Petrology

Classification and Nomenclature
Chapter 2
1/17/02
Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke
IUGS System
In the 60s and 70s the International Union of Geological
Sciences (IUGS) developed a system to standardize
igneous rock classification
IUGS chose to classify igneous rocks based on plotting the
rock on a ternary diagram
Values must be normalized so that the total equals 100
(e.g. X = 4.5, Y = 2, Z = 6.3; to normalize the value, we
multiply each number by 100/(4.5+2+6.3) and get X =
35.16%, Y = 15.63%, Z = 49.22%)
There are two methods to determine the location of a
given rock on the ternary diagram: the traditional
method and an IUGS method
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Traditional Method
Figure 2-1a.
Method #1 for
plotting a point
with the
components: 70%
X, 20% Y, and 10%
Z on triangular
diagrams. An
Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic
Petrology, John
Winter, Prentice
Hall.
1/17/02
IUGS Method
Figure 2-1b. Method #2 for plotting a point with the

components: 70% X, 20% Y, and 10% Z on triangular
diagrams. An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology, John Winter, Prentice Hall.
Since the IUGS

diagrams do not
have gridlines, it is
hard to use the
traditional
method
Take the
100Y/(Y+Z) to
find the base %
[e.g. for Y = 20%
and Z = 10%,
100*20/(20+10) =
67%]
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Any point between

this point on the ZY base and the Xapex of the
diagram, will have
the same Y/Z ratio
Where the X% line
intersects the Y/Z
ratio line, that is
the composition of
the rock
Note that the two
methods produce
the same results
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Figure 2-1b. Method #2 for plotting a point with the components:

70% X, 20% Y, and 10% Z on triangular diagrams. An
Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, John Winter,
Prentice Hall.
To classify a rock via the IUGS system, the following

steps must be taken:
Determine the mode (% of each mineral present based on
volume)
Estimated on the cumulative area of each mineral in
either hand sample or in thin section
Point counts are a more precise method of determining
mode, but are time-intensive
We assume that area will correlate directly to volume
Normalize totals to 100%
From the mode, determine the following:
Q = % quartz
P = % plagioclase (An5-An100)
A = % alkali feldspar
F = total % feldspathoids
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M = total % mafics and accessories

Most igneous rocks found at the Earths surface will
have at least 10% Q+A+P or F+A+P
Quartz and feldspathoids are not stable with one
another (well deal with why in chapters 5-7), so they
will never occur in equilibrium with one another
If the rock meets this 10% minimum, ignore M and
normalize the remaining three components to 100%
Determine if the rock is phaneritic or aphanitic and
choose the appropriate diagram
Plot the rock in the appropriate field
A few issues for phaneritic rocks:
Rocks that plot near P cannot be distinguished from
one another based on QAPF ratios
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Anorthosites = greater 90% plagioclase in the unnormalized mode

Diorite and gabbro are distinguished by mode of mafics
(>35% = gabbro) in hand sample, or by plagioclase
composition (>An50 = gabbro) in thin section
Replace the foid term with the appropriate feldspathoid
name in the APF triangle
It is acceptable to add a mineralogical, chemical, or textural
adjective to the beginning of an IUGS classification
E.g. leuco-granite, mela-granite, pegmatitic orthoclase
granite
If you use more than one mineral to describe a rock, the
minerals are listed in increasing modal concentration
E.g. a muscovite biotite granite would have more
biotite then muscovite
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Q
Quartzolite
90
90
Quartz-rich
Granitoid
60
ar G
ran
ite
60
Granodiorite
ali F
e
ldsp
Granite
lite
na
To
Classification of
Phaneritic
Igneous Rocks
The rock must contain a total of

at least 10% of the minerals below.
Renormalize to 100%
Alkali Fs.
Quartz Syenite
Alkali Fs.
Syenite
Alk
(a)
20
20
5
10
Quartz
Monzonite
Quartz
Syenite
Syenite
35
(Foid)-bearing
Syenite
Monzonite
(Foid)-bearing
Monzonite
Quartz
Monzodiorite
65
Monzodiorite
(Foid)-bearing
Monzodiorite
ite
en
Sy
Figure 2-2. A classification of the phaneritic igneous

rocks. a. Phaneritic rocks with more than 10% (quartz +
feldspar + feldspathoids). After IUGS.
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(Foid)
Monzosyenite
Anorthosite
P
10
(Foid)-bearing
Diorite/Gabbro
(Foid)
Monzodiorite
(Fo
id)
id)
(Fo
(Foid)-bearing
Alkali Fs. Syenite
5 Diorite/Gabbro/
90
Ga
bb
ro
10
Qtz. Diorite/
Qtz. Gabbro
60
60
(Foid)olites
9
F
A few notes for aphanitic rocks:

It is difficult, even in thin section, to determine the
representative mineralogical mode
Vitreous or amporphous material may constitute a large
portion of the rock
When the matrix is impossible to determine a mode from,
the mode must be based on the phenocrystsrocks
determined this way are called phenotypes and have the
prefix pheno- added to the name (e.g. pheno-dacite)
Based on phenotypes, the rock is biased toward the
early-forming phases and is not correct for the rock as a
whole
A better way to classify volcanic rocks is based on a
chemical analysis of the rock
The IUGS suggests a diagram that plots the alkalis vs
silica
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10
Normalize the chemical analysis to 100% on

a non-volatile basis, add Na2O and K2O and
plot against SiO2
Rocks that plot near P are also problematic for
aphanitic igneous samples
IUGS suggests that the distinction between andesite
and basalt be based on either the color index or
silica content
There are also several other types of important rocks
not included on the IUGS diagrams discussed so far
E.g. hypabyssal (shallow intrusive), carbonatites,
lamproites, etc.
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Classification of
Aphanitic Igneous
Rocks
60
60
Rhyolite
Dacite
20
20
Trachyte
Latite
35
A
10
(foid)-bearing
Trachyte
Andesite/Basalt
65
(foid)-bearing
Latite
Phonolite
(foid)-bearing
Andesite/Basalt
10
Tephrite
Figure 2-3. A classification and nomenclature

of volcanic rocks. After IUGS.
60
60
(Foid)ites
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12
F
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Figure 2-4. A
chemical
classification of
volcanics based
on total alkalis vs.
silica. After Le
Bas et al. (1986)
J. Petrol., 27,
745-750. Oxford
University Press.
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13
Mafic (plagioclase + mafics) and ultramafic (>90% mafics)

rocks are classified using the following diagrams:
Plagioclase
Anorthosite
Figure 2-2. A classification of the phaneritic

igneous rocks. b. Gabbroic rocks. c. Ultramafic
rocks. After IUGS.
lite
c to
Tro
Ga
bb
ro
90
Olivine
gabbro
Plagioclase-bearing ultramafic rocks
Pyroxene
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(b)
Olivine
14
Figure 2-2. A classification of the phaneritic

igneous rocks. b. Gabbroic rocks. c. Ultramafic
rocks. After IUGS.
Olivine
Dunite
90
Lherzolite
lite
Ha
rzb
urg
Peridotites
hr
We
ite
(c)
40
10
10
Orthopyroxene
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Pyroxenites
Olivine Websterite
Orthopyroxenite
Websterite
Clinopyroxenite
Clinopyroxene
15
Pyroclastic Rocks
These rocks could be classified like volcanics if the
chemical composition is available, but since they
commonly have a high number of foreign material within
them, this is not normally attempted
Most pyroclastics are classified based on the type of
pyroclasts or on the size of the fragments
If the type of fragments is used, the volume percent of:
glass, rock fragments, and crystal fragments is derived and
plotted on a ternary diagram
If size is the classification basis, then the volume percent
of ash (<2 mm), lapilli (2-64 mm), and blocks & bombs
(>64 mm) is calculated and plotted on a ternary diagram
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Figure 2-5. Classification of the pyroclastic rocks. a. Based on type of material. After Pettijohn
(1975) Sedimentary Rocks, Harper & Row, and Schmid (1981) Geology, 9, 40-43. b. Based on the
size of the material. After Fisher (1966) Earth Sci. Rev., 1, 287-298.
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17
Igneous Rock Textures

Chapter 3
1/22/02
We use the textures of a rock to determine not only how

the rock was formed (primary), but also how the rock was
altered (secondary)
Texture tends to be described in thin section, but we can
also observe some of the structures in hand sample and
some on a smaller scale with the SEM or microprobe (or
the ridiculously small scale with the TEM)
There is a list of some of the common igneous textural
terms at the end of chapter 3 in Wintersome of the terms
will also be used for metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
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Primary Textures
For crystals to form and grow, three processes must

occur:
Nucleation
Very small crystals have a high ratio of surface area
to volume and are highly susceptible to re-absorption
Though the melt might be at the appropriate
temperature (saturation temperature) for crystal
growth, until the crystals can reach a critical size and
survive, crystallization can not occur
The critical size can be called either an embryonic
cluster or a crystal nucleus
Usually the melt must be either supersaturated or
undercooled (temperature lower then saturation
temperature) for the nucleation to occur
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The other option is for the mineral to crystallize on a

pre-existing surface: either a seed crystal or on a
different mineral (e.g. pyroxene rims on olivine)
Crystals with simpler structures (e.g. oxides,
nesosilicates) tend to nucleate more easily then more
complicated minerals (e.g. tectosilicates)
Crystal growth
Ions will add onto the existing crystal to produce
crystal growth
Simple, high symmetry crystals will have prominent
faces
Amphiboles and pyroxenes tend to add more
lengthwise then widthwise to follow the silica chains;
micas form in sheets
Defects may increase the growth of a crystal, will
impurities tend to inhibit the addition of ions
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Low-energy faces are more stable then high-energy

faces, and so they dominate
Diffusion
A crystal tends to be a different composition then the
melt surrounding it
As the crystal grows, it depletes the surrounding area
of the cations & anions the mineral incorporates
within itfor the crystal to continue growing, the
required ions must be able to diffuse across the
deplete magma zone
When crystals form, they also release heat in the form
of the latent heat of crystallizationif the heat
cannot diffuse away from the mineral, the
temperature will rise to a great enough degree that
crystallization cannot continue
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Rates
The rates of the nucleation, crystal growth and diffusion all
play a role in the final texture of the rock
The slowest process will define how quickly
crystallization can occur
We also need to consider cooling rate of the magma
Slow cooling will allow equilibrium to be
maintained
Quick cooling will cause disequilibrium as
undercooling occursnucleation, growth, and
diffusion wont be able to keep up
The cooling rate can determine how fast the other
three rates move
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Undercooling causes the

rate of nucleation and
growth to increase at first
As undercooling
continues, however, the
rates drop off as the
viscosity increases and
the kinetic energy
decreases
The growth maximum is
at a higher temperature
then the nucleation max,
since it is easier to diffuse
through the melt and add
onto an exisiting crystal
then to nucleate a new
crystal nearby
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Examples: a melt that

cools & remains at
Ta would produce
few crystals that are
very large
Tb would have many
small crystals
Tc is too low for
either nucleation or
crystallization and
the rock would
solidify as glass with
little to no crystals
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Rocks that cool at two different temperatures are also possible

