PRIMARY SCHOOL GEOMETRY

Frantiek Kuina, Czech Republic

The paper deals with some aspects of early childhood geometry. Childrens first
geometrical experiences come from real life. In my opinion, there exist four types of
geometrical experience which can be called the partition of space, the filling of space, the
motion in the space, and the dimension of space. I distinguish three levels of mathematical
learning process: a spontaneous level, an operational level and a theoretical level.
1. The Space of Childs Life and Geometrical Experience of the Child
Every child is in a contact with quantitative impulses (the first, the second, the third,
teaspoon, one or two hands, ) from very beginnings of its life. The child lives and moves in
space with important geometrical qualities. We verified that at the beginning of the school
attendance the scholars know the basic properties of metrics (the triangle inequality and the
symmetry of metrics) ([1], p. 12). The space of the childs world is divided into some parts
(the cot, the little room, the house, the garden, ) and it is possible to move from one of these
parts to the other. All this is important for the creating of the first geometrical images. With
the first little step of the child the preconcepts of measuring come into existence. The first
topological properties of space (the inside of a box, the outside of the house, ) originate in
the contact of the child with its surroundings. Many childs toys are elastic that leads to the
first images of topological transformations. Also the experience of strightness and bendness
come into being by many opportunities (the possibility of straightening of a string or a band,
). The child can see geometrical properties on many things in its environment (the repeated
patterns on the pavement, the identical shapes and pictures on coins and paper money, the
pictures of things, animals and nature in the childrens books). All these contacts of a child
with geometry are spontaneous and natural and it is a pity that we dont utilize fully this
geometrical experience of the child in the primary school mathematics.
2. Two Geometrical Activities of the Child
In my opinion the main geometrical activity of the child is the arrangement of various
things. Here it is possible to mention for example: the ranging of cubes (marbles, sticks, ) in
a train or a snake, the construction of patterns by means of various geometrical shapes
(squares, oblongs, circles, ), the construction of various buildings (little houses, castles,
plants, ) by means of models of geometrical solids (cubes, prisms, pyramids, cylinders,

cones, spheres, ), the construction of tessellations with regular or non regular polygons
(squares, equilateral triangles, regular hexagons, oblongs, triangles, parallelograms, ). The
specific childs activity of geometrical type are various sorts of puzzles and games (tangrams,
games on the grid paper, ).
The next geometrical activity of a child is connected with drawing. This activity begins in
childs scribbling without sense and continues to representation of a childs inner world in a
picture.
Both mentioned activities show the spontaneous tendency to regularity (order and
symmetry) and it is possible to utilize them in the primary school.
I described some aspects of geometrical activity in papers [2] and [3]. The analysis of child
s drawing is published in the paper [4]. Some explanations, illustrations and details are parts
of authors presentation at ICMI 10.
3. Contents, Methods and Structure of Primary School Geometry
There are many phenomena in the life of man which historically contributed to the
origination of geometry as an independent scientific branch and which affect the formation of
the geometrical components of education.
Lets take notice of some of them.
a) The man lives, moves and creates in space. The physical and biological properties of
environment are connected with geometrical qualities of space which condition mans motion
and activity, limit his possibilities and stimulate his production.
b) The technical practice (for example in engineering or building industries) works with
many geometrical notions, for example: circle, ball, cube, cylinder, perpendicularity,
parallelism, congruence, The geometrical stimuli occur very often in nature. The laws of
motion and growth express themselves in the shapes of natural formations, such as leaves,
flowers, branches, etc.
c) Some geometrical results also show certain aesthetic values. The point is especially in
various forms of regularity, periodicity, congruence, similarity, etc.
d) Representations and patterns of technical type have usually geometrical forms. Technical
drawings are records of information in the geometrical language.
e) The logical construction of geometry as a scientific branch is, of course, a very important
basis of geometrical research.
The main problem of school geometry is the question if the basis of instruction is a ready
mathematical field of elementary geometry, or if the instruction should come out of the non

