CHAPTER 2 - Lecture Notes

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory
1. Early Discoveries leading to Atomic Theory
Law of Conservation of Mass
Lavoisier combustion experiment
Lavoisier (1743-1794) heated a sealed vessel containing tin and air

The tin burned, but the total mass of the vessel was unchanged after
burning
He formulated the law of conservation of mass
The total mass of substances present after a chemical reaction
is the same as the total mass of substances before the reaction.

General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications, Petrucci, Harwood, Herring, Madura, 9th edition, 2007, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 35

Early Discoveries leading to Atomic Theory
Chemistry A Molecular Aprroach, Tro, 1st edition, 2008, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 48

Law of Constant Composition
Proust (1754-1826) noted that when the same mass of copper

was with excess acid, the same mass of green carbonate was
always formed
This led to the Law of Constant Composition (or the Law of
Definite Proportions)
All samples of a compound have the same composition
combinations of elements are in ratios of small whole numbers
Example: No matter how much of a compound is present, the relative

percentages of the elements making up a compound are the
same. Water always contains 11% Hydrogen and 89% Oxygen
by mass and always contains the ratio of two hydrogen atoms to
one oxygen atom

Daltons Atomic Theory

Originated by meteorologist and schoolteacher John Dalton
in 1808
All matter is composed of atoms, the smallest

particle of an element
Atoms of one element differ from atoms of other
elements
A compound consists of atoms combined in specific
ratios
Chemical reactions change compounds, but the
atoms themselves do not change

Early Discoveries leading to Atomic Theory
Modern proof of Daltons Atomic Theory

Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
(1981) Gerd Bennig and
Heinrich Rohrer found that as
you pass a sharp metal tip
over a flat metal surface, the
amount of current that flowed
varied with distance between
the tip and the surface
measuring this tunneling
current allowed them to scan
the surface on an atomic scale
essentially taking pictures of
atoms on the surface
Chemistry A Molecular Aprroach, Tro, 1st edition, 2008, Pearson Prentice Hall, p.46
Iodine atoms on a
Platinum surface

Law of Multiple Proportions

From Atomic theory
If two elements form more than one compound, the
masses of one element in a compound combined with
a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of small
whole numbers
Ratio of oxygen in
carbon dioxide: oxygen
in carbon monoxide
= 2.67 g : 1.33 g = 2:1
Practice Example: Carbon and oxygen

Burning 3.62 g of carbon in an excess of air (oxygen) gives
compound A, which contains carbon and oxygen and has a
mass of 13.26 g. What is the percent composition of this
compound? What is the minimum mass of oxygen required in
this experiment?
CLICKER QUESTION
The Concept of Charge
Two kinds of charge:

+ (positive) and (negative)
Opposite charges attract

+ attracted to
Like charges repel

+ repels +
repels
To be neutral, something must

have no charge or equal
amounts of opposite charges

Early Discoveries in Atomic Physics
Discovery of Electrons
Cathode Ray Tubes
Experiments established that cathode rays must have an electrically

negative charge
Thomson measures the mass-to-charge ratio for a cathode ray
-5.6857 x 10-9 g/coulomb (1897)by using a magnetic field around a
cathode ray tube

Millikan measured the charge on an electron and thus the mass of the
electron could be calculated:
Charge on electron = -1.60 x 10-19 C
Mass electron = 9.1094 x 10-28 g

Thomson suggested the plum-pudding model for the structure

of an atom

Rutherford designs experiment to test the structure of atoms (1909)
Bombarding thin foils of gold with helium nuclei (positively charged particles)
He expected that most of the nuclei would pass right through the gold foil with a
few deflections caused by passing by negative charges

2. Early Discoveries in Atomic Physics
The Rutherford experiment
expected results
actual results

2. Early Discoveries in Atomic Physics
Rutherford proposes a new structure of the atom (1911)
Most of the mass and all of the positive charge are centered in the nucleus
The positive charge is different for different atoms and is about the
atomic weight of the element
The electrons are outside the nucleus. The number of electrons is equal
to the number of units of positive charge inside the nucleus
Later, Rutherford discovered protons and predicted the presence of

neutrally-charged particles (neutrons) in the nucleus as well (1919)
Chadwick (Rutherfords student) discovers neutrons (1932)

B. The Nuclear Atom
Structure of atoms
Nucleus contains protons and neutrons held together by the nuclear
strong force
Electrons move rapidly outside the nucleus
(not to scale)

B. The Nuclear Atom
Subatomic particles
Proton
Neutron
Electron
+1
0
-1
1.0073
1.0087
0.00054858

B. The Nuclear Atom
Size of atoms
H atom
Cs atom
U atom
diameter
7.2 x 10-11 m
5.2 x 10-10 m
2.9 x 10-10 m
mass
1.67 x 10-24 g
2.21 x 10-22 g
3.95 x 10-22 g

C. Chemical Elements
Format of symbols on Periodic Table:

6
Atomic number
Elemental symbol
12.011
Atomic weight
Elemental symbols elements are represented by one or

two letter symbols, beginning with a capital letter
Symbols are usually based on the first letters of the
element names
Some elemental symbols are based on Latin names
(copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, potassium, silver,
sodium, tin)