(e.g. a rock that cooled at Ta to produce large crystals, but was
then further cooled to Tb to crystallize the rest of the melt)
Porphyritic rocks are classified as volcanic or plutonic
based on the matrix
Vitrophyric = phenocrysts set in a glassy groundmass
Poikilitic = large crystal contains inclusions of other small
crystals
Growth rate depends on diffusion rates to a large extent, since
it is hard to crystallize a mineral if the correct components are
not available
Diffusion is easier in low-viscosity melts (i.e. those with
high temperature, high H2O-content, low SiO2-content)
Small ions with low charges also diffuse more readily then
large polymerized complexes
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Different minerals crystallize at different rates and will also

be undercooled at different temperatures
The situation of one mineral being at Ta while another is
at Tb could also cause a porphyritic texturewhile the
rocks remains at one temperature!
Loss of a H2O-rich fluid phase will quickly raise the
crystallization temperature and can also cause a
porphyritic texture
Crystal shape will depend to some extent on what is the
limiting factor:
If diffusion is not the slowest rate, euhedral crystals will
form
If diffusion is slower then growth, dendritic crystals form
Spinifex texture is found in quickly cooled ultramafics
where the olivine crystals grew rapidly in a low-viscosity
melt
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10
Dendritic Texture
Figure 3-2. Backscattered electron image of
quenched blue glassy pahoehoe, 1996
Kalapana flow, Hawaii. Black minerals are
felsic plagioclase and gray ones are mafics.
a. Large embayed olivine phenocryst with
smaller plagioclase laths and clusters of
feathery augite nucleating on plagioclase.
Magnification ca. 400X. b. ca. 2000X
magnification of feathery quenched augite
crystals nucleating on plagioclase (black) and
growing in a dendritic form outward. Augite
nucleates on plagioclase rather than preexisting augite phenocrysts, perhaps due to
local enrichment in mafic components as
plagioclase depletes the adjacent liquid in Ca,
Al, and Si. John Winter and Prentice Hall.
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11
Since crystal corners and edges have a larger volume of

liquid to use, they tend to grow faster forming skeletal
crystals
In plagiocalse, the corners tend to grow straighter and
form swallow-tailed shapes
Figure 3-3. a. Volume of liquid
(green) available to an edge or
corner of a crystal is greater than
for a side. b. Volume of liquid
available to the narrow end of a
slender crystal is even greater.
After Shelley (1993). Igneous
and Metamorphic Rocks Under
the Microscope. Chapman
and Hall. London.
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bb
12
Skeletal and Swallow-Tailed Crystals
Figure 3-4. a. Skeletal olivine phenocryst with rapid growth at edges enveloping melt
at ends. Taupo, N.Z. b. Swallow-tail plagioclase in trachyte, Remarkable Dike, N.Z.
Length of both fields ca. 0.2 mm. From Shelley (1993). Igneous and Metamorphic
Rocks Under the Microscope. Chapman and Hall. London.
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Nucleation at Preferred Sites

Epitaxis is the process by which one mineral crystallizes
on another mineraleasier then nucleating its own seed
crystals
The two minerals must have similar crystal structures
E.g. sillimanite on biotite or muscovite rather then
directly replacing kyanite
Rapakivi describes the specific growth of albitic
plagioclase on orthoclase
The following two textures are thought to form during
devitrification of glass, which well deal with in secondary
structures
Spherulitic texture consists of needles of quartz and
alkali feldspars that radiate out from a common center;
found in silicic volcanics
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14
Variolitic deals with needles of only plagioclase

radiating outwards found in basalt
Minerals can also nucleate on the walls of dikes
Comb structure is formed by elongate quartz growth
with the c-axes perpendicular to the wall
Crescummulate is similar to a comb structure, but it
describes the parallel growth of a non-equilibrium
assemblage of olivines, pyroxenes, feldspars, or quartz
Found in layered mafic plutons (can be in multiple
layers) and on the edges of granites
Minerals can be up to several centimeters long
Dike wall
C-axis
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15
Compositional Zoning
Zoning occurs when a mineral changes composition as it
grows; this normally occurs due to a change in P, T, or
available cations in the system
Zoning is easiest to observe using either the SEM or the
electron microprobe, but we can also observe zoning in
thin section based on pleochroism, extinction angles, and
birefringence
Plagioclase is the example constantly used in igneous
rocks, since the extinction angle is highly dependent on
An-content
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16
Figure 3-5. a. Compositionally zoned hornblende phenocryst with pronounced color

variation visible in plane-polarized light. Field width 1 mm. b. Zoned plagioclase
twinned on the carlsbad law. Andesite, Crater Lake, OR. Field width 0.3 mm. John
Winter and Prentice Hall.
1/22/02
17
In a perfect equilibrium world, zoning would never occur,

since the change in the composition of the melt would also
diffuse through the crystal to make it homogeneoushowever
in reality, diffusion through a crystal tends to be slow and the
crystal is not in equilibrium with the surrounding melt
diffusion rate depends on mineral, e.g. plagioclase requires
Si-Al exchange and since Al doesnt diffuse readily,
equilibrium is not attained
There are several types of zoning possible:
Normal zoning forms cores stable at higher temperature
and rims stable at lower temperatures
Reverse zoning has lower temperature cores surrounded by
higher temperature rims (usually found in metamorphic
rocks)
Oscillatory zoning is considered igneous and reflect
changes in the magma composition
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18
Figure 3-6. Examples

of plagioclase zoning
profiles determined by
microprobe point
traverses.
a.
Repeated sharp
reversals attributed to
magma mixing,
followed by normal
cooling increments. b.
Smaller and irregular
oscillations caused by
local disequilibrium
crystallization. c.
Complex oscillations
due to combinations of
magma mixing and
local disequilibrium.
From Shelley (1993).
Igneous and
Metamorphic Rocks
Under the Microscope.
Chapman and Hall.
London.
1/22/02
Image taken
with electron
microprobe of
zoned allanite
Oscillatory
zoning marks
the cores of
the
allanitesur
mised to be
igenous
Metamorphic
rims are the
lighter color
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19
epidote
20
10
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21
Crystallization Sequence
The first crystals to form from a melt that hasnt been
severely undercooled will be euhedral in shape
As more crystals form, space will be limited and the
crystals will be subhedral progressing to anhedral in shape
The last minerals (the anhedral ones) will be interstitial,
filling in the space between the early-formed minerals
Some zoned minerals will have euhedral cores and
anhedral rims
This principal of shape, however, doesnt always hold true:
it really depends on the surface energy of the crystal face
Minerals with low silica polymerization are more likely
to be euhedral
Geologists also use crystal size to determine the sequence,
but as weve already seen, thats also not always reliable
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22
11
Figure 3-7. Euhedral early pyroxene with late interstitial plagioclase (horizontal twins). Stillwater
complex, Montana. Field width 5 mm. John Winter and Prentice Hall.
1/22/02
23
Inclusions within a mineral are also used to determine which

mineral formed first, second, etc.
Since there may be overlap when one and a second mineral
formed, look for minerals that are consistently found as
inclusions
Ophitic texture (a single pyroxene contains several euhedral
plagioclase laths) is most likely caused by simultaneous
growth of the pyroxene and plagioclasethe plag nucleated
multiple xtals, but the pyroxene only one
Several textures are indications of simultaneous crystal growth:
Granophyric = intergrowth quartz and alkali feldspar, which
have intricate skeletal shapes; the quartz will go extinct at
the same time
Graphic = coarser version of granophyric; can be seen in
hand sample
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24
12
Figure 3-8. Ophitic texture. A single pyroxene envelops several well-developed

plagioclase laths. Width 1 mm. Skaergrd intrusion, E. Greenland. John Winter and
Prentice Hall.
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25
Figure 3-9. a. Granophyric quartz-alkali feldspar intergrowth at the margin of a 1-cm

dike. Golden Horn granite, WA. Width 1mm. b. Graphic texture: a single crystal of
cuneiform quartz (darker) intergrown with alkali feldspar (lighter). Laramie Range, WY.
John Winter and Prentice Hall.
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26
13
Magmatic Reaction and Resorption

Crystals can react with the melt to produce different
minerals as the melt is cooled
E.g. olivine reacts with the melt to form pyroxene
May occur due to a drop in pressure, magma mixing, or
devolatilization
Resorption = dissolution of a mineral back into the melt or
solution
Sieve texture = deep and irregular embayments caused
either by advanced resorption or rapid growth enveloping
melt due to undercooling
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27
a
b
Figure 3-10. Olivine mantled by orthopyroxene in (a) plane-polarized light and (b)
crossed nicols, in which olivine is extinct and the pyroxenes stand out clearly. Basaltic
andesite, Mt. McLaughlin, Oregon. Width ~ 5 mm. John Winter and Prentice Hall.
1/22/02
28
14
Figure 3-11. c.
Hornblende
phenocryst
dehydrating to
Fe-oxides plus
pyroxene due to
pressure release
upon eruption,
andesite. Crater
Lake, OR. Width
1 mm. John
Winter and
Prentice Hall.
1/22/02
29
30
Figure 3-11. a.
Sieve texture in a
cumulophyric
cluster of
plagioclase
phenocrysts.
Note the later
non-sieve rim on
the cluster.
Andesite, Mt.
McLoughlin, OR.
Width 1 mm.
John Winter and
Prentice Hall.
1/22/02
15
Figure 3-11. b.
Resorbed and
embayed olivine
phenocryst. Width
0.3 mm. John
Winter and Prentice
Hall.
1/22/02
31
Differential Movement
Flow within a melt can also cause several textures that we
consider traditionally metmorphic in nature
E.g. foliation or lineation
Trachitic = lath-shaped microlites in a volcanic rock are
strongly aligned normally flowing around the phenocrysts
Pilotaxitic or felty = lath-shaped microlites that are random
Flow banding = alternating layers of differing composition
caused by the mingling of two magmatic fluids
Synneusis = phenocrysts that stick to one another due to
surface tension; maybe a reason why growth twins form
Cummulophyric = texture resultant from synneusis
Glomeroporphyritic = texture resultant from synneusis of
only one type of mineral
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32
16
Figure 3-12. a. Trachytic texture in which

microphenocrysts of plagioclase are aligned
due to flow. Note flow around phenocryst
(P). Trachyte, Germany. Width 1 mm.
From MacKenzie et al. (1982). John
Figure 3-12. b. Felty or pilotaxitic texture

in which the microphenocrysts are
randomly oriented. Basaltic andesite, Mt.
McLaughlin, OR. Width 7 mm. John
1/22/02
33
Figure 3-13. Flow banding in

andesite. Mt. Rainier, WA. John
1/22/02
34
17
Glomerophophyritic texture: the plagioclase have been clustered

together in this thin section drawing
http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/GSC425/Ig-Met1.html
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35
Cumulate Textures
In a cumulate, the minerals collect together so that they are in

contact with one another with the melt in the interstitial space (a)
Orthocumulate = liquid crystallized in place (isolated from magma
chamber); forms rims on original mineral (white) plus other
minerals (purple, green, yellow hatched) compositionally derived
from the isolated melt (b)
After Wager and Brown (1967), Layered Igneous Rocks. Freeman. San Francisco.
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36
18
Adcumulate = interstitial liquid was in active exchange with the

magma chamber and the original minerals (white) continue to grow;
a few other minerals may be trapped in the final open spaces (pink),
but the majority will be one mineral type (c)
Heteradcumulate = liquid crystallizes to form rims to the 1st mineral
(white) plus other large minerals (red and yellow hatched) that only
nucleate one or two grains and become poikilitic; requires exchange
between the interstitial melt and the magma chamber (d)
After Wager and Brown (1967), Layered Igneous Rocks. Freeman. San Francisco.
1/22/02
Twin = intergrowth of two or more

orientations of the same mineral with
a specific crystallographic relationship
between them (e.g. mirror plane,
rotational axis)
Primary twins = growth twins
Feldspars are commonly twinned
either by:
Albite twins = parallel stripes of
plagioclase that go extinct at
different angles
Carlsbad twins = one half of the
crystal goes extinct at a different
angle then the other half
You can have a crystal with both
types
37
Primary
Twinning
http://www.geosci.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/minerals/plagtwins.X.html
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38
19
Volcanic Textures
Microlites = groundmass crystals that are birefringent
Crystallites = groundmass crystals too small to be
birefringent
For basalts:
Ophitic texture grades into sub-ophitic (pyroxenes
smaller, but still envelop plag) to finally intergranular
Intergranular = equal sized plag and pyroxene with
little to no glass
Intersertal = a significant portion of the rock is
interstitial glass or altered glass material
Hyalo-ophitic = the glass surrounds the microlites &
microphenocrysts
Hyalophilitic = glass is the dominant phase
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In silicic flows (rhyolite & dacite), a holohyaline (glassy)

texture is more common
Obsidian = rock containing > 80% glass; some authors
limit this term to silicic-glasses
Tachylite or basaltic glass = terms used for more
basaltic rocks with > 80% glass
Vesicles = voids left in the volcanics after bubbles of gas
escape; usually sub-spherical in shape
Basalt can grade from vesicular basalt to scoria
(increasing vesicle percentage)
Amygdules = vesicule filled by a later-forming mineral (e.g.
zeolite, carbonate, opal)
Pumice = light & frothy rock that can float on water;
usually light grey in color
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40
20
The black, ovals features in this

