Complex Numbers

Operations with Complex Numbers

i' is the imaginary number often used in operations involving negative roots.

i= 1
o

i 2=1

Addition, subtraction and multiplication follow the same rules as with pronumerals:

ai bi=i ( a b )

ai bi=ab i 2

ai a
=
bi b

With division, if there is an imaginary number on the denominator, the

denominator must be realised (like rationalising) by multiplying by

a a i
=
bi bi i

ai
b i2

ai
b

i
i :

*No is in the
denominator*

Powers of i can be simplified using

i 2=1

Components of Complex Numbers

When a=0, the complex number is purely imaginary.
When b=0, the complex number is a real number.

z=a+ib

a is the REAL part

of z: Re(z) = a

b is the IMAGINARY part

of z: Im(z) = b

Square Roots of Complex Numbers

To find the square root of a complex number, e.g. a+ib:
1. Let

x+iy= a+ib

2. Square both sides:

( x+iy )2=a+ib

3. Expand and equate real and imaginary parts:

x 2 y 2=a

2 xy =b

a = Re(a+ib),
4. Solve equations simultaneously for x and y and subRe(x+iy)
into x + iy.

EXAMPLE: Find the square root of 3 4i

x2 y2 =

Factorising Quadratic Functions

1. Complete the square.
2. Use i2 = 1 to express as a difference of two squares.
3. Factorise (using difference of two squares).
EXAMPLE: x3 + 8

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Solving Quadratic Equations

Quadratic Equations with Real Coefficients
***The zeroes of quadratic equations with real coefficients occur as complex
conjugates***
METHOD A:
1. Complete the square.
2. Solve the equation using i2 = 1.
EXAMPLE: x2 + x + 3 = 0

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METHOD B:
1. Apply the Quadratic Formula.
EXAMPLE: x2 + 2x + 8 = 0

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Quadratic Equations with Complex (Imaginary) Coefficients
1. Use the Quadratic Formula.
2. Express the square root in the form x + iy if necessary.
3. Solve the equation and express in the form x + iy.
EXAMPLE: z2 4(1 i)z + 15 = 0

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Quadratic Theory
The quadratic equation, where is a complex root, is

x 2( + ) x+ =0 , which can be

written as:
2

x 22 ( ) x+|| =0
EXAMPLE: One of the zeroes of a quadratic equation with real coefficients is 3 + i. Find
the quadratic equation.

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Cubic Equations with Complex Roots + Cube Roots of Unity

A cubic equation has at least one real root.
If a is the real root then the cubic equation can be expressed in the form

( xa ) ( p x 2+ qx+r )=0 .
z3 = 1 has 3 zeroes over the complex field: 1, and 2, where is a complex root.
Hence for z3 = 1:

1 + + 2 =

Sum of the roots:

b
a

For z3 = 1, z3 1 = 0; b = 0.
Therefore, 1 + + 2 = 0.
3
Also, = 1 (since is a root of the equation).
EXAMPLE: is a non-real cube root of unity. Show that the other complex cube root is 2.

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Conjugate Theorems
The conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers, is

z =xiy

z+ z =2 ( z )

zz =2 ( z )

z z =a2+ b2

, where z = a + ib

Conjugate of the
Sum of two complex
numbers

z 1+ z 2= z1 + z2

Product

z 2= z1 z2
z1

Subtraction

z 1z
2= z1 z2

Division

z 1 z 2= z1 z2

The Argand Diagram

o
o
o
o

Real numbers are represented on the x axis

Imaginary numbers are represented on the y axis
The complex number a + ib would be represented as the point (a, b) or as vector
OA.
Complex numbers behave as FREE VECTORS [no defined starting point]. Vectors
with the same length and same direction are represented by the same complex
number.
Im(z
)
Z (x,
y)
Where Z = x
+ iy

Re(z
)

Modulus

Length of the vector:

|z|=| x+iy|= x 2+ y 2
Argument

Angle the vector makes with the positive x-axis:

arg (z) = arg (x + iy) =

Mod-arg form

y
x
)
tan 1

*range always between < *

An alternative way of expressing complex numbers.
If the modulus is r,

z=x +iy=| z|( cos +isin )=rcis

Pol key

The Pol key on the calculator Pol(real, imaginary) can help determine
the argument of the imaginary number.