Isotopes
Notation for isotopes of atoms
Atomic number (Z) the number of protons in an
atom (determines identity of atom)
Mass number (A) the number of protons plus the
number of neutrons in an atom
For neutral atoms, the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons
Mass number
A
Z
Atomic number
At
Elemental symbol

Chemical Elements
Example: Two isotopes of sodium
Note: isotopes are sometimes written without the atomic number

(example: 23Na, 24Na)
Chemistry, Zumdahl, Zumdahl, 8th edition, 2010, Brooks/Cole, p. 51

Practice examples:
How many protons, electrons and neutrons are

contained in copper-63?
CLICKER QUESTION
Write copper-63 in isotope notation.

Ions
The species formed when atoms gain or lose electrons

Removing an electron results in a net positive charge on the ion;
adding an electron results in a net negative charge on the ion
Mass number
A
Z
Atomic number
Examples:
At
?
Elemental symbol
When Na loses an electron it becomes Na+

When O gains two electrons it becomes O2-

Practice examples
How many protons, electrons and neutrons are contained

in copper-63 with a double positive charge?
Write double positively charged copper-63 in isotope

notation.

D. Atomic Mass
Because atoms are so small, it is more convenient to use a

system that relates the sizes of one atom to another for
atomic masses
The masses of atoms in the Periodic Table are NOT in
grams. Instead, atomic mass units (u) are used
One atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12 the mass of an atom
of carbon-12
Example:
Mass (g)
Ca 6.655 x 10-23
Ne 3.351 x 10-23
Mass from PT (u)

40.078
20.1797
The relative mass of Ca/Ne = 1.986 using either units

D. Atomic Mass
The atomic weight of an element reported on the periodic table is

the average mass of a sample of atoms of naturally occurring
isotopes
To calculate the average atomic weight, the relative abundances

of isotopes for each element must be known. (NOTE: %
abundances are by atoms, not mass)
Calculate atomic weight according to one of the following

formulas:
Atomic weight
Mass of
% isotope 1
x isotope 1
100%
Mass of
% isotope 2
x is otope 2
100%
+...
Atomic M ass fractional abundance of isotope n mass of isotope n

D. Atomic Mass
Example: The mass of chlorine on the periodic table

(35.4527 u) accounts for chlorine-35 and chlorine-37
isotopes
Chlorine-35: 75.77% at 34.969 u
Chlorine-37: 24.23% at 36.966 u
Atomic weight
75.77%
24.23%
=
x 34.969 u +
x 36.966 u
100%
100%
= 35.453 u

Practice example:
An element contains the following relative abundances of its only two
isotopes:
50.69%
78.9183 u
49.31%
80.9163 u
Calculate the atomic weight of the element and identify the element.

Isotopic Masses
The masses of naturally-occurring isotopes are determined

using a mass spectrometer
A gaseous sample is ionized

The ions are separated according to their masses (heavier ions
move slower) and charges using magnetic and/or electric fields
A detector is used to record the amounts of different isotopes of
the same element
The mass spectrum shows the relative amounts (y-axis) for each
mass/charge (x-axis)

Practice Example:
Sketch a mass spectrum for a sample of mercury vapor with the relative
number of molecules plotted against molecular mass
The relative abundances of the isotopes are:
196Hg
0.146%
198Hg
10.02%
199Hg
16.84%
200Hg
23.13%
201Hg
13.22%
202Hg
29.80%
204Hg
6.85%

Practice Example:
Sketch a mass spectrum for a sample of BrCl molecules with the relative
number of molecules plotted against molecular mass
The relative abundances of the isotopes are:
79Br
50.69%
78.9183 u
81Br
49.31%
80.9163 u
35Cl
75.77%
34.969 u
37Cl
24.23%
36.966 u
CLICKER QUESTION

E. The Periodic Table
The Periodic Table organizes the information about

the elements
From the Periodic Table, we can find:
Number of protons (and therefore electrons) in atoms of any

element
Prediction of ions formed by atoms of elements
Average atomic masses of elements
Trends in physical and chemical properties
Electron configuration of atoms of elements

Elements on the Periodic Table can also be classified

according to their metallic properties:
Metals
Non-metals
Usually solids
Lustrous, malleable
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Can be gases, liquids, or solids
Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Metalloids
Intermediate between metals and non-metals

Groups or families:
Elements found in the same column are in the same group

Elements in the same group have similar properties
Eg. Halogens Group 17 (7A) tend to gain one electron and form ions with a
-1 charge
Eg. Alkali Metals Group 1 (1A) tend to lose one electron and form ions with
a +1 charge
Noble Gases Group 18 (8A) are unreactive gases
The Main Group elements are those in 1, 2 and 13-18
Note that there are two numbering systems for the groups on the Periodic Table
Groups 1-18 system is that recommended by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and will be used in this text
Groups A and B system is still widely used and usually shown on Periodic Tables

Noble Gases
Alkali Metals
Main Group
Alkaline Earths
Main Group
Halogens

The Periodic Table
Chemistry A Molecular Aprroach, Tro, 1st edition, 2008, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 64,5