scoriaceous basalt are vesicles. Note
the acicular, white plagioclase laths
throughout and the euhedral, white
olivine phenocryst at the lower right.
The oval feature in this photomicrograph is an amygdule: a formerly open
vesicle which has been filled with a
secondary mineral(s) precipitated from
low-T ground waters which have
penetrated into the rock. In this case,
the amygdule is probably filled with a
zeolite mineral.
1/22/02
http://www.geosci.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/volcanic-micro/amygdule.X.html
http://www.geosci.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/volcanic-micro/vesicles.X.html
41
Pyroclastic Textures
Pyroclastic material usually consists of pulverized rock,
rock fragments, mineral fragments, and glassy material
The intersitial glass originally crystallized between the
vesicles in the pumice, but during the eruption, the vesicles
are destroyed leaving behind cuspate- or spicule-shaped
three-point glass shards
Eutaxitic = textural description of structures caused by
bending, compression, and deformation within a
pyroclastic deposit
Fiamme = piece of pumice that has had all of the gas
bubbles squeezed out of it and has become the black color
of obsidian
1/22/02
42
21
Figure 3-16. a. The interstitial liquid (red)

between bubbles in pumice (left) become
3-pointed-star-shaped glass shards in ash
containing pulverized pumice. If they are
sufficiently warm (when pulverized or after
accumulation of the ash) the shards may
deform and fold to contorted shapes, as
seen on the right and b. in the
photomicrograph of the Rattlesnake
ignimbrite, SE Oregon. Width 1 mm.
John Winter.
b
1/22/02
43
In less viscous lavas (e.g. Hawaiian basaltic lavas) fine

sprays are caused by bubbles bursting and can form either
Peles tears (glassy pellets) or Peles hair (delicate glass
threads)
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/PeleTears.html
1/22/02
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/PeleHair.html
44
22
Accretionary lapilli = spheroidal balls of several layers of

ash around a nucleus; forms in very moist air
Pisolitic tuffs = consolidated deposit of accretionary lapilli
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/lapilli.html
1/22/02
45
Secondary Textures
Secondary textures occur after the melt has completely
solidified, so they are technically metamorphic in nature
Even after the pluton has solidified, it is at a fairly high
temperature and pressure (equivalent to high P&T meta)
for an extended period of time
Autometamorphism = solid-state processes that occur due
to the igneous heat of a pluton (occur while the pluton is
cooling); does not include diagenetic and weathering
processes
Ostwald ripening = process of annealing of crystals in a
static environment
Small crystals with convex outward curvature (e.g. a
round grain) are not as stable as grains with straight
boundaries that meet at ~120
1/22/02
46
23
The small grains will

be eliminated in favor
of a uniform coarsegrained equilibrium
texture; this works best
in a monominerallic
rock, which igneous
rocks rarely areit
will, however, cause a
more uniform grain
size distribution
John Winter and Prentice Hall
1/22/02
47
Polymorphic Transformation
Displacive transformation = shifting of atomic positions
and bending of bond angles (e.g. high-quartz to lowquartz)
Reconstructive transformations = breaking and re-forming
of bonds (e.g. graphite to diamond)
Pseudomorph = one mineral replaces another, however the
distinctive shape of the first mineral is kept and can be
recognize
Pseudomorphs of kaolinite
after plagioclase in this
altered basalt
http://www.privat.schlund.de/D/DoehrmannHenning/wafrika.htm
1/22/02
48
24
Secondary Twinning
Secondary twins can occur either due to deformation or
polymorphic transformation
Transformation twins = formed when a high-temperature
polymorph revert to a low-temperature structure
High-temperature polymorphs have greater symmetry,
so when the transformation occurs, the mineral has a
choice or 2+ lower-symmetry orientations
If the entire crystal chooses the same orientation, no
twins
Cross-hatched or tartan twinning in K-feldspar occurs
when different portions of the crystal assume different
symmetry orientations
1/22/02
49
d
c
Figure 3-18. (c-d) Tartan twins in

microcline. Field widths ~1 mm.
http://www.geosci.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/minerals/microcline.X.html
1/22/02
50
25
Deformation twins = response of minerals to deformation;

occur in plagioclase at temperatures generally <400 C;
instead of being extremely straight lamellar twins, they
tend to taper or be bent; can occur in calcite as well as
plagioclase; more likely in metamorphic rocks
Figure 3-19. Polysynthetic
deformation twins in plagioclase.
Note how they concentrate in areas
of deformation, such as at the
maximum curvature of the bent
cleavages, and taper away toward
undeformed areas. Gabbro,
Wollaston, Ontario. Width 1 mm.
1/22/02
51
Exsolution
Exsolution commonly occurs in: alkali feldspars (perthite
and antiperthite), pyroxenes (low- and high-Ca),
amphiboles, pyroxene with lamellae of plagioclase, etc.
http://www.geosci.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/plutonic-micro%7F/perthite1.X.html
1/22/02
52
26
Secondary Reactions & Replacement

Deuteric = autometamorphic properties that involve
hydration
Uralitization = pyroxene to amphibole transformation;
can be rims of amphibole around pyr, or just
inclusions of pyroxene left within the amph crystals
Biotitization = pyroxene/amphibole (latter more
common) to biotite; because of the extra Ca, epidote
may also be produced
Chloritization = any mafic mineral to chlorite; occurs at
low temperatures & high water content
Seritization = felsic minerals (feldspars/feldspathoids)
to sericite; minerals take on a speckled appearance; K
ions are required to seritized plagioclase (fluid phase)
Saussuritization = plagioclase to epidote
1/22/02
53
Pyx
Hbl
Figure 3-20. a. Pyroxene largely

replaced by hornblende. Some
pyroxene remains as light areas (Pyx)
in the hornblende core. Width 1 mm. b.
Chlorite (green) replaces biotite (dark
brown) at the rim and along cleavages.
Tonalite. San Diego, CA. Width 0.3
mm. John Winter and Prentice Hall.
1/22/02
Chl
Bt
54
27
Symplectite = intergrowths of two+ minerals as they

replace another mineral; replacement may be partial or
complete
Myrmekite = intergrowth of dendritic quartz in a single
crystal of plagioclase; common in granitic rocks & in
metamorphic rocks; occur preferentially in plag in contact
with K-feldspar
Devitrification = glass to fine-grained mineral aggregates
1/22/02
55
Figure 3-21. Myrmekite formed in plagioclase at the boundary with K-feldspar. Photographs courtesy L.
Collins. http://www.csun.edu/~vcgeo005
1/22/02
56
28
Igneous Structures & Field

Relationships
Chapter 4
1/22/02
Extrusive
The type of volcanic products depends greatly on the
properties of the magma that erupted
Magma properties depend on:
Viscosity
Silica content
H2O content
Crystal content
Volatile content
Yield strength = initial resistance to deformation that must
be overcome before the material can act plastically,
elastically, or brittlely
1/22/02
Figure 4-1. a. Calculated viscosities of anhydrous silicate liquids at one atmosphere

pressure, calculated by the method of Bottinga and Weill (1972) by Hess (1989),
Origin of Igneous Rocks. Harvard University Press. b. Variation in the viscosity of
basalt as it crystallizes (after Murase and McBirney, 1973), Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 84,
3563-3592.
c. Variation in the viscosity of rhyolite at 1000oC with increasing H2O
content (after Shaw, 1965, Amer. J. Sci., 263, 120-153).
1/22/02
Spatter = incandescent blob that suddenly bursts; occurs in

low-viscosity magmas when the volatiles escape
Vesicles = gas bubbles that rise and concentrate near the
surface of the lava
Scoria = highly vesicular basalt
Pumice = frothy glass from rhyolitic magmas
1/22/02
Central Vent Landforms
Vent = subcircular surface hole through which magma

erupts
The old vent may be filled by solidified magma, so that
the lava must find a new fracture or weakness that is the
next vent
Crater = bowl or funnel-shaped depression at vent
Fissure or rift = magma of low viscosity escapes from a
long fracture; common in plateau or flood basalts
Shield = low slope landform ranging from a few kilometers
on up in diameter; form predominately from basaltic lavas
Many flows from the central vent, but also from flank
eruptions and fissure eruptions
E.g. Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, which rise 9 km from
the bottom of the ocean up to their peaks
1/22/02
Composite volcano or stratovolcano = steep-sided (up to

36) volcanoes ~1/100 the size of a shield volcano
normally composed of a wide-range of lava
compositionsusually more silicic (~andesite)
The layers tend switch back and forth between
pyroclastics (more silicic) and lava flows (more mafic)
the ratio of pyroclastic-layers to flow-layers varies
from volcano to volcano and also within the history
of one given volcano
E.g. Mt. St. Helens 1983 eruption was dacitic, but
also has had a history of more mafic flows
Volcano complex = larger area over which the volcanism is
spread throughout with sporadic activity (e.g. Lassen Peak)
1/22/02
Figure 4-3. a. Illustrative cross section of a stratovolcano.

After Macdonald (1972), Volcanoes. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1-150. b. Deeply glaciated north
wall of Mt. Rainier, WA, a stratovolcano, showing layers of
pyroclastics and lava flows. John Winter and Prentice
Hall.
1/22/02
There is a large size difference between a shield,

composite, dome and cinder cone
If Mauna Loa stood completely on land (i.e. if we
drained the Pacific) it would be the tallest mountain on
Earth
Olympus Mons (Mars) is the largest volcano in the
solar system (~14 km) and is also a shield volcano
Figure 4-2. Volcanic landforms associated with a central vent (all at same scale).
1/22/02
There are also several smaller landforms formed during

limited eruptive events:
Pyroclastic cones = collection of airborne ash, lapilli,
blocks, and bombs fallen around a central vent during a
weak eruptive phase
Can be called either scoria cones or cinder cones
Last between a few years to a few decades
Slopes are ~33 (angle of repose for scoria) and the
cones are normally basaltic
Flatten due to mass wasting
Maar = result of interaction between hot magma with
groundwater (hydromagmatic or phreatic)
Lower then scoria cones, but have a larger central
crater
Tends to excavates a crater into the original
substrate
1/22/02
Figure 4-6. a. Maar: Hole-in-the-Ground, Oregon

(courtesy of USGS). c. Scoria cone, Surtsey, Iceland,
1996 ( courtesy Bob and Barbara Decker).
c
1/22/02
10
Tuff ring = also caused by the interaction of water with magma,

but usually closer to the surface than a maar
Magma tends to be basaltic
Normally a higher ratio of magma to H2O then a maar
Forms a fairly subdued rim of scoria & ash and layers of
pyroclastics that dip both inwards and outwards at the same
angle
E.g. Diamond Head on Oahu
Tuff cone = smaller then a tuff ring with more steeply dipping
sides and smaller craters
Also formed from the interaction of magma with water
Tend to result from less violent and longer eruptive phases
then either maars or tuff rings
Similar to scoria cone, but the layers dip both inwards and
outwards
1/22/02
11
Figure 4-5. Cross sectional structure and morphology

of small explosive volcanic landforms with approximate
scales. After Wohletz and Sheridan (1983), Amer. J. Sci,
283, 385-413.
Figure 4-6. b. Tuff ring: Diamond Head, Oahu, Hawaii

(courtesy of Michael Garcia), 1996 ( courtesy Bob and
Barbara Decker).
1/22/02
12
Dome = formed from the movement of a silicic (dacite or

rhyolite) magma moves relatively slowly & quietly to the
surface
The magma is largely degassed
Can form either early or late in the eruptive process, but
the latter is more common
Endogenous = dome inflates from the injection of
magma within it
Exogenous = dome eruption where the later additions
break through the crust and flow outward
Surface of a dome tends to be brecciated as the dome
inflates; broken blocks accumulate as an apron of talus
at the base of the dome
Spine = section of the dome pushed outward or upward
due to inflation (e.g. the end of the last eruption of Mt.
Pele)
1/22/02
13
spine
Talus
apron
Figure 4-7. Schematic cross section through a lava dome.
1/22/02
14
Coule = dome that flattens and flows downhill

