o NOTES ON VIVI-VOCE, M.A ENGLISH.

o INSTITUTE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LTERATURE,

SHAH ABDUL LATIF UNIVERSITY, KHAIRPUR.

AYAZ HUSSAIN.

o Literature.
Literature is defined as books and other written works, especially those considered to
have creative or artistic merit or lasting value.
o Linguistics.
The scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of grammar,
syntax, and phonetics. Specific branches of linguistics include sociolinguistics,
dialectology, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, comparative linguistics, and
structural linguistics.
o Language.
It is the source of communication from person to person, animal to animal.
An arbitrary system of sounds and symbols used by human for communication.
o Linguistics Features.
Features that pertain to language.
20% of the communication is done through linguistics features.
80% of the communication is done through written form.
o Poetry.
Literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity by the use
of distinctive style and rhythm; poems collectively or as a genre of literature
o Prose.
Prose is a form of language that exhibits a grammatical structure and a natural flow
of speech rather than a rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry)
o Drama.
A prose or verse composition, especially one telling a serious story, that is intended for
representation by actors impersonating the characters and performing the dialogue and
action.
o Literary criticism.
The art or practice of judging and commenting on the qualities and character of literary
works

o Fiction.
Fiction describes people, places, events, or complete narrative works derived from
imagination,[1][2] in addition to, or rather than, from history or fact.
o Literary essay.
A literary essay is a short, non-fiction composition that covers virtually any literary topic
imaginable. Authors sometimes write literary essays for reading pleasure rather than to
convey a message, and students are often assigned literary essays to assess their
knowledge of books or stories they read
o Western literature.
Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the
context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, including the ones belonging to
the Indo-European language family as well as several geographically or historically
related languages such as Basque and Hungarian.
o Novel.
A fictitious prose narrative of considerable length
and complexity, portraying characters and usually
presenting a sequential organization of action and scenes.
LITERARY TERMS AND FIGURES OF SPEECH.
o figure of speech
a word or phrase used in a non-literal sense for rhetorical or vivid effect.
o Literary term.
The following is a list of literary terms; that is, those words used in discussion,
classification, criticism, and analysis of poetry, novels, and picture books. This list should
include a description and a citation for each entry; you can help by expanding it.
o Antithesis.
Antithesis means opposite and is used as a literary device to put two contrasting ideas
together. This emphasizes the difference between the two ideas and adds interest to
writing.
Example:- Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit.
o Hyperbole.
Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech.
In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (lit. "growth"). In poetry and oratory,
it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and creates strong impressions. As a figure of
speech, it is usually not meant to be taken literally

Example:- Ive told you a million times

o Personification.
The attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something non-human,
or the representation of an abstract quality in human form.
Example:- The news took me by surprise.
o Metaphor.
a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it
is not literally applicable.
Examples:- Broken heart, Sea of grief.
o Simile.
figure of speech in which two unlike things areexplicitly compared, as in she is like a ro
se.
o Apostrophe.
An apostrophe is a term used when a speaker directly addresses someone or something
that isn't present in the poem. The speaker could be addressing an abstract concept like
love, a person (dead or alive), a place, or even a thing, like the sun or the sea.
o Irony.
the expression of one's meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite,
typically for humorous or emphatic effect
o Satire.
the use of humour, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people's
stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other topical
issues
o Allegory.
a story, poem, or picture which can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically
a moral or political one.
o Blank Verse.
A blank verse is a poem with no rhyme but does have iambic pentameter. This means it
consists of lines of five feet, each foot being iambic, meaning two syllables long, one
unstressed followed by a stressed syllable.

o Free Verse.

poetry that does not rhyme or have a regular rhythm.

o Romanticism.
A movement in the arts and literature which originated in the late 18th century,
emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual.
o Classicism.
the following of ancient Greek or Roman principles and style in art and literature,
generally associated with harmony, restraint, and adherence to recognized standards of
form and craftsmanship, especially from the Renaissance to the 18th century.
o Subjectivism.
the doctrine that knowledge is merely subjective and that there is no external or
objective truth.
o Objectivism.
the belief that certain things, especially moral truths, exist independently of human
knowledge or perception of them.
o Translation Studies.
Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the
theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an
interdiscipline, translation studiesborrows much from the various fields of study that
support translation.

o English Language Teaching.