The Periodic Table
Chemistry A Molecular Aprroach, Tro, 1st edition, 2008, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 64,5

Periods:
Elements found in the same row are in the same period
The periods on the table contain different numbers of elements
Period 1 has two members (H and He)

Periods 2 and 3 have eight elements each
Periods 4 and 5 have eighteen elements each
Periods 6 and 7 have thirty-two elements each (in theory)
To fit all 32 elements, two groups of 14 elements each are extracted and
shown below the table, the lanthanides and actinides
Element names to symbols and symbols to names should be memorized for

periods 1-6 minus the lanthanides and actinides
Lanthanides and Actinides

Transition Elements or Transition Metals:

Elements in Groups 3-12 (1B-8B)
These metals form positive ions

The number of electrons lost is not related simply to the group
number
Many transition metals will form two or more ions of different
charge
Transition Metals

Practice examples:
Identify:
A halogen in Period 4
CLICKER QUESTION
The ion commonly formed by Group 2 elements
Two elements with properties similar to Potassium

F. The Mole and Avogadros Number
The mole (mol) the mass in grams of one mole of atoms is equal to the
atomic weight of an element in u
One atom of carbon-12 weighs 12 u

One mole of carbon-12 weighs 12 g
Avogadros number the number of particles (or atoms) in one mole

6.022 x 1023
NOTE: The mole represents a specific number (602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000)
like a dozen represents the number 12 or a gross represents 144.

F. The Mole and Avogadros Number
How much is one mole of a substance? Helium, Copper, Mercury, and Sulfur are
shown here:

G. Calculations Using the Mole Concept
The average copper atom weighs 63.546 u

One mole of copper weighs 63.546 g
One mole of copper contains 6.022 x 1023 copper atoms
Therefore:
1 mol Cu atoms = 6.022 x 1023 Cu atoms
1 mol Cu atoms = 63.546 g Cu
6.022 x 1023 Cu atoms = 63.546 g Cu
These equalities give rise to new conversion factors:
1 mol Cu
6.022 x 10 23 Cu atoms
and
63.546 g Cu
1 mol Cu

Worked example 1:
How many moles of copper are contained in a 3.87 g sample of Cu?

STEP 1
3.87 g copper
mol Cu
STEP 2
Need grams to moles conversion (given on Periodic Table)
3.87 g copper x
1 mol Cu
63.546 g Cu
1 mol Cu
63.546 g Cu
= 0.0609 mol Cu
mol Cu
STEP 3
3.87 g copper x

Worked example 2:
How many atoms of copper are in the 3.87 g sample?

STEP 1
3.87 g copper
Cu atoms
STEP 2
Need grams to moles conversion (given on Periodic Ta ble)
and moles to # particles conversion (Avogadros number)
23
3.87 g copper x
1 mol Cu x 6. 022 x 10 Cu atoms

=
63.546 g Cu
1 mol Cu
Cu atoms
STEP 3
3.87 g copper x 1 mol Cu
63.546 g Cu
23
22
x 6. 022 x 10 Cu atoms = 3. 67 x 10 Cu atoms
1 mol Cu

Practice example:
How many 68Zn atoms are present in a 12.50-g piece of brass? The
piece of brass is an alloy of zinc and copper that contains 65%
copper by mass. The percent abundance of 68Zn is 19.02%.

Practice example:
A pure copper cylinder has a radius of 0.935 in and a length of

5.05 in. How many copper atoms does it contain? (The density
of copper is 8.96 g/cm3)

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CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

1. Early Discoveries leading to Atomic Theory

Law of Conservation of Mass

Lavoisier combustion experiment

Lavoisier (1743-1794) heated a sealed vessel containing tin and air

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Law of Conservation of Mass

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Law of Conservation of Mass

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Law of Constant Composition

Proust (1754-1826) noted that when the same mass of copper

Example: No matter how much of a compound is present, the relative

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Daltons Atomic Theory

All matter is composed of atoms, the smallest

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Modern proof of Daltons Atomic Theory

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Law of Multiple Proportions

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Practice Example: Carbon and oxygen

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

The Concept of Charge

Two kinds of charge:

Opposite charges attract

Like charges repel

To be neutral, something must

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Cathode Ray Tubes

Experiments established that cathode rays must have an electrically

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Charge on electron = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Mass electron = 9.1094 x 10-28 g

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Thomson suggested the plum-pudding model for the structure

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Rutherford proposes a new structure of the atom (1911)

Later, Rutherford discovered protons and predicted the presence of

Chadwick (Rutherfords student) discovers neutrons (1932)

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Format of symbols on Periodic Table:

Elemental symbols elements are represented by one or

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Note: isotopes are sometimes written without the atomic number

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

How many protons, electrons and neutrons are

Write copper-63 in isotope notation.

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

The species formed when atoms gain or lose electrons

When Na loses an electron it becomes Na+

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

How many protons, electrons and neutrons are contained

Write double positively charged copper-63 in isotope

CHEM101 F15 Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Because atoms are so small, it is more convenient to use a

Mass from PT (u)