Cryptodome = dome inflated beneath the Earths surface
(e.g. bulge on the side of Mt. St. Helens before it blew)
Caldera = large-scale collapse feature normally forming the
central vent
Occur when the dense material above the magma chamber
collapses inwards
May fill to form a lava lake if the collapse displaces the
magma upwards
Can be related to either basaltic (Hawaii) or rhyolitic
(Long Valley) eruptions; the latter tend to be larger
Caldera complex = overlapping calderas (e.g.
Yellowstone)
Resurgent caldera = caldera that has risen back up
towards its original height; may be due to magma inflation
1/22/02
15
Fissure Eruptions
Occur as magma erupts to the surface along a fracture or a
series of fractures
Feeder dike = conduit to the eruption that has filled with
solidified magma
Can occur in relation to a central vent or in areas
undergoing extension (e.g. Basin and Range, East African
Rift Valley)
Most commonly occur at MORs, so not often seen by
humans
1/22/02
16
Flow Features
Occur nominally from magmas with low viscosities and gas
contentsthe lower the viscosity, the further the flow can
reach
Rarely kill people, but are responsible for huge amounts of
property damage
Pahoehoe = flow feature caused by very low viscosity lava
flows; smooth surfaces that may appear ropy; only found in
basalts
Aa = flow feature of more viscous lava (usually cooler); blocks
of sharp cindery and scoreaceous material that looks like
rubble; found in a wide variety of lava compositions
Lava tube = conduit formed by cooled basalt that can carry
lavas a great distant from the vent; normally drains to leave a
cave
1/22/02
17
Figure 4-12. a. Ropy surface of a pahoehoe flow,

1996 flows, Kalapana area, Hawaii. John
Figure 4-12. b. Pahoehoe (left) and aa (right)

meet in the 1974 flows from Mauna Ulu, Hawaii.
1/22/02
18
Inflated flow = thin pahoehoe inflates due to injection of

more magma once it has already formed a crust
Block lava = larger, smooth-sided blocks; eruptions of
block lava are very, very rare in human experience
Flow foliation = aligned phenocrysts, bands of different
colors, or pumice bands; forms in thin intermediate to
silicic lavas
Layers could represent different magmas or varying
conditions (temp, gas content, etc) of one magma
The layers could have been stretched, sheared, or
folded (or a combination of these processes)
Columnar joints = form in cooled lava that flowed on
land; ideally consists of four parts:
Thin vesiculated and brecciated flow top
An upper colonnade (regular straight columns)
1/22/02
19
A central entablature (more irregular columns that are

curved and skewed normally)
Lower colonnade
Joints form as the flow contracts as it cools (generally
accepted)
Pillow lava = form through when basaltic lava flows
enter a body of water (e.g. the ocean) and form either
tongues or equidimensional blobs
1/22/02
20
10
Figure 4-13. a.
Schematic
drawing of
columnar joints
in a basalt flow,
showing the four
common
subdivisions of a
typical flow. The
column widths in
(a) are
exaggerated
about 4x. After
Long and Wood
(1986) Geol.
Soc. Amer. Bull.,
97, 1144-1155.
b. Colonnadeentablaturecolonnade in a
basalt flow,
Crooked River
Gorge, OR.
John Winter and
Prentice Hall.
1/22/02
21
Volcaniclastic
Volcanisclastic = any fragmented volcanic material
Autoclastic = material that break-up on their own (e.g. aa,
block flows, dome talus aprons, collapse features)
Pyroclastic = deposits caused by the fragmentation due to
explosive volcanic activity or aerial expulsion from a
volcanic vent
The particles are called pyroclasts and the deposited
material is termed tephra
Divided into two types: falls and flows (surges are a
subset of flows)
1/22/02
22
11
Fall deposits
Fallout from a vertical eruption occurs as either the material is
forcefully propelled upwards by the eruption or carried aloft by
convection and the buoyancy of the hot gasses emitting from the
vent
Fall deposits tend to be very well sorted with larger particles near
the vent and smaller further away
The size of the fall deposit depends on:
Rate of expulsion
Volume erupted
Force of explosion
Direction and velocity of the winds at the time of the eruption
The particles fall like snow irrespective of local topography and
cool in the air, so they rarely weld together after deposition except
near the vent
1/22/02
23
Figure 4-15. Ash cloud and deposits of the 1980

eruption of Mt. St. Helens. a. Photo of Mt. St.
Helens vertical ash column, May 18, 1980
(courtesy USGS). b. Vertical section of the ash
cloud showing temporal development during first
13 minutes. c. Map view of the ash deposit.
Thickness is in cm. After Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (
1981) in The 1980 Eruptions of Mount St.
Helens, Washington. USGS Prof. Pap., 1250,
557-600.
1/22/02
24
12
Figure 4-16. Approximate aerial extent

and thickness of Mt. Mazama (Crater
Lake) ash fall, erupted 6950 years ago.
After Young (1990), Unpubl. Ph. D.
thesis, University of Lancaster. UK.
1/22/02
25
Flow deposits
Dense ground-hugging clouds of gas-suspended

pyroclastic debris are what cause flow deposits
The cloud is denser then the surrounding air so it flows
downward
Flows are topographic dependent
There are several ways to create the dense clouds:
Collapse of a vertical explosive eruption that falls back
to earth and then flows down the volcano (e.g. Mt
Pinatubo)
Lateral blast of material out of the side of the volcano
(e.g. Mt. St. Helens)
boiling-over of a highly gas-charge magma (e.g. Mt.
Lamington)
Gravitational collapse of a hot dome (e.g. Mt Pele)
1/22/02
26
13
Figure 4-18. Types of pyroclastic flow deposits.

After MacDonald (1972), Volcanoes. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Fisher and Schminke (1984), Pyroclastic
Rocks. Springer-Verlag. Berlin. a. collapse of a
vertical explosive or plinian column that falls back to
earth, and continues to travel along the ground
surface. b. Lateral blast, such as occurred at Mt. St.
Helens in 1980. c. Boiling-over of a highly gascharged magma from a vent. d. Gravitational
collapse of a hot dome (Fig. 4-18d).
1/22/02
27
Flows are relatively hot (400-800 C) and can move at

rates greater than 50 km/hr (i.e. it can out run you)
Ignimbrite = deposit from a pyroclastic flow
Poorly sorted normally, though larger blocks may be
found near the bottom and smaller near the top
The high temperature of deposition causing
weldingmainly at the lower levels of the deposit
Tuff = sample of ignimbrite
Welded tuff = sample of ignimbrite that has been
welded; due to the heat, they are nominally ductile for a
period and are compressed due to the overlying
pressure to become dense and foliated
Flows are what kill peoplethey cover less ground then
falls, but the combination of fast moving & hot dense mass
is plain devastating
1/22/02
28
14
Surge deposits
More turbulent flow deposits causing dunes and anti-dunes
characterize surge deposits
They tend to have a lower amount of particulates then
other types of flows, so they are less dense
Surges are not as constrained by topography due to the
lower density, which means they can mantle everything in
an area but will still concentrate in the low-lying areas
Cause stratified deposits which may have current-bedding
features
Deposits are located near the vent
1/22/02
29
Intrusive
Pluton = any intrusive igneous body

Tabular = sheet-like pluton
Discordant = cut across external structures (e.g. bedding)
Concordant = parallel to country rock structure
1/22/02
30
15
Tabular Bodies
Sill = concordant tabular pluton
Intrudes along the planar weaknesses of the sedimentary
bedding or metamorphic foliations
Does not have to be horizontal(!), but depends on the
orientation of the country rock
Dike = discordant tabular pluton
Fills a fracture that cuts across bedding planes or foliations
Sills tend to be fed by dikes and both are more common in shallow
environments where the rock is brittle
Sills and dikes may represent one episode of magmatism or a
series of magma injections
Multiple = multiple injections of the same type of magma
Composite = multiple injections of different types of magmas
1/22/02
31
Though sills and dikes can occur singly, it is more likely

that the fractures will form in multiples
Swarm = genetically-related sets of dikes or sills
Often have orientations directly due to the stress the
rock underwent
Can either be:
Parallel to each other (e.g. feeder dikes of the
Columbia River Basalts)
In a radial pattern around a volcanic neck (e.g.
Spanish Peak area of Colorado)
As ring dikes due roof collapse over a magma
chamber (e.g. Island of Mull, Scotland); dip away
from center
In cone sheets formed when the roof over a magma
chamber was pushed up due to pressure; dip towards
center
1/22/02
32
16
Figure 4-21. Kangmiut dike swarm in the Sndre

Strmfjord region of SE Greenland. From Escher et al.
(1976), Geology of Greenland, The Geological
Survey of Denmark and Greenland. 77-95.
1/22/02
33
a
b
Figure 4-22. a. Radial dike swarm around Spanish Peaks, Colorado. After Knopf (1936), Geol. Soc. Amer.
Bull., 47, 1727-1784. b. Eroded remnant of a volcanic neck with radial dikes. Ship Rock, New Mexico. From
John Shelton (1966) Geology Illustrated. W. H. Freeman. San Francisco.
1/22/02
34
17
Figure 4-23. The formation of ring

dikes and cone sheets. a. Cross
section of a rising pluton causing
fracture and stoping of roof blocks.
b. Cylindrical blocks drop into less
dense magma below, resulting in
ring dikes. c. Hypothetical map view
of a ring dike with N-S striking
country rock strata as might result
from erosion to a level
approximating X-Y in (b). d.
Upward pressure of a pluton lifts the
roof as conical blocks in this cross
section. Magma follows the
fractures, producing cone sheets.
Original horizontal bedding plane
shows offsets in the conical blocks.
(a), (b), and (d) after Billings (1972),
Structural Geology. Prentice-Hall,
Inc. (c) after Compton (1985),
Geology in the Field. Wiley. New
York.
1/22/02
35
Figure 4-24. a. Map of ring dikes,

Island of Mull, Scotland. After Bailey
et al. (1924), Tertiary and posttertiary geology of Mull, Loch Aline
and Oban. Geol. Surv. Scot. Mull
Memoir. Copyright British Geological
Survey.
1/22/02
36
18
Figure 4-24. b.
Cone sheets in
the same area of
Mull, after
Ritchey (1961),
British Regional
Geology.
Scotland, the
Tertiary Volcanic
Districts. Note
that the yellow
felsite ring dike in
part (a) is shown
as the red ring in
the NW of part
(b). British
Geological
Survey.
1/22/02
37
Non-tabular bodies
Stock = pluton with an exposed area less that 100 km2
Batholith = pluton with an exposed area greater than 100 km2
Since the distinction depends on exposed area, it a stock may
volume-wise be larger than a batholith, depending on how
much cover has been eroded
In general, bigger plutons (whether exposed or not) are called
batholiths and smaller stocks
Cupola = areas exposed at the surface that are assumed (or
imaged) to be connected at depth
Plug = cylindrical conduit and magma chamber now solidified
Volcanic neck = exposed plug; caused by differential
weathering of the surrounding country rock to reveal the
igneous body
1/22/02
38
19
There are a number of specialized names for specific shapes of

plutons, but were not going to worry about themjust realize
theyre out there and a good geology dictionary will tell you what
they are
Figure 4-20. Schematic

block diagram of some
intrusive bodies. From
Winter.
1/22/02
39
Contacts
The nature of the contact between the igneous body and
the country rock depends on several factors:
Temperature of igneous vs country rock
Composition of country vs igneous rock
Presence/absence of fluids
Relative motion of the magma to country rock
The contact may range from sharp to gradational, where it
is difficult to decide where does the country rock really
end and the pluton begin
1/22/02
40
20
If the magma is injected into country rock (a), a gradation from

country rock country rock w/ dikes pluton will be formed
Apophyses = dikes, veins or tongues of magma sticking into
country rock
Agmatite = rock with a high concentration of xenoliths in an
igneous matrix
The presence of fluids (esp. silicic magmas) cause a situation
where permeation dominatesno distinct boundary
Figure 4-27. Gradational border zones between homogeneous igneous rock (light) and country rock (dark). After
Compton (1962), Manual of Field Geology. R. Compton.
1/22/02
41
Contact aureole = metamorphosed country rock

surrounding a pluton; greatest amount of metamorphism
near the pluton, least further away
Chill zone or chill margin = more quickly cooled area of
the pluton due to contact with the cold country rock;
greatest effect at the country rock-pluton contact and
decreases as you move into the pluton
The contact may also cause a sheared zone as the magma is
dragged by the country rockthe more viscous the
magma, the greater the shear zone
Schlieren = disc-shaped masses of elongated/flattened
minerals or ductile heated xenoliths
Country rock may also be sheared depending on the
properties of the magma
1/22/02
42
21
Intrusion Timing
Post-tectonic = emplaced after the orogeny