The practice and theory of learning and teaching English for the benefit of people whose
first language is not English.

Compare and contrast DM and GTM in ELT.

o Motivation in ELT

Motivation is what moves us to act, in this context to learn English, to learn to teach English, or to
teach it. This deceptively simple statement reveals, however, the four elements it involves:

the reasons why we want to learn,

the strength of our desire to learn,

the kind of person we are, and

the task, and our estimation of what it requires of us.

Motivation is a property of the learner, but it is also a transitive concept: coaches can motivate their
clients, teachers can motivate their students. Furthermore, it is dynamic and changes over time,
especially in the usually long-drawn out process of language learning. Motivation is thus remarkably
complex.
For many years, studies of motivation for language learning concentrated on reasons for learning.
Empirical evidence showed that for some people a wish to integrate, in some sense, with the speech
community of the language being learnt seemed to be more strongly associated with success, while
for others a wish to capitalize on the usefulness of knowing a language within the learners own
culture was more effective. This was the distinction made famous by Gardner and his colleagues
(Gardner 1985) between integrative and instrumental orientations. Although this work had the
advantage of direct relevance to language learning, its almost universal acceptance masked equally
important but more general distinctions, such as:

extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan 1985), which referred to the source of the
influence, whether within oneself or perceived as being from the outside; and

striving for success versus avoidance of failure (Heckhausen 1991).

In Gardner's approach, strength of motivation was typically estimated only from attitude
questionnaires and thought of as a hidden psychometric trait. However, other educational traditions
had used indices from observed on-task behaviour: choice of task according to perceived difficulty,
the learner's persistence in tackling a problem, level of participation in class or group activities,
attention focus and span; or qualitative data such as verbal reports of self-monitoring and selfregulation.
Crookes and Schmidt's (1991) new research agenda incorporated developments in general
educational studies into the narrower field of language learning motivation. This focused on
individuals, the contexts of learning, the strategies learners might adopt, and the observable
learning behaviour of class members.
Following the new agenda, attention then shifted to ideas about the individuality of the learner. For
example, Covington's (1998) self-worth theory emphasizes the importance of the beliefs learners
hold about themselves, and therefore their level of aspiration and the kinds of strategies they
operate or can be taught to adopt, to achieve what they want for themselves. A very important
related concept is Bandura's (1997)notion of self-efficacy, looking at how learners estimate their
capabilities and manage themselves. Learners who can develop effective motivational thinking,
capitalize on success, and minimize the effect of failure will depend less on externally imposed
structures and strategies than on their own resources. This connection between intrinsic motivation

and the development of learner autonomy in language learning has been investigated by Ushioda
(1996).
Learners beliefs about the task or sub-tasks, their perceptions of the level and nature of the
difficulties, and of what is expected of them, represent another very important motivational
influence. Attribution theory (Weiner 1972) has long been a means of capturing how learners
evaluate tasks differently, by considering the reasons why the learners believe learning outcomes
occurred. If success is attributed to having a good teacher, that learner will not believe it will occur
in the absence of that teacher; if failure is seen as the result of lack of effort rather than talent, the
learner may believe working harder will result in success.
A comprehensive source-book for all these approaches is Pintrich and Schunk (1996) which
succinctly describes the range of motivational theories in education and associated research and
applications.
Drnyei (2001: 21) argues that motivation changes over time in three phases: choice, execution,
and retrospection. The initial choice to actually learn the language or start the task rather than just
think about it requires different springs to the maintenance of effort, perseverance, or tolerance of
frustration in the second phase. Finally the learner needs to come to terms with the whole
experience and evaluate the outcomes. Drnyei (ibid.: 136) offers a checklist of 35 motivational
strategies covering the three phases for teachers to try outwarning that the aim is to become a
good enough motivator, not a perfect one.
The teacher's role in all of this is central, and difficult. It goes far beyond the provision of reward
(itself dependent on the learner's self-efficacy). It involves providing a supportive and challenging
learning environment, but also facilitating the development of the learners own motivational
thinking, beyond simply identifying their original orientation. Perhaps the most difficult aspect is not
doing anything to de-motivate them.

o Role Play in ELT.

Introduction

What is role-play?

Why use role-play?

Tips on successful classroom role-play

Bibliography

Introduction
Incorporating role-play into the classroom adds variety, a change of pace and opportunities for a lot
of language production and also a lot of fun! It can be an integral part of the class and not a 'oneoff' event. If the teacher believes that the activity will work and the necessary support is provided,
it can be very successful. However, if the teacher isn't convinced about the validity of using roleplay the activity "will fall flat on its face just as you expected it to" (Gillian Porter Ladousse 1987).
Therefore, if you think positive and have a go, you may be pleasantly surprised!

What is role-play?
Role-play is any speaking activity when you either put yourself into somebody else's shoes, or when
you stay in your own shoes but put yourself into an imaginary situation!
Imaginary people - The joy of role-play is that students can 'become' anyone they like for a short
time! The President, the Queen, a millionaire, a pop star .. the choice is endless! Students can
also take on the opinions of someone else. 'For and Against' debates can be used and the class can
be split into those who are expressing views in favour and those who are against the theme.
Imaginary situations - Functional language for a multitude of scenarios can be activated and
practised through role-play. 'At the restaurant', 'Checking in at the airport', 'Looking for lost
property' are all possible role-plays.
Why use role-play?
It is widely agreed that learning takes place when activities are engaging and memorable. Jeremy
Harmer advocates the use of role-play for the following reasons:

It's fun and motivating

Quieter students get the chance to express themselves in a more forthright way

The world of the classroom is broadened to include the outside world - thus offering a much
wider range of language opportunities

In addition to these reasons, students who will at some point travel to an English-speaking country
are given a chance to rehearse their English in a safe environment. Real situations can be created
and students can benefit from the practice. Mistakes can be made with no drastic consequences.
Tips on successful classroom role-play
Prepare for success
Role-play is possible at elementary levels providing the students have been thoroughly prepared.
Try to think through the language the students will need and make sure this language has been
presented. Students may need the extra support of having the language on the board. I recently did
a 'lost property office' role-play with elementary adults and we spent time beforehand drilling the
structures the students would need to use. When the role-play began the students felt 'armed' with
the appropriate language. At higher levels the students will not need so much support with the
language but they will need time to 'get into' the role.
The role of the teacher
Some of the possible teacher roles are:
Facilitator - students may need new language to be 'fed' in by the teacher. If rehearsal time is
appropriate the feeding in of new language should take place at this stage.

Spectator - The teacher watches the role-play and offers comments and advice at the end.

Participant - It is sometimes appropriate to get involved and take part in the role-play
yourself.

Bring situations to life

Realia and props can really bring a role-play to life. A group of my young learners recently played
the roles of pizza chef and customer. A simple cone of white card with CHEF written on it took a
minute to make and I believe it made the whole process more fun and memorable for the class. As
soon as it was placed on their heads they 'became' the pizza chef and acted accordingly.
Rearranging the furniture can also help. If you are imagining you are at the tourist information
office or at the doctor's surgery try to make it as real as you can. Students can even leave the room
and make an entrance by knocking on the door.

Keep it real and relevant

Try to keep the roles you ask students to play as real to life as possible. It may be hard for students
who have little opportunity to travel to imagine they are in 'Ye Olde Tea Shop' in the heart of the
English countryside. However, it may be within their schema to imagine they have been asked to
help an English speaker who is visiting their own country. This may involve using some L1 to explain
about the local culture or to translate local menus into English for the guest to their country.
Students working in the business world may find it easy to role-play a business meeting with
colleagues visiting from abroad. If you are working with young children, try to exploit their natural
ability to 'play'. They are used to acting out a visit to the shops or preparing food, as that is how
they play with their friends.
Feed-in language
As students practise the role-play they might find that they are stuck for words and phrases. In the
practice stage the teacher has a chance to 'feed-in' the appropriate language. This may need the
teacher to act as a sort of 'walking dictionary', monitoring the class and offering assistance as and
when necessary. If you are not happy doing this and you feel that the process of finding the new
language should offer more student autonomy, you could have 'time-out' after the practice stage for
students to use dictionaries to look up what they need.
As mentioned in the role of the teacher section, feeding-in the language students need is
fundamental. By doing so, they will learn new vocabulary and structure in a natural and memorable
environment. It is a chance to use real and natural language.
Error Correction
There are many ways to correct mistakes when using role-play. It is rarely appropriate for the
teacher to jump in and correct every mistake. This could be incredibly demotivating! Some students

do like to be corrected straight after a role-play activity, while the language is still fresh in their
minds. Sentences with errors can be written on the board for the group to correct together.
Self-correction - If you have the equipment to record the role-plays either on audiocassette
or on video, students can be given the opportunity to listen to the dialogue again and reflect on the
language used. They may find it easy to spot their own mistakes.

Peer-correction - Fellow students may be able to correct some mistakes made by their peers.
Students could be asked to listen out for both great bits of language they'd like to use themselves,
and some mistakes they hear. Be careful to keep peer-correction a positive and profitable
experience for all involved.

Making a note of common mistakes your elf and dealing with them in future classes ensures
that the students don't lose motivation by being corrected on the spot or straight after the role-play.
Negotiate with students and ask them how they would like to be corrected.

Use your imagination and have fun

The most successful role-play I did last year was with a group of teenagers and was used as a
spring board activity after listening to a song. The song was Aril Levines Skater Boy. The class
worked in pairs to act out the scene of Skater Boy finally getting to meet his ex-girlfriend after the
concert. The results were humorous and I was surprised that they all really got into the roles they
played.
Role-play can be a lot of fun. If you still feel reluctant to use it in the class I suggest you begin to
integrate it slowly. Why not extends an appropriate reading or a listening from a course book and
turn it into a role-play? You may be pleasantly surprised by the results!

William Shakespear
Mysterious Origins
Known throughout the world, the works of William Shakespeare have been performed in
countless hamlets, villages, cities and metropolises for more than 400 years. And yet, the
personal history of William Shakespeare is somewhat a mystery. There are two primary
sources that provide historians with a basic outline of his life. One source is his workthe
plays, poems and sonnetsand the other is official documentation such as church and
court records. However, these only provide brief sketches of specific events in his life and
provide little on the person who experienced those events.

Early Life
Though no birth records exist, church records indicate that a William Shakespeare was
baptized at Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon on April 26, 1564. From this, it is
believed he was born on or near April 23, 1564, and this is the date scholars acknowledge
as William Shakespeare's birthday.
Located 103 miles west of London, during Shakespeare's time Stratford-upon-Avon was a
market town bisected with a country road and the River Avon. William was the third child of
John Shakespeare, a leather merchant, and Mary Arden, a local landed heiress. William had
two older sisters, Joan and Judith, and three younger brothers, Gilbert, Richard and
Edmund. Before William's birth, his father became a successful merchant and held official
positions as alderman and bailiff, an office resembling a mayor. However, records indicate
John's fortunes declined sometime in the late 1570s.

Scant records exist of William's childhood, and virtually none regarding his education.
Scholars have surmised that he most likely attended the King's New School, in Stratford,
which taught reading, writing and the classics. Being a public official's child, William would
have undoubtedly qualified for free tuition. But this uncertainty regarding his education has
led some to raise questions about the authorship of his work and even about whether or
not William Shakespeare ever existed.

Married Life
William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway on November 28, 1582, in Worcester, in
Canterbury Province. Hathaway was from Shottery, a small village a mile west of Stratford.
William was 18 and Anne was 26, and, as it turns out, pregnant. Their first child, a
daughter they named Susanna, was born on May 26, 1583. Two years later, on February 2,
1585, twins Hamnet and Judith were born. Hamnet later died of unknown causes at age 11.
After the birth of the twins, there are seven years of William Shakespeare's life where no
records exist. Scholars call this period the "lost years," and there is wide speculation on
what he was doing during this period. One theory is that he might have gone into hiding for
poaching game from the local landlord, Sir Thomas Lucy. Another possibility is that he
might have been working as an assistant schoolmaster in Lancashire. It is generally
believed he arrived in London in the mid- to late 1580s and may have found work as a
horse attendant at some of London's finer theaters, a scenario updated centuries later by
the countless aspiring actors and playwrights in Hollywood and Broadway.

Theatrical Beginnings
By 1592, there is evidence William Shakespeare earned a living as an actor and a
playwright in London and possibly had several plays produced. The September 20, 1592
edition of the Stationers' Register (a guild publication) includes an article by London
playwright Robert Greene that takes a few jabs at William Shakespeare: "...There is an
upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's
hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and
being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a
country," Greene wrote of Shakespeare.
Scholars differ on the interpretation of this criticism, but most agree that it was Greene's
way of saying Shakespeare was reaching above his rank, trying to match better known and
educated playwrights like Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe or Greene himself.
By the early 1590s, documents show William Shakespeare was a managing partner in the
Lord Chamberlain's Men, an acting company in London. After the crowning of King James I,
in 1603, the company changed its name to the King's Men. From all accounts, the King's
Men company was very popular, and records show that Shakespeare had works published

and sold as popular literature. The theater culture in 16th century England was not highly
admired by people of high rank. However, many of the nobility were good patrons of the
performing arts and friends of the actors. Early in his career, Shakespeare was able to
attract the attention of Henry Wriothesley, the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated
his first- and second-published poems: "Venus and Adonis" (1593) and "The Rape of
Lucrece" (1594).

Establishing Himself
By 1597, 15 of the 37 plays written by William Shakespeare were published. Civil records
show that at this time he purchased the second largest house in Stratford, called New
House, for his family. It was a four-day ride by horse from Stratford to London, so it is
believed that Shakespeare spent most of his time in the city writing and acting and came
home once a year during the 40-day Lenten period, when the theaters were closed.
By 1599, William Shakespeare and his business partners built their own theater on the
south bank of the Thames River, which they called the Globe. In 1605, Shakespeare
purchased leases of real estate near Stratford for 440 pounds, which doubled in value and
earned him 60 pounds a year. This made him an entrepreneur as well as an artist, and
scholars believe these investments gave him the time to write his plays uninterrupted.

Writing Style
William Shakespeare's early plays were written in the conventional style of the day, with
elaborate metaphors and rhetorical phrases that didn't always align naturally with the
story's plot or characters. However, Shakespeare was very innovative, adapting the
traditional style to his own purposes and creating a freer flow of words. With only small
degrees of variation, Shakespeare primarily used a metrical pattern consisting of lines of
unrhymed iambic pentameter, or blank verse, to compose his plays. At the same time,
there are passages in all the plays that deviate from this and use forms of poetry or simple
prose.

Early Works: Histories and Comedies

With the exception of Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare's first plays were mostly
histories written in the early 1590s. Richard II, Henry VI (parts 1, 2 and 3) and Henry
V dramatize the destructive results of weak or corrupt rulers, and have been interpreted by
drama historians as Shakespeare's way of justifying the origins of the Tudor Dynasty.
Shakespeare also wrote several comedies during his early period: the witty romance A
Midsummer Night's Dream, the romantic Merchant of Venice, the wit and wordplay of Much
Ado About Nothing, the charming As You Like Itand Twelfth Night. Other plays, possibly

written before 1600, include Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the
Shrew and The Two Gentlemen of Verona.

Later Works: Tragedies and Tragicomedies

It was in William Shakespeare's later period, after 1600, that he wrote the
tragedies Hamlet, King Lear, Othello and Macbeth. In these, Shakespeare's characters
present vivid impressions of human temperament that are timeless and universal. Possibly
the best known of these plays is Hamlet, which explores betrayal, retribution, incest and
moral failure. These moral failures often drive the twists and turns of Shakespeare's plots,
destroying the hero and those he loves.
In William Shakespeare's final period, he wrote several tragicomedies. Among these
are Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale and The Tempest. Though graver in tone than the
comedies, they are not the dark tragedies of King Lear orMacbeth because they end with
reconciliation and forgiveness.

Death
Tradition has it that William Shakespeare died on his birthday, April 23, 1616, though many
scholars believe this is a myth. Church records show he was interred at Trinity Church on
April 25, 1616.
In his will, he left the bulk of his possessions to his eldest daughter, Susanna. Though
entitled to a third of his estate, little seems to have gone to his wife, Anne, whom he
bequeathed his "second-best bed." This has drawn speculation that she had fallen out of
favor, or that the couple was not close. However, there is very little evidence the two had a
difficult marriage. Other scholars note that the term "second-best bed" often refers to the
bed belonging to the household's master and mistresthe marital bedand the "first-best
bed" was reserved for guests.

Controversy and Literary Legacy

About 150 years after his death, questions arose about the authorship of William
Shakespeare's plays. Scholars and literary critics began to float names like Christopher
Marlowe, Edward de Vere and Francis Baconmen of more known backgrounds, literary
accreditation, or inspirationas the true authors of the plays. Much of this stemmed from
the sketchy details of Shakespeare's life and the dearth of contemporary primary sources.
Official records from the Holy Trinity Church and the Stratford government record the
existence of a William Shakespeare, but none of these attest to him being an actor or
playwright.

Skeptics also questioned how anyone of such modest education could write with the
intellectual perceptiveness and poetic power that is displayed in Shakespeare's works. Over
the centuries, several groups have emerged that question the authorship of Shakespeare's
plays.
The most serious and intense skepticism began in the 19th century when adoration for
Shakespeare was at its highest. The detractors believed that the only hard evidence
surrounding William Shakespeare from Stratford-upon-Avon described a man from modest
beginnings who married young and became successful in real estate. Members of the
Shakespeare Oxford Society (founded in 1957) put forth arguments that English aristocrat
Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford, was the true author of the poems and plays of
"William Shakespeare." The Oxfordians cite de Vere's extensive knowledge of aristocratic
society, his education, and the structural similarities between his poetry and that found in
the works attributed to Shakespeare. They contend that William Shakespeare had neither
the education nor the literary training to write such eloquent prose and create such rich
characters.
However, the vast majority of Shakespearean scholars contend that William Shakespeare
wrote all his own plays. They point out that other playwrights of the time also had sketchy
histories and came from modest backgrounds. They contend that Stratford's New Grammar
School curriculum of Latin and the classics could have provided a good foundation for
literary writers. Supporters of Shakespeare's authorship argue that the lack of evidence
about Shakespeare's life doesn't mean his life didn't exist. They point to evidence that
displays his name on the title pages of published poems and plays. Examples exist of
authors and critics of the time acknowledging William Shakespeare as author of plays such
as The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Comedy of Errors and King John. Royal records from
1601 show that William Shakespeare was recognized as a member of the King's Men
theater company (formally known as the Chamberlain's Men) and a Groom of the Chamber
by the court of King James I, where the company performed seven of Shakespeare's plays.
There is also strong circumstantial evidence of personal relationships by contemporaries
who interacted with Shakespeare as an actor and a playwright.
What seems to be true is that William Shakespeare was a respected man of the dramatic
arts who wrote plays and acted in some in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. But his
reputation as a dramatic genius wasn't recognized until the 19th century. Beginning with
the Romantic period of the early 1800s and continuing through the Victorian period, acclaim
and reverence for William Shakespeare and his work reached its height. In the 20th
century, new movements in scholarship and performance have rediscovered and adopted
his works.
Today, his plays are highly popular and constantly studied and reinterpreted in
performances with diverse cultural and political contexts. The genius of Shakespeare's
characters and plots are that they present real human beings in a wide range of emotions
and conflicts that transcend their origins in Elizabethan England.