mathematical stimuli. Is the basis for teaching geometry the system of mathematical theorems
adapted to the pupils, or the world of space experience of the scholars?
In the former Czechoslovakia we made rich and, of course, negative experience with the
first of the above mentioned approaches. The geometry introduced to our schools since 1967
has recasted Euclidean geometry by using three undefined entities: points, segments and
incidence. Not only the stimuli, but also the application of geometry were almost exlusively
theoretical. Such a self generating discipline was necessarily formal and also verbal in the
school.
The second possibility how to construct the course of geometry is rooted in the utilization
of practical stimuli and spatial experience of pupils. This idea is not new: it was theoretically
formulated as a problem by H. Freudenthal at ICME-4 in 1980 [7]. On the basis of our
experiments I am convinced that teaching geometry to pupils aged 6 12 years should and
must be supported by their spatial experience. This experience must be systematically
developed in both practical and theoretical directions. In our conception geometry is
understood as a method of getting answers to questions arousing from pupils curiosity.
We try to establish a course of geometry supported by direct pupils experience, which is
gradually developed by means of various kinds of work. At the first stage the idea of our
experiments was influenced by the group IOWO from the Netherlands [8].
Our contemporary conception is based on all of the above mentioned aspects, the structural
aspect lying on the margin of our interest.
I would like to emphasize three dimensions of our approach to geometry:
C the content of geometrical subject matter,
S its didactical structure,
M methods of its presentation at school.
C. The content of geometrical subject matter is influenced by the tradition of our school,
by the needs of practice and by the preparation for future education. We can divide it into
three parts:
1. Properties of geometrical figures (cube, sphere, ball, square, triangle, segment, straight
line, angle, ).
2. Measurement of geometrical figures and counting of perimeters, areas and volumes. On
this occasion pupils learn the important continuity of geometry and arithmetic.
3. Geometrical constructions as outstanding field for the development of geometrical
imagination. In addition to technical drawing, we also draw by hands some geometrical

figures (triangle, square, cube, circle, ). We emphasize problems connected with the pupils
life and results having certain aesthetical values.
S. The didactical structure of geometry is not based on its logical structure (e. g. point,
segment, incidence, as the primitive notions), but it is influenced by genetical and
psychological aspects. On the basis of our long term study we formulated the following
didactical structure of primary school geometry:
1. Partition of space.
2. Filling of space.
3. Motion in space.
4. Dimension of space.
The theoretical basis for partition of the plane is the Jordan curve theorem, the practical
stimuli connected with partition of space are familiar from every day practice. On the idea of
partition of the plane it is possible to introduce a lot of geometrical notions in a natural way
(polygon, circle, ).
The process of measurement is connected with paving and tessellation of a part of a plane
(segment, space). This is a practical realization of filling of space.
The motion in space is well known to pupils from the physical world, the results of motion
recording lead to drawing of some geometrical figures and construction of some solids
(polygons, circle, sphere, cylinder, ).
We can see many phenomena of childrens 3-D world in two dimensions: the ball and its
shadow, the foot and its footprint, the dog and its picture, In many cases it is important to
understand the space situation on the basis of its 2-D representation.
M. We distinguish three levels of mathematical learning process.
1. Spontaneous level. (Forming of images.)
2. Operational level. (The images are further developed by means of various
activities.)
3. Theoretical level. (Its results are mathematical notions and proofs.)
The levels of learning are not separated in the practice. The thinking of pupils is from the
very beginning connected with performing operations, experiments, transformations, The
intuition which has a character of spontaneous approach is very important also in the
theoretical level of learning. Very important role is played by the representational problems in
the process of education at primary school as it is formulated by J. A. Comenius (1592
1670) [9] and J. Bruner (1915 -