Syn-tectonic = emplaced during the orogeny
Pre-tectonic = intruded before the orogeny
It is often difficult to tell exactly when a pluton was
emplaced, since both pre- and syn-tectonic plutons will be
overprinted by regional metamorphism & foliations and
post-tectonic plutons may foliated during emplacement
1/22/02
43
Intrusion Depth
Depth zones = invention of Buddington (1959) based on the
structural and textural features of plutons at different depths
Epizone = relatively cool (< 300 C) country rock that is
brittle; depths < 10 km
Sharp, discordant contacts
Wall rocks often brecciated
Offshooting dikes and random lobes into the roof
Raft = large xenolith
Tend to be small
Fluid-rock interaction common & contact aureole
may be striking
Mesozone = 5 20 km at temperatures 300 500 C
Sharp to gradational contacts
1/22/02
44
22
Country rock is more ductile

Contact aureole is well-developed & foliated
Chill zone minor or absent
Pluton is commonly foliated or lineated near the contact, but
the pluton may be isotropic
Catazone = deeper then 10 km and temperatures from 450
600 C
Gradational contacts with no chill zones
Contacts between pluton and country tend to be concordant
Since the metamorphic rocks are a med-high conditions, a
contact aureole is normally not visible
The igneous rocks may look like high-grade gneisses since
theyre foliated (either as they formed or afterwards during
continued deformation)
Migmatites may also occur, which further blur the country vs
igneous distinction
1/22/02
45
Figure 4-31. a. General characteristics of plutons in the epizone, mesozone, and

catazone. From Buddington (1959), Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 70, 671-747.
1/22/02
46
23
Room Problem
Diapir = buoyant magma body that rises through the surrounding
solid material; will stop rising when the density of the magma
equals the density of the country rock
The room problem is how to deal with the fact you have magma
trying to move somewhere thats already filled by country rock
Fractures only extend to a shallow depth, since given higher P &
T, rocks act ductily and dont breakso you cant just put
magma in cracks
Melting all of the country rock you want to replace (assimilation)
also is impracticalthe pluton may not have enough energy
The pluton can force the roof (lift the roof) upwardsthough
when the pluton density = country rock density, it should be
difficult to accomplish
1/22/02
47
Stoping is when
blocks of the roof
fall into the pluton
and sink, but
requires that the
country rock is
more dense then
the magmaonly
reasonable in
shallow plutons
Figure 4-34. Diagrammatic illustration of proposed pluton emplacement mechanisms. 1- doming of roof; 2- wall rock
assimilation, partial melting, zone melting; 3- stoping; 4- ductile wall rock deformation and wall rock return flow; 5- lateral
wall rock displacement by faulting or folding; 6- (and 1)- emplacement into extensional environment. After Paterson et al.
(1991), Contact Metamorphism. Rev. in Mineralogy, 26, pp. 105-206. Min. Soc. Amer.
1/22/02
48
24
Thermodynamics Introduction
Chapter 5
2/6/02
We dealt with a good amount of the information in this

chapter during mineralogy, so Im not going to repeat it
here
Class will focus on the terms & concepts that we didnt
take time to consider during last semester, but need for
petrology
For a review, read the book!
2/6/02
Gibbs Free Energy

Since it is difficult to measure the chemical free energy of
either a phase or a system, we have to deal with changes in
the Gibbs Free Energy
A random set of conditions (e.g. P, T, volume) is chosen
and the Gibbs Free Energy at that state is a reference value
(G)
Normally the reference state is for pure elements in
their stable form at 25 C (298.15 K) and 1 atm (0.1
MPa), at which point G = 0 J (joules)
G depends on the amount of material, so it is called an
extensive variable
To avoid dealing with how much of a given thing, we
talk about the molar gibbs free energy (G)
2/6/02
Molar Gibbs free energy of formation = uses the enthalpy

change (H) of Si + O2 SiO2 and the change in entropy
(S) from 0 K to 298.15 K to tell us whether the substance
will form or not
Gf = H - TS
Negative number = product more stable
Positive number = reactants more stable
The numbers have been tabulated for a number of
compounds and phases and can be found in big fat
books (e.g. Robie and Hemingway, 1995)
There are usually small discrepancies depending on
whose book you use to look up the figurestheyre due
to experimental error
2/6/02
Applying G
Based on the formula dG = VdP SdT we can calculate what
will occur to the Gibbs free energy for a given substance due to
a change in temperature, pressure, or volume
For a reaction, the side with the lowest G under a set P & T
will be the stable state
At equilibrium G = 0 for any reactionthat doesnt mean that
nothing is happening, only that the reaction is going foward
equally fast to the rate is going in reverse
Le Chtliers Principle = if a system is at equilibrium and a
change is made, the position of the equilibrium point will
change to minimize the change
In a liquid-solid system, if we heat the system, the
proportion of liquid to solid will risethe converse is true if
we lower the temperature
2/6/02
Capeyron Equation
If we hold pressure constant, we can derive a relationship between

the Gibbs free energy, temperature and entropy
( cG / cT )P = -S
The Gibbs free energy will decrease with increasing temperature
(if the entropy remains the same)
Similarly, if the temperature is held constant
( cG / cP )T = -V
Increases in pressure lower the volume if the Gibbs free energy
is constant or the pressure increase will lower the free energy is
the volume remains the same
When dG = 0, we can form the Claperyon Equation
dP / dT = S / V
Tells us the slope of the equilibrium curve that divides two
phases from one another
2/6/02
Two+ Component Systems

Chapter 7
2/6/02
System with 3+ components

Every time we add another component to the system, we
add another degree of freedomwe also make the system
very difficult to represent in 2-d
We tend for 4+ components to use a PT diagram that
where lines indicate a reaction from one mineralogy to
another
2/6/02
Figure 7-13. Pressure-temperature

phase diagram for the melting of a
Snake River (Idaho, USA) tholeiitic
basalt under anhydrous conditions.
After Thompson (1972). Carnegie Inst.
Wash Yb. 71
2/6/02
Bowens Reaction Series

N.L. Bowen came up with the idea of the reaction principle in
1922
Recognition of two types of reactions:
Continuous reactions
Discontinuous reactions
The reactions may happen sequentially, or at the same time
Series does not define which composition well start with
or even what phases will be present once the rock has
solidified (we have to use the component-diagrams and
bulk composition for that), but it will give us a general
sequence
Series was originally developed for sub-alkaline rocks and
will provide erroneous thoughts for other types of igneous
rocks
2/6/02
Bowens Reaction Series

Mg pyroxene
Mg-Ca pyroxene
Calci-alkalic plagioclase
alkali-calcic plagioclase
amphibole
alkalic plagioclase
biotite
potash feldspar
muscovite
quartz
2/6/02
Continuous
Series
Temperature
Discontinuous
Series
Calcic plagioclase
(Spinel)
olivine
Pressure tends to have a

smaller effect on the
stability of minerals then
temperature does
The melting point will
increase in increasing
pressure
The amount of the
increase will depend on
S & V
Exception to this rule is
ice
2/6/02
Pressure
Effect of Pressure
P2
Solid
Liquid
P1
T1
T2
Temperature
6
Melting point will

shift different
amounts for
different minerals,
which means that
eutectic/peritectic
diagrams will be
altered by pressure
(e.g. placement of
eutectic in Di-An
system)
Since it changes
mineral stability, it
may also effect
which mineral will
xtalize 1st, 2nd, etc.
2/6/02
Figure 7-16. Effect of lithostatic pressure on the liquidus and eutectic

composition in the diopside-anorthite system. 1 GPa data from Presnall et
al. (1978). Contr. Min. Pet., 66, 203-220.
Temperature
1 atm
0.5 GPa
1 GPa
3.5+ GPa
Olivine
Plagioclase
Clinopyroxene
Garnet
Plagioclase
Clinopyroxene
Plagioclase
Clinopyroxene
Garnet
Clinopyroxene
Ilmenite
Ilmenite
2/6/02
Ilmenite
Effect of Fluids
Release of fluids from a dissolved to free vapor phase
cause a large increase in volume
In we increase pressure, we can force a free vapor to
dissolve back into the melt
Fluid saturated = melt contain the maximum amount of
dissolved fluids under the current PTX conditionsany
excess must be present as a coexisting fluid phase
Fluid pressure (Pf) = ranges from fluid saturated (i.e. equal
the total pressure (Pt)) or dry (i.e. Pf = 0)
Fluid inclusions = free fluid phases trapped within glass or
minerals
May form post-magmaticly
Hard to analyze
All that is left, however, of the fluid phase
2/6/02
What we do directly measure is the volcanic gasses that

escape from the magmathe commons ones are:
H2O
~80%, but most of it is H2O
CO2
CO
O2
H2
S
SO2
H2S
And minor N, B, Cl, & F
2/6/02
10
H2O
H2O does not fit into most igneous minerals, so it must be
present as a separate phase in the crystallized rock
solid + H2O liquid (aq)
(aq) = aqueous = liquid with fluid dissolved within it
More fluid can be dissolved in the melt then can fit in
the few igneous minerals that do accept water
According to Le Chatliers Principle, since H2O goes
better into the high T side (melt), that side will expand
increasing the H2O-content will decrease the
melting temperature
Since you can force more H2O to dissolve at higher
pressures, this effect is more dramatic as the
pressure increases
2/6/02
11
2/6/02
12
Figure 7-21. H2O-saturated (solid)

and H2O-free (dashed) solidi
(beginning of melting) for
granodiorite (Robertson and Wyllie,
1971), gabbro (Lambert and Wyllie,
1972) and peridotite (H2O-saturated:
Kushiro et al., 1968; dry: Ito and
Kennedy, 1967).
2/6/02
13
The simplified version for what occurs with H2O in a melt

is that the water disassociates to OH- and H+
The OH- and H+ break the Si-O-Si polymerizations, so
that the bond becomes Si-OH and H-O-Si
This process will depolymerize the melt decrease
viscosity
Depends on starting polymerization state of the melt
The more complicated view also deals with the interaction
between water and the alkalis
Water will effect different minerals to a greater/lesser
extent, so it will also effect phase diagrams
Adding H2O to the mantle should cause more silica-rich
melts
2/6/02
14
Figure 7-25. The effect of H2O on the

diopside-anorthite liquidus. Dry and 1 atm
from Figure 7-16, PH2O = Ptotal curve for 1
GPa from Yoder (1965). CIW Yb 64.
2/6/02
15
CO2
CO2 acts in a very different manner then H2O in melts
Carbon is a small atom (in comparison to H or OH) and
has a large charge (4)
Carbon wont break the Si-O-Si bonds
Most petrologists treat it as an inert (no effect phase)
It can, however, dilute the effect of H2O
CO2 will have more effect on mafic magmas that have
low polymerization
Lower melting temperaturebut not as much as
H2O
Tends to make the melt more polymerized raises
viscosity
2/6/02
16
Ne
P = 2 GPa
CO2
dry
H2O
Ab
Highly undesaturated
(nepheline-bearing)
alkali olivine
basalts
ted
ura
sat asalts
r
e
d
b
Un iitic
le
tho
Fo
2/6/02
Oversaturated
(quartz-bearing)
tholeiitic basalts
En
SiO2
17
Chem Pet: Major & Minor

Chapter 8
2/19/02
Major elements = > 1.0 wt. %

Control mineralogy & crystallization/melting of the
system
Dictate viscosity, density, diffusivity etc.
Used to classify igneous rocks
Minor elements = 0.1 1.0 wt. %
Normally substitute for a major element
Can also be in high enough concentrations that they
form their own separate mineral phase = accessory
mineral
E.g. high Zr forms zircon; high P will form apatite;
high Ti could form titanite, rutile, or a Fe-Ti oxide
Trace elements = < 0.1 wt. %
Too dilute to form their own mineral phase, so they
only exist as substitutes within other radios
2/19/02
Concentration & distribution of trace elements can be

used to track the evolution of magmas, distinguish
between magma sources, or to discriminate between
magma processes
Though TiO2, MnO, and P2O5 sometimes numerically be
either major or minor, they are always considered
minorK2O is always considered major even if it is less
than 1.0 wt. %
2/19/02
Major & Minor Elements

Element
O
Si
Al
Fe
Ca
Mg
Na
K
total
2/19/02
Wt. %
Oxide
59.3
15.3
7.5
6.9
4.5
2.8
2.2
98.5
This table and the next

were taken from Winter
(2001).
Oxide
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
H2O
Total
2/19/02
Peridotite
44.8
0.19
4.16
1.36
6.85
0.11
39.2
2.42
0.22
0.05
0.0
99.36
Basalt
49.2
1.84
15.7
3.79
7.13
0.20
6.73
9.47
2.91
1.10
0.95
99.02
Andesite
57.9
0.87
17.0
3.27
4.04
0.14
3.33
6.79
3.48
1.62
0.83
99.27
Rhyolite
72.8
0.28
13.3
1.48
1.11
0.06
0.39
1.14
3.55
4.30
1.10
99.51
Phonolite
56.2
0.62
19.0
2.79
2.03
0.17
1.07
2.92
7.79
5.24
1.57
99.20
5
The 7 major elements make-up the majority of the

common igneous rocks
Cr2O3 may be a minor element in ultramafics, but is
normally a trace element
Iron is the only element that exists commonly in two
different valence state (Fe2+ and Fe3+)
Not possible to differentiate between the two with the
SEM or electron microprobe
Normally report all of the iron as FeO* if we dont
know any better
To transfer between FeO and Fe2O3 can be done
with a bit of math: (0.8998)(FeO) = Fe2O3 or
(1.1113)(Fe2O3) = FeO
The ratio of Fe3+/Fe2+ depends on the oxygen fugacity
of the melt/rock in equilibriumhigher fugacity means
more Fe3+
2/19/02
Rocks with high Fe3+ find the iron sequestered in the

Fe-Ti oxidesrocks with high oxygen fugacities have
less Fe available for silicates
We could calculate this either by analyzing all the minerals
in a rock and then adding the weight percentages up or by
doing a whole rock analysisthe latter is easier
This will also apply for volcanics that have a high portion
of glass, since the glass composition will also be included
in the wt. %
Chemical composition should allow us to compare the
igneous rock with altered and metamorphosed equivalents
Though mineral composition changes with P & T, the bulk
rock composition should remain approximately the same
2/19/02
Normative Minerals
Norms were invented to compared volcanic & intrusive rocks,

as well as rocks that form at different Ps and Ts
The norm is only based on bulk compositional differences
between rocks, so norms can be used to compare a wide range
of igneous rocks
Norms are calculated with the assumption that H2O = 0
CIPW Norm = developed at the beginning of the 20th century
by Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington
Minerals chosen form from anhydrous melts at low
pressures
Expressed in wt. % normative minerals
Exaggerates the denser minerals in comparison to the mode
Mode = actual mineral composition of the rock based on the
observed volume percentage
2/19/02
Barth-Niggli norm or cation norm = normative minerals on

a cation basis; popular in Europe
Norms are calculated by a rigid set of steps that involves
mineral stoichiometry and mathcan be done by hand, but
even easier with a computer
guesstimates of the oxygen fugacity and Fe3+/Fe2+
ratio have to be made
Easy to convert between CIPW & cation norms and
volume percentages with a computer
An important factor that is emphasized by a norm is silica
saturation
A silica oversaturated rock contains some SiO2
polymorpho
A silica undersaturated rock contains a phase
incompatible with an SiO2 polymorph (e.g. olivine,
feldspathoid)
2/19/02
Impossible to distinguish between the two just based

on whole rock wt. % depends on what other
elements are competing for silica to form a variety of
silicate minerals
Quartz is the last mineral to be calculated, so that all
of the SiO2 can be properly apportioned to various
other silicates (e.g. plagioclase, pyroxene, etc) before
determining silica saturation
Norms can also be used to determine high alkalinity,
excess alumina content, etc.
Homework:
calculate a norm using the appendix at the end of
Winter using the basalt composition in Table 8-3 (this
is problem #1 in Winters book w/ a diff basalt)
Do number problem #2 either downloading the
spreadsheet from the internet or by asking Elli for it
2/19/02
10
Variation Diagrams
Used to dissect patterns found in suites of igneous rocks
Bivariate diagram = plot two parameters are plotted on an
X-Y graph
Triangular diagram = plot the relative proportions of three
variables
Can also combine elements that act similarly together (e.g.
MgO + FeO + MnO)
The diagram chosen are often varied to try and determine
the best way to analyze the datathere is no set group of
diagrams that will show everything everyone needs
Can be used to link different igneous rocks, as well as
distinguish processes of differentiation etc. that occurred to
the magma/rock
2/19/02
11
Bivariate Plots
Major, minor, and trace
elements can be compared
on bivariate diagrams
Harker diagram = set of
plots developed by Alfred
Harker (1909) plots
different elements versus
silica as the x-coordinate
Figure 8-2. Harker variation
diagram for 310 analyzed volcanic
rocks from Crater Lake (Mt.
Mazama), Oregon Cascades. Data
compiled by Rick Conrey (personal
communication). From Winter.
2/19/02
12
Primary = magmas derived directly from partial melting of

the same sourcehave not undergone differentiation
Evolved or derivaative = magma that has undergone some
form of differentiation
Primitive = not very evolved magma
Parental = the most primitive magma in the area; assume
all the other compositions in the area are derived from this
one
Normally not the true parent, since the magma
probably evolved during ascentbest guess we have,
though
2/19/02
13
Trends seen on Harker diagrams assuming SiO2 increases with

differentiation:
MgO, FeO*, CaO decrease as the magma evolves
Na2O, K2O are conserved or concentrated in more evolved
magmas
This occurs because as you remove the Mg, Fe, & Ca,
the percentage of Na & K increases even though you are
not seeing an increase in actual numbers of Na/K ions
Called the closure problem
Though the percentage increase in Na & K does not
necessarily indicate an addition of the ions, assimilation
or mixing might physically increase the number of Na/K
ions in the magma
Al2O3 has a strange trend: first Al increases then decreases
within the meltexplained by early xtalization of cpx ()
later followed by An ()
2/19/02
14
A cautionary note is required when using a Harker

diagramdont confuse observations with interpretations
For the Crater Lake rocks we assumed that more SiO2 was
equated with more evolved rocksbut this doesnt always
work:
E.g. Layered mafic intrusions dont vary in SiO2 content
Difference indices are used to determine primitive vs.
evolved
Some use major elements, some trace
The index is always plotted on the abscissa
The specific index depends on the system under
examination
Harker diagrams (or other bivariate variation diagrams) tend
to be a first step in the analysis
2/19/02
15
If we look at the the Harker diagrams, a

gap exists between ~62-66 wt. %
SiO2is this real?
Glass compositions found within a
wider range of samples span this
gapmay just be a crystal gap
Has been explained by a recharge
period in the magma chamber during
which time low numbers of flows
were erupted
However, in most volcanics a gap is
observed from 48 68 wt. % SiO2 =
Daly gap
Not as apparent if a different index is
used
Could be real or just apparent
2/19/02
16
Explained by the idea that the two end-members of

mixing are more common then a composition in the
middle
Petrogenetic province = geographic region of igneous
rocks related in space and timepresumed to have a
common genesis
Is usually left fairly vague due to uncertainty
Can also be called a petrographic province
Homework: problem #4 from Winter, chp 8. Either
download the file or ask me for it on disk.
2/19/02
17
Triangular
Plots
Normally on wt % basis,
but cation also possible
Most common is an
AFM diagram
not to be confused
with the met pet
AFM
A = alkalis = Na2O
+ K2O
F = FeO + Fe2O3
M = MgO
2/19/02
Figure 8-2. AFM diagram for Crater

Lake volcanics, Oregon Cascades.
Data compiled by Rick Conrey
(personal communication). From
Winter.
18
More primitive =
MgO
More evolved =
alkalis
Two different trends
are visible on this
diagram:
Crater Lake just
evolves straight
from MgO to the
alkalis
Skaergard becomes
F enriched before
evolving towards
the alkalis
2/19/02
Figure 8-2. AFM diagram for Crater

Lake volcanics, Oregon Cascades.
Data compiled by Rick Conrey
(personal communication). From
Winter.
19
Variation Diagrams for Modeling

Two models are used to quantitatively analyze mineral
fractionation:
Pearce Element Rations (PER)
Mass-balance modeling
2/19/02
20
10
PER
Empiricaldepends on element ratios
Plot on bivariate diagrams the ratios to determine
fractional crystalization
Denominator of ratio is the same for both axes
Denominator can be 1 or the sum of 2+ elements
Elements chosen for denominator based on what is not
contained within the crystallizing
mineralsdenominator elements are conserved
Should minimize the closure problem
Numerators are linear combinations and reflect the
composition and stoichiometry of the fractioning
mineral(s)
2/19/02
21
E.g. olivine (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 would have a ratio of 2/1

for (Mg+Fe)/Si for atomic proportions
On a (Mg+Fe)/K vs Si/K diagram, the slope for
olivine would be 2
On a (0.5)(Mg+Fe)/K vs Si/K diagram, olivine
should have a slope of 1
All olivines should plot with the same slope,
though the may plot on different lines (e.g. fig.
8-4 in Winter)
PERs wont prove a particular process in occurring,
but indicates whether the compositions are
consistent with fractionization
PER more useful to rule out differentiation for a
given mineral
2/19/02
22
11
Problems:
Because the denominator is the same for the X
& Y axis, a correlation may appear where no
really exists
Can rule out hypotheses, not prove them!
2/19/02
23
Mass-Balance
Models
Can be done both
mathematically and graphically
Models based commonly on
bivariate diagrams
For graphic analyses, we use the
lever rule to determine the
relative proportions of the
different phases
S = solid bulk composition
P = parent composition
D = daughter composition
A, B, C = composition of
individual minerals extracted
2/19/02
Figure 8-6. Stacked variation diagrams of

hypothetical components X and Y (either
weight or mol %). From Ragland (1989). Basic
Analytical Petrology, Oxford Univ. Press.
From Winter (2001).
24
12
For diagram a:
A single mineral (S) forms
from the primitive magma (P)
Following the rules we used
for 3+ systems, the
composition of the magma
must go linearly away from S
Control line = line formed by
S-P-D for the mineral S
The ratio of S:D is calculated
via the lever principle:
D/S = SP/PD
%D = 100SP/SD
%S = PD/SD = 100-%D
2/19/02
For diagram b:
Two minerals (A & B) are
extracted from P to form D
S must fall on the line
connecting A & B as well as
on a straight line back from P
& Dfind the intersection of
AB and the extension of PD
The ratio of S:D is:
Same as before
For the A:B ratio:
A/B = BS/AS
For diagram c:
Three minerals (A, B & C)
are extracted from P to form
D
2/19/02
25
26
13
S must lie in the triangle

formed by A, B, & C, but can
not be uniquely defined since
PD intersects in a line (blue)
with the triangle
Because of the uncertainty,
we can not calculate ratios
without further information
For diagram d:
Type of situation found in a
binary eutectic diagram
B starts to form driving the
melt from P1 to P2bulk
comp S1
2/19/02
At P2, A begins to crystallize

along with B to drive the melt
from P2 to Dbulk comp is
S2
A definite kink is formed in
the liquid descent line
Relative proportions
determined by the equations
for case a & b
For diagram e:
Case of extracting a solid that
experiences solid solution
during crystallization (e.g.
plagioclase)
2/19/02
27
28
14
The solid varies

systematically from B to A
over time
As the solid bulk extract
changes, the melt composition
must move away from the
starting composition
(P)curved liquid line of
descent
Mass-balance modeling provides
a way to test hypotheses, but also
does not prove an idea
definitivelybetter at
discounting a certain process
2/19/02
29
Magma Series
Magma series = group of rocks that share come chemical
(possibly mineralogical) characteristics & have a
consistent pattern on a variation diagram (common genetic
background)
Other words used for the same concept: association,
lineage, magma type, and clan
Original classification by Iddings (1892) as either:
Alkaline = rich in alkalis, commonly silicaundersaturated
Subalkaline = silica-saturated to oversaturated
2/19/02
30
15
Figure 8-11. Total

alkalis vs. silica
diagram for the alkaline
and sub-alkaline rocks
of Hawaii. After
MacDonald (1968).
GSA Memoir 116 From
Winter (2001).
2/19/02
Basalt tetrahedron = Ne-Fo-Q-Di

corners; models basalts well
Di-Ab-En plane is the plane of
silica saturation
Di-Ab-Fo planes is the critical
plane of silica undersaturation
To the left of the plane of silica
saturation olivine is stable
To the left of the critical plane,
alkaline & very silica
undersaturated nepheline is
stable
Alkalines all plot to the left of
the critical plane and
subalkalines to the right
2/19/02
31
Figure 8-12. the basalt tetrahedron (after Yoder

and Tilley, 1962). J. Pet., 3, 342-532. From Winter
(2001).
32
16
If we just look at the Ne-FoQtz base of the tetrahedron

alkalines & subalkalines are
divided from each other by
the dividing line proposed
by Irvine and Baragar
(1971)
The line is close to the
plane of silica
undersaturation
2/19/02
Figure 8-12. the base of the basalt tetrahedron using cation

normative minerals, with the compositions of subalkaline rocks
(black) and alkaline rocks (gray) from Figure 8-11, projected from
Cpx. After Irvine and Baragar (1971). Can. J. Earth Sci., 8, 523548. From Winter (2001)
33
Dividing line exists because of the thermal divide

present in the Ne-Q system at low pressures
Subalkaline rocks could contain either olivine or quartz
depending on which side the liquid fell
1713
Liquid
Thermal
Divide
1070
Ne + L
Ab + LAb + L
Ne + Ab
Ne
Tr + L
1060
Ab + Tr
Ab
Fig. 8-13. The thermal divide at the albite composition on the Ne-Q system. From Winter (2001).
2/19/02
34
17
AFM diagram: can further subdivide the subalkaline magma

series into a tholeiitic and a calc-alkaline seriescannot be
F
distinguished on the Ne-Ol-Q diagrams
Figure 8-14. AFM diagram showing the distinction between
selected tholeiitic rocks from Iceland, the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, the Columbia River Basalts, and Hawaii (solid
circles) plus the calc-alkaline rocks of the Cascade volcanics
(open circles). From Irving and Baragar (1971). After Irvine
and Baragar (1971). Can. J. Earth Sci., 8, 523-548. From
Winter (2001).
Th
ic
o lei
it
Calc-alkaline
A
2/19/02
A Peacock diagram
(1931)
Based on the
alkali-lime index
= where the CaO
meets the Na2O +
K2O curve on a
SiO2 diagram
Alkalic = <51
Alkali-calcic = 5156
Calc-alkalic = (5661)
Calcic = >61
Fairly arbitrary set
of parameters
2/19/02
35
Figure 8-10a. Plot of CaO (green) and

(Na2O + K2O) (red) vs. SiO2 for the
Crater Lake data. Peacock (1931) used
the value of SiO2 at which the two curves
crossed as his alkali-lime index
(dashed line). From Winter (2001)
36
18
Strand (1927) based rocks

based on total molar alkali
vs alumina content:
The ratio of (Na2O +
K2O) / Al2O3 =
peralkalinity index
Peralkaline = Al2O3 <
(Na2O + K2O)
Peraluminous = Al2O3 >
(CaO + Na2O + K2O)
Metaluminous = Al2O3
< (CaO + Na2O + K2O)
and Al2O3 > (Na2O +
K2O)
Useful for very felsic
rocks
2/19/02
Figure 8-10 b. Alumina saturation indices

(Shand, 1927) with analyses of the
peraluminous granitic rocks from the
Achala Batholith, Argentina (Lira and
Kirschbaum, 1990). In S. M. Kay and C.
W. Rapela (eds.), Plutonism from
Antarctica to Alaska. Geol. Soc. Amer.
Special Paper, 241. pp. 67-76. From
Winter (2001).
37
Further thoughts...
Although the fields look nice and distinct from one another, in
reality there is no clear gap between the seriesin fact rocks
plot on the dividing line!
Fig. 8-17. After Le

Maitre (1976) J.
Petrol., 17, 589-637.
2/19/02
38
19
All magmas are also not capable of fitting on these series

diagrams (e.g. carbonatites)
Often we want to worry about the differences between
various magmas, not their similarities (which is what these
diagrams bludgeon us with)
The similarities do, however, indicate a parent body
and sequence of derivative magmas
E.g. calc-alkaline rocks are only found at convergent
plate margins; divergent boundaries are characterized
by tholeiitic magmas
2/19/02
39
20
Chem Pet: Trace and Isotopes

Chapter 9
2/20/02
Trace elements are included or excluded within mineral

phases more selectively then major & minor elements, so
they can be extremely useful in determining origin and
evolutionary processes of a melt
Since there are quite a few trace elements out there,
experience has taught us only to analyze for the
informative onesbut every once and awhile, someone
comes along and adds another element previously ignored
The elements commonly used are:
Transition metals = Sc, Ti, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn
Lanthanides or Rare earth elements (REE) = La, Ce,
Nd, Sm, Eu, Dy, Er, Yb, and Lu
As well as: Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Cs, Ba, Hf, Ta, Pb, Th,
and U
Isotopes fractionate based on mass differences or from
radiocative decay
2/20/02
Element Distribution
We use the same basic rules as back in mineralogy when

discussing which elements will swap for each other:
Two ions with the same radius & valence will enter
into solid solution depending on the ratio of the ions
at the time of formation
Of two ions with similar radius & valence, the
smaller will preferentially go into the solid
If two ions have a similar radius, but a different
charge, the higher charged ion is preferentially
incorporated into the solid
Electronegativity also plays a role, but its beyond the
scope of this course
2/20/02
Chemical fractionation = uneven distribution of elements

between two phases (e.g. Ca/Na greater in plag then in the
melt)
Distribution constant (KD) = distribution between any two
phases at a given P, T, X
KD = Xisolid / Xiliquid
Xi = mole fraction of component i
If the concentration of the components are relatively dilute,
CS = Xisolid and CL = Xiliquid, where C = concentration (in
either ppm or wt. %)
Distribution coefficient or partition coefficient (D) =
simple replacement of KD
D = CS / CL
There are tables of distribution coefficients calculated
for given minerals and certain types of melts for given
trace elements
2/20/02
Coefficients can range quite a bit depending on composition

and temperature (only a minor amount with pressure), which is
why they are so useful
Incompatible = trace elements more concentrated in the melt then
in the solid; D < 1
High field strength (HFS) = smaller, more highly charged
elements (REE, Th, U, Ce, Pb4+, Zr, Hf, Ti, Nb, and Ta)
Large ion lithophile (LIL) = low field strength elements are
more mobile within the melt, especially in the presence of a
fluid (K, Rb, Cs, Ba, Pb2+, Sr, and Eu2+)
Compatible = trace elements that concentrate in the solid; D >> 1
Ni, Cr, Cu, W, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt, and Au tend to be
compatible
For a rock, we determine the distribution coefficient by summing
the contribution from each mineral (W=weight fraction of mineral)
Di = WADiA
2/20/02
Certain minerals
partition various trace
elements more strongly
then others (e.g. nickel
likes to go into olivine),
so we can use Harker
diagrams to plot when
olivine is and is not
crystallizing
Some elements are
preferentially
concentrated in the melt
and will increase as
more solid is produced
(e.g. Zr in basaltic
rocks)
2/20/02
olivine
No olivine
Figure 9-1a. Ni Harker Diagram for Crater Lake. From data

compiled by Rick Conrey. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
Figure 9-1b. Zr Harker Diagram for Crater Lake. From data compiled by Rick Conrey.
From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
2/20/02
REEs
All members of Group IIIA on the periodic table

Have similar chemical and physical propertiesact as a coherent
series
Have a charge of 3+ normally
At low fO2 Eu2+ > Eu3+ and can fit into the Ca slot in plag, so
DEu2+ for plag is very high
Ce4+ can also exist under certain oxidizing conditions
The ionic radius decreases with increasing atomic number =
lanthanide contraction
Heavy lanthanides favored in solids over lighter ones, though
the electronegatively does play a role (e.g. plagioclase ignores
ionic radius, but garnet preferentially takes smaller radii)
We plot diagrams with the REE series on the Y-axis, where they
are useful for examing the petrogenesis of various igneous rocks
2/20/02
Concentration
Degree of compatibility increases from left to right

across the diagram
Dont usually plot all 15 REEs, since 9/10 show the
pattern well enough
Normalized to some standard value to plot
nicelyusually chondrites are standard, but it varies
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Er Dy Yb Lu
2/20/02
Europium anomaly = pronounced dip in the REE pattern at Eu

when plagioclase is present due to the Eu2+ substitution for
Camay be either positive or negative, depending on whether plag
was removed or accumulated
Magnitude of the anomaly represented by the Eu/Eu*, where Eu* is
the hypothetical value of Eu if that plagioclase hadnt interrupted
the system
Figure 9-5. REE diagram for 10%

batch melting of a hypothetical
lherzolite with 20% plagioclase,
resulting in a pronounced negative
Europium anomaly. From Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous
and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
2/20/02
10
Homework problem: do #3 from Winter, chp. 9you will

need to get a file from either online or me
2/20/02
11
Spider Diagrams
Spider diagram = normalized multi-element diagrams; broader
range of trace elements then a REE diagram
Also normalized to estimates of some primitive
reservoirusually the primordial Earth (slightly different from
chondrite-values)
not well
standardizedvarious
authors list the elements
in different orders and
use different
normalizations
Fig. 9-6. Spider diagram for an alkaline
basalt from Gough Island, southern
Atlantic. After Sun and MacDonough
(1989). In A. D. Saunders and M. J.
Norry (eds.), Magmatism in the Ocean
Basins. Geol. Soc. London Spec.
Publ., 42. pp. 313-345. From Winter
(2001).
2/20/02
12
Application
Trace elements on Harker diagrams can indicate mineral
formation (as we saw earlier with Ni & olivine)
We can look at the patterns of REE diagrams to determine
patterns such as high-pressure vs. low-pressure formation
E.g. garnet & plag are more likely to form at high
pressures; plag encorporating Eu and garnet the HREEs
(heavy REEs)
Ratios of trace elements are also very useful in determining
possible causes of depletion/enrichment
2/20/02
13
10.00
10.00
67% Ol
17% Opx
17% Cpx
60% Ol 15% Opx 15% Cpx 10%Plag

8.00
sample/chondrite
sample/chondrite
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
56
58
La
Ce
60
Nd
62Sm
64
Eu
Tb66
68
Er
70
Yb
Lu
72
0.00
La Ce Nd Sm Eu
Tb
Er
Yb Lu
10.00
57% Ol
sample/chondrite
8.00
14% Opx
Comparison of low P (no

garnet + plag) to a plagbearing and plag + garnetbearing rock
14% Cpx 14% Grt
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
56
58
La
2/20/02
64
Ce60 Nd 62Sm Eu
Tb66
68
Er
70 Lu
Yb
72
From Winter (2001).

14
Element
Use as a petrogenetic indicator
Ni, Co, Cr Highly compatible elements. Ni (and Co) are concentrated in olivine, and Cr in spinel and
clinopyroxene. High concentrations indicate a mantle source.
V, Ti
Both show strong fractionation into Fe-Ti oxides (ilmenite or titanomagnetite). If they behave
differently, Ti probably fractionates into an accessory phase, such as sphene or rutile.
Zr, Hf
Very incompatible elements that do not substitute into major silicate phases (although they may
replace Ti in sphene or rutile).
Ba, Rb
Incompatible element that substitutes for K in K-feldspar, micas, or hornblende. Rb substitutes

less readily in hornblende than K-spar and micas, such that the K/Ba ratio may distinguish these
phases.
Sr
Substitutes for Ca in plagioclase (but not in pyroxene), and, to a lesser extent, for K in Kfeldspar. Behaves as a compatible element at low pressure where plagioclase forms early, but
as an incompatible at higher pressure where plagioclase is no longer stable.
REE
Garnet accommodates the HREE more than the LREE, and orthopyroxene and hornblende do
2+
so to a lesser degree. Sphene and plagioclase accommodates more LREE. Eu is strongly
partitioned into plagioclase.
Commonly incompatible (like HREE). Strongly partitioned into garnet and amphibole. Sphene
and apatite also concentrate Y, so the presence of these as accessories could have a
significant effect.
Table 9-6. A brief summary of some particulary useful trace elements in
igneous petrology. After Green (1980). Tectonophys., 63, 367-385.
From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
2/20/02
15
Which tectonic environment?

Some trace element ratios are very characteristic of a given
tectonic environment (e.g. mid-ocean ridge, rift zone, etc.)
We take the modern values and can apply them to rocks
that have been deformed, displaced, and isolated from their
original location
If the rock has been metamorphosed, we must choose
elements that are immobile during metamorphism (usually
Y, Ti, Cr, Zr, and Hf)
Some rocks may plot in different fields depending on
which diagram is chosenmakes some petrologists
question the results
2/20/02
16
Figure 9-8. (a) after Pearce and Cann (1973), Earth Planet, Sci. Lett., 19, 290-300. (b) after Pearce (1982) in
Thorpe (ed.), Andesites: Orogenic andesites and related rocks. Wiley. Chichester. pp. 525-548, Coish et al. (1986),
Amer. J. Sci., 286, 1-28. (c) after Mullen (1983), Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 62, 53-62. From Winter (2001).
2/20/02
17
Homework: Problem #5 in the book (no material needed

from me!)but be careful when plotting on a triangular
diagram, you will have to normalize to 100% first, so that
the data plots correctly
2/20/02
18
Isotopes
Isotope = variants of the same element with different
numbers of neutrons
612C, where 6 = atomic number, C = carbon, and 12 =
atomic mass; there are three stable variations for carbon
H, C, O, S, K, Ar, Rb, Sr, U, Pb, Th, Sm, and Nd are
the most commonly used by petrologistsbut scientists
are constantly playing with others to see what works
best
Stable isotope = remain indefinitely in that state
Radioactive isotope = unstable and undergo a process
of radioactive decay to become stable; release energy in
the process as well as a particle or gamma ray
Parent = original isotope
Daughter = product of the radioactive decay
2/20/02
19
Radiogenic isotope = a daughter isotope

Nuclear fission = radioactive decay process some
isotopes undergo causing two daughter isotopes to
form
The daughter isotope may also be unstable and
decay further until a stable state is reached
Used to determine ages of rocks
2/20/02
20
10
Stable Isotopes
Isotopes of a given element are all chemically the same,
but they have different massesleads to mass
fractionization
Light isotopes are preferentially fractionated into the
phase with the weaker bonds (vapor over liquid, liquid
over solid)
Tiny differences
To what extent the process will occurs depends on the
mass difference / total mass
E.g. 204Pb and 205Pb do not have a great
fractionization because they are very, very close in
weight, however 1H and 3H have a very noticeable
weight difference and the fractionization is greater
2/20/02
21
Lets look at water (because its used not just in petrology,

but also in environmental, hydrology, glacial geology, etc.)
There are three stable oxygen isotopes:
16O
99.756%
17O
0.039%
18O
0.205%
To use ratios wisely, we need to choose some standard
valuein oxygens case SMOW = standard mean
ocean water
(18O/16O) = [(18O/16O)sample (18O/16O)SMOW / (18O/16O)SMOW]* 1000
Measured in per mil ()
Positive -values come from 18O enrichment and
negative values from 18O depletion
2/20/02
22
11
If water is evaporated, which isotope will be

preferentially found in the vapor? 16O
What does that make the 18O value? negative
The fractionation also depends on temperature, which
means we can use oxygen isotopes as a paleoclimatic
indicator
Figure 9-9. Relationship

between d(18O/16O) and mean
annual temperature for
meteoric precipitation, after
Dansgaard (1964). Tellus, 16,
436-468. From Winter
(2001).
2/20/02
23
We can use stable isotopes to distinguish between igneous

rocks formed during at mid-ocean ridges and those formed
from melting sedimentary rocks
Can also use them to look at hydrothermal alteration and
the source of the water
Carbon and hydrogen also important for the determination
of the fluid origin
Stable isotope composition can also indicate the parental
body of a metamorphic rock and the nature & extent of
metamorphic fluids
2/20/02
24
12
Radiocative Isotopes
Though radioactive & radiogenic isotopes can also be
affected by mass fractionation, we will focus more on the
the variance in isotopic ratios over time
The isotopic ratio depends on the ratio of parent (PN) to
daughter (Dr) element
Depends on how much Pn/Dr material was originally
incorporated into the magma
There may be Dr present of a different isotopic
composition then what is produced radioactively (Dr*)
E.g. if you only have 10 Pn isotopes, then over time
youre not going to have many Dr* isotopesbut if
you start off with 10,000 Pn isotopes, the number of
Dr* isotopes will be significant
2/20/02
25
Also depends on how much Dr you started withif there

were only 10 Dr starting off, adding 4 Dr* will make a
difference, but if there were originally 10,000 Dr another 4
Dr* wont be significant
The rate at which the Pn will decay to Dr* is irrespective of
amount and is determined by the formula:
-(dN/dt) N or
-(dN/dt) = N
N = number of parent atoms
t = time
= decay constant
We can derive this further (differential equations are fun!)
to:
N/No = e-t
No = original number of atoms in the radioactive nuclide
N = number of parent atoms after time t (in years)
2/20/02
26
13
Half-life (T1/2) = time required for half of the parent

isotope to decay to the daughter isotope
Using the above formula, we can determine the age of a
rock since
D* = No N
D* = N(et) N = N(et 1)
D* = number of radiogenic daughter present
The most diffucult part is distinguishing Dr* from other
Dr isotopes to correctly gauge D*
Given radiometric dating calculations are practical for only
a certain amount of geologic time; you must choose the
correct parent-daughter pair for the geologic timeframe
examined
2/20/02
27
A few radiometric systems
K-Ar
40K can decay to either 40Ca or 40Ar, but since Ca is so
abundant, we focus on 40Ar
Ar also has the benefit that at certain temperatures it is
released from the system, so that you reset the rock
back to Ar = 0
K-Ar is used to determine when a rock passed a certain
temperature on its cooling pathcalled a cooling age
K-Ar has been used for bulk rock, muscovite,
amphibole, biotite, apatite, and K-feldspar
analyseseach mineral has a different closure
temperature at which point no more Ar is released
More recently, we have begun to look at 40Ar/39Ar
ratios
2/20/02
28
14
Due to the relationship between 39Ar and 39K and the

fact that the 40K/39K ratio was set during rock formation,
we can use the 40Ar/39Ar ratio to calculate the 40Ar/40K
ratio
40Ar/39Ar is a more accurate process
Rb-Sr
87Rb 87Sr + beta particle
86Sr is a stable isotope
Rb concentrates in micas, amphibole, (K-feldspar)
Sr conentrates in plagioclase and apatite
In a natural sample, the ratio of 88Sr:87Sr:86Sr:84Sr is
10:0.7:1:0.07
87Sr is also a stable isotope, so the amount in a rock will
equal the original 87Sr + the radiogenic 87Srthey are
impossible to distinguish from one another, so we cant
use the sample method as K-Ar
2/20/02
29
Isochron technique = uses 2+ samples and normalizes

the isotopes that vary with time to a constant isotope
In the case of Rb-Sr, we use 86Sr as our constant
isotope and normalize the other values to it
For ages less then 70 Ga, we can use the formula:
87Sr/86Sr = (87Sr/86Sr) + (87Rb/86Sr)t
o
This formula matches up with the equation for a
straight line, which means we plot straight-line
isochrons on a 87Sr/86Sr vs 87Rb/86Sr diagram
2/20/02
30
15
At to the slope of the line connecting 2+ samples will be

zero (a, b, c are rocks in the diagram below)
87Sr
86Sr
From Winter,
2001.
( )
87Sr
86Sr
to
87Rb
86Sr
2/20/02
31
After some time increment (t0 t1) each sample loses

some 87Rb and gains an equivalent amount of 87Sr
The slope increases as t increases
87Sr
86Sr
( )
b1
a1
t1
c1
From Winter,
2001.
87Sr
86Sr
to
87Rb
86Sr
2/20/02
32
16
At time t2 each rock system has evolved new line

and the slope has increased
The intercept between the line and the 87Sr/86Sr axis is
the original concentration
t2
87Sr
c2
86Sr
a2
( )
b2
b1
a1
t1
c1
From Winter,
2001.
87Sr
86Sr
to
87Rb
86Sr
2/20/02
33
We use the slope of the line to determine the age and

the intercept to determine the original ratio
Figure 9-9. Rb-Sr isochron for the Eagle Peak Pluton, central Sierra Nevada Batholith, California, USA. Filled circles are
whole-rock analyses, open circles are hornblende separates. The regression equation for the data is also given. After Hill et
al. (1988). Amer. J. Sci., 288-A, 213-241.
2/20/02
34
17
Homework: problems #6, 7, 8 & 9 in chapter 9; we will

have time to work on this today in lab
2/20/02
35
U-Pb-Th
System is complex due to the large number of
radioactive/radiogenic isotopes involved: 234U, 235U,
238U, 206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb
204Pb is the only non-radiogenic isotope
There are three ways to get lead:
238U 234U 206Pb
235U 297Pb
232Th 208Pb
We can either treat the three systems separately
(complicated) or try to deal with several of the
equations at the same time
Combining the two U Pb systems, produces a
curved line called the concordia along which all
natural samples must develop
2/20/02
36
18
Due to the fact 235U decays

quicker, the concordia will
have a concave downwards
shape to it
So long as the system is not
disturbed (e.g.
metamorphism, fluid
infiltration, etc.) all of the
samples should plot on the
concordia
Figure 9-16a. Concordia diagram illustrating the Pb

isotopic development of a 3.5 Ga old rock with a single
episode of Pb loss. After Faure (1986). Principles of
Isotope Geology. 2nd, ed. John Wiley & Sons. New
York. From Winter (2001).
2/20/02
37
If the system is disturbed,

then the points will plot
elsewhere on the diagram
along a line called the
discordia
This occurs when we
remove Pb from the
systemin the case of 9-16a,
we have removed both
isotopes of Pb equal to their
proportions within the rock
Figure 9-16a. Concordia diagram illustrating the Pb

isotopic development of a 3.5 Ga old rock with a single
episode of Pb loss. After Faure (1986). Principles of
Isotope Geology. 2nd, ed. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
From Winter (2001).
2/20/02
38
19
Homework: problem #10 in chapter 9; lab time can be

dedicated to this work
2/20/02
39
20
Mantle Melting
&
Basalt Generation
Chapter 10
2/25/02
Partial melting of mantle usually produces basaltthe

most common type of volcanic rock made right now
Most igneous rocks can be derived from basaltic
magmas
There are three types of common basalt:
Calc-alkaline
Tholeiitic
Alkaline
Since we only find calc-alkaline at convergent plate
boundaries, well take about those basalts in chp 16 & 17
A greater volume of tholeittes (MORs plus intraplate) is
produced then alkaline basalts (only intraplate)
There are some common petrographic characteristics of
tholeiitic and alkaline rocks, though samples seldomly
contain all of the given characteristics
2/25/02
Tholeiitic
Alkaline
Groundmass Usually fine-grained,

intergranular
No olivine
Cpx = augite ( pigeonite)
No alkali feldspar
Interstitial glass and/or quartz
common
Usually fairly coarse,

intergrannular to ophitic
Olivine common
Ti-augite (reddish)
Hypersthene rare
Interstitial alkali feldspar or
feldspathoid may occur
Interstitial glass rare and quartz
zoned
Phenocrysts
Olivine common and zoned

Opx is absent
Plag is less common and later in
sequence
Cpx is Ti-augite w/ reddish rims
Olivine rare, unzoned, and may

be partially resorbed or show
reaction rims of opx
Opx relatively common
Early plag common
Cpx is pale-brown augite
Table 10-1. After Hughes (1982) and McBirney (1993). