when answering again to the
question How...?
They may be answered by adverbs or adverbial phrases (i.e. microscopically/with a microscope), in
which case instrument adjuncts can share realizations with manner adjuncts, as in She examined
the species microscopically = with a microscope. Other realizations emerge from prepositional
phrases (i.e. with that knife, with a rifle), which coincide with noun phrases (i.e. with my horse).
It is worth pointing out that means and instrument adjuncts cannot be modified. Hence,
microscopically in very microscopically can only be a manner adjunct when premodified by an
intensifier very. Without the premodifier it can be a means or instrument adjunct.

7. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
The various aspects of the expression of manner, means and instrument dealt with in this study is
relevant to the learning of the vocabulary of a foreign language since differences between the
vocabulary of the learner's native language (L1) and that of the foreign language (L2) may lead to
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several problems, such as the incorrect use of process adjuncts expressions, especially because of
the syntactic, morphological, and semantic processes implied in these categories.
This study has looked at the expression of process adjuncts within lexical semantics, morphology
and syntax in order to establish a relative similarity between the two languages that Spanishspeaking students would find it useful for learning English if these connections were brought to
their attention, especially when different categories may be overlapped (means and instrument).
It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit linguistic
knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E.
2002), the expression of manner, means and instrument is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in
terms of simple descriptions of people, things, and places, up to higher stages of Bachillerato,
towards more complex descriptions of people, things, and situations, asking teenagers for detailed
descriptions.
The expression of manner, means and instrument that is, describing items, has been considered an
important element of language teaching becaus e of its high-frequency in speech. We must not
forget that the expression of process adjuncts is mainly drawn from closed class categories, such as
adverbs, adjectives, and nouns, and open class categories such as prepositions which have a high
frequency of use when speaking or writing.
Hence, the importance of how to handle these expressions cannot be understated since you cannot
communicate without it. Current communicative methods foster the teaching of this kind of
specific linguistic information to help students recognize new L2 words. Learners cannot do it all on
their own. Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not automatically recognize
similiarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these associations brought to
their attention.
So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of the expression of manner,
means and instrument in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going through the
localization of process adjuncts in syntactic structures, and finally, once correctly framed, a brief
presentation of the three main process adjuncts under study. We hope students are able to
understand the relevance of handling correctly the expression of process adjuncts in everyday life
communication.

8. CONCLUSION
Although the questions How did you go home yesterday? may appear simple and straightforward,
they imply a broad description of the manner, means and instrument that make an appropriate
answer suitable for students and teachers, which may be so simple if we are dealing with ESO
students, using simple grammatical structures and basic vocabulary, or so complex if we are dealing

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with Bachillerato students, who must be able to describe people, places, and things using more
complex vocabulary and grammatical structures.
So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of the expression of manner,
means and instrument since we are also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its
learning and successful communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 15,
untitled The Expression of Manner, Means, and Instrument whose main aim was to introduce the
student to the different ways of expressing process in English by means of description.
In doing so, the study provided a broad account the notion of manner, means and instrument,
starting by a theoretical framework in order to get some key terminology on the issue, and further
developed within a grammar linguistic theory, described in syntactic terms as we were dealing with
syntactic structures. Once presented, we discussed how adverbs, prepositions and other syntactic
constructions reflected this notion.
In fact, lexical items and vocabulary, and therefore, the expresin of process adjuncts, is currently
considered to be a central element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second
language since students must be able to describe people, things, and places in their everyday life in
many different situations and in detail. As stated before, the teaching of process expressions
comprises four major components in our educational curriculum: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and
semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic,
lexical, and semantic.
In fact, for our students to express process properly, they must have a good knowledge at all those
levels. First, on phonology which describes the sound level. Secondly, since the two most basic
units of grammar are the word and the sentence, they must have good grammatical knowledge,
which invoves the morphological level (i.e. the internal structure of adverb formation) and the
syntactic level (i.e. where adverbs are placed: frequency, place, time, etc ).
Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, lists vocabulary items, that is, different adverbs (frequency, time,
place, etc), and other expressions to denote manner, means and instrument, specifying how they are
pronounced, how they behave grammatically, and what they mean. Finally, another dimension
between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, in
which students must understand when we are dealing with means or agency, for instance.
Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative
competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life
situations. The expression of quality proves highly frequent in our everyday speech, and
consequently, we must encourage our stude nts to have a good managing of it.

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9. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

- Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. 1988. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in Sentence
Analysis. Prentice Hall Europe.
- B.O.E. RD N 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre por el que se estable ce el currculo de la Educacin
Secundaria Obligatoria/Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- Bolton, D. And N. Goodey. 1997. Grammar Practice in Context. Richmond Publishing.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learnin g, Teaching, Assessment. A Common
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- Downing, A. and P. Locke. 2002. A University Course in English Grammar. London: Routledge.
- Eastwood, J. 1999. Oxford Practice in Grammar. Oxford University Press.
- Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 1990. A Students Grammar of the English Language. Longman
Group UK Limited.
- Greenbaum, S. 2000. The Oxford Reference Grammar. Edited by Edmund Weiner. Oxford
University Press.
- Hymes, D. 1972. On communicative competence. In
Sociolinguistics, pp. 269-93. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

J. B. Pride and J. Holmes (eds.),

- Huddleston, R. 1988. English Grammar, An Outline. Cambridge University Press.

- Huddleston, R. and G.K. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language.
Cambridge University Press.
- Nelson, G. 2001. English: An Essential Grammar. London. Routledge.
- Quirk, R & S. Greenbaum. 1973. A University Grammar of English. Longman.
- Snchez Benedito, F. 1975. Gramtica Inglesa. Editorial Alhambra.
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