Theorems on the Moduli and Arguments

The product of complex

MULTIPLY the modulus and ADD the arguments of the

numbers

two complex numbers.

|z 1 z 2|=r 1 r 1
Complex numbers raised to a
power

arg (z1z2) = arg (z1) + arg (z2)

RAISE THE POWER of the modulus and MULTIPLY the
argument by the power.

|z n|=| z|n
The division of two complex
numbers

arg(zn) = n arg(z)
DIVIDE the modulus and SUBTRACT the arguments.

||

z1 |z 1|
=
z2 |z 2|

arg ( z 1) arg ( z2 )

Geometrical Applications of the Argand Diagram

Represented by
the same complex
number

The Sum of Two Complex Numbers

Found by ADDING the two vectors

The Difference of Two Complex Numbers

Found by drawing a line BETWEEN the vectors
**z1 z2: vector drawn from z2 to z1**

ARGUMENT is undefined
at the tail of the vector
arg(zz1) as arg(0) =
undefined

The Polygon Rule

Found by ADDING the vectors

The Conjugate of z
Found by reflecting across the x-axis
**|z| =

|z| **

**arg(z) = arg(z) **

The Product of Two Complex Numbers

Moduli multiply and arguments add

Multiplication by i
Rotate ninety degrees in the
anticlockwise direction
**i = (1)cis

( )
2

Rotation and Change in Vector Length

To change the length and argument of the vector, multiply by rcis() to change the length
by a factor of r and rotate anticlockwise degrees.

Locus in the Complex Plane

METHOD 1: Algebraic Method
1. Considering the restriction, let z = x + iy
2. Find the functional equation of x and y.
METHOD 2: Geometric Approach for Special Cases
a)

For all arg problems, use a geometric approach

|zz 1|=r
Length of vector

zz 1=r

[vector drawn from

z 1 to

z ]. A circle with centre

z 1 and radius r.
Hence the equation of the locus of z is

( xx 1)2 +( y y 1)2=r 2

b)

arg ( zz 1 )=
The angle the vector

zz 1 makes with the horizontal is

OPEN CIRCLE
for arguments

c)

|zz 1|=|z z 2|

d)

arg ( zz 1 )arg ( zz 2 )=

If >

2 ,

MINOR arc
If <
e)

arg ( zz 1 )=arg ( zz 2 )

f)

arg ( zz 1 )=arg ( zz 2 )

2 ,

The Triangle Inequalities

The greatest value of
i.e. when arg

z1

|z 1+ z 2|

= arg

The least value of

is |

z 1 | + | z 2 | when

z 1 and

z 2 are collinear.

z2

|z 1+ z 2|

is the positive difference between

z 1 and

z 2 . i.e. when

||z 1|| z2||

De Moivres Theorem
Note:

z =cos n+ isin n
Powers of sin
1. Let

cis
=cis ( )
cis

and cos

z=( cos +i sin )

and apply De Moivres Theorem

2. Equate real and imaginary parts to find formulae for cos and sin
Expressing powers of sin
multiples of

and cos

in terms of sine and cosine ratios of

1. Let

z=( cos +i sin )

1
=( cos ( )+ isin ( ) )=cos i sin
z

then

z n=cos n+ isin n

2. De Moivres Theorem:

1
=cos ni sin n
zn

3. Hence

1
z+ =2 cos
z
n

z+

and

1
=2 cos n
zn

1
z =2i sin
z
n

and

4. For sine ratios in multiples of

5. For cos ratios in multiples of

1
=2 isin n
zn

: use
: use

z n
n

z+

1
=2 isin n
zn

1
=2 cos n
zn

and expand
and expand