) [10] (enactive, iconic and symbolic representatives). The

natural numbers are represented not only by sets of balls, dots, squares, but also by the

number line and various symbols. The geometrical figures are represented not only by their
models (cubes, blocks, ), but also by means of various pictures and diagrams.
4. Geometry as a Part of Primary School Mathematics
4. 1. Geometry is important resource of models of natural numbers.
The basic problem: Construct various patterns with given set of congruent sticks (cubes,
dots, balls, marbles, triangles, )
Children construct various representations of a given number (cardinal number of the
given set). The results are often interesting and show important geometrical properties. It is
possible for example from four congruent triangles to construct various parallelograms or a
triangle, from four rightangled triangles we can build rhomb, oblong, parallelogram, triangle
or weathercock. Four congruent sticks can represent for example road, chimney, fence,
letters K, E, M, perimeter of rhomb or square. It is right to show also the basic property of
natural numbers: the possibility of unlimited continuation by means of repeated attaching of
farther elements of given set. We can also demonstrate the arithmetical properties of addition
and multiplication (for example commutativity) by proper models. The classical Cuisinaire
rods which we use in our practice are geometrical model of natural numbers. This model
connects cardinal, ordinal and geometrical (measuring) attitudes to the numbers. Geometrical
modeling of numbers contribute to better understanding of arithmetic.
4. 2. Geometry is an interesting resource of models of dividing the whole into parts.
The basic problem: Divide given square (oblong, ball, segment, ) into 2, (4, 8, )
identical parts.
The arithmetical analogy of this problem (divide the set in identical parts) is connected
with counting. In the geometry is the identity of parts visible for example by means of
folding of paper model. In this manner we can develop the images of one half, fourth, eight,
. Proper models of fraction give the regular polygons. For example on the heptagon we see,
that

1
3
1 4 2
=
, on the octagon for example that ,
2
6
2 8 4

4. 3. Geometry is the opportunity to cultivate creativity

We have good experience with problems of these types: How can we sew on the button
with 4 (3, 5) holes, how can we construct the enclosure, broken line, house, )
To cultivate creativity means to cultivate imaginary. Those problems are often connected
with drawing and with application of a mirror.
4. 4. Geometry is the opportunity to meet with preconcepts of some mathematical notion.

As example we can mention: length, area, volume, perimeter, symmetry.

5. Conclusion
In my opinion geometry is an important part of primary school mathematics. The starting
point for geometrical education is the didactical structure of geometry based on four
mentioned types and four levels of geometrical experience. It is very important and it is also a
difficult task to organize the education for creating proper experience of scholars. To teach
with good results means to teach with good knowledge of our students.
Mentioned conception of primary school geometry was realized in two Czech projects. The
first is connected with authors J. Kittler, F. Kuina and M. Tich and the textbooks were
published in the years 1994 1997 ([5]). The name of the second project is the World of
numbers and shapes and its authors are A. Hopesov, J. Divek, F. Kuina. The textbooks
and some further didactical materials were published in the years 1996 2000 ([6]).
References
[1] Kuina, F.: Metrika a topologie. Pedagogick fakulta Hradec Krlov 1979.
[2] Kuina, F.: Didactical Structure of Geometry. ICMI study: Perspectives on Teaching of
Geometry for the 21-st. Century. Catania 1995.
[3] Kuina, F.: Constructive Dimension of Mathematics, SEMT, Praha 1991.
[4] Kuina, F., Tich, M., Hopesov, A.: What Geometric Ideas Do the Prescholars Have.
The Korea Society of Mathematical Education, Seoul, 1998.
[5] Kittler, J., Kuina, F., Tich, M.: Matematika 2, 3, 4, 5. Matematick stav AV R,
Praha, 1994 1996.
[6] Hopesov, A., Divek, J., Kuina, F.: Svt sel a tvar 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Prometheus. Praha
1996 2000.
[7] Freudenthal, H.: Major Problems of Mathematical Education. Education Studies in
Mathematics, 12. 1981.
[8] Five Years of IOWO. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel 1976.
[9] Comenius, J., A.: Didaktika analytick, Praha 1946.
[10] Bruner, J., S.: The Growth of Representational Processes in Childhord. In:
Psichologija poznanija. Moscow 1977.
Acknowledgment: This paper was supported by Grant Agency of the Czech Repulic project
GAR 406/02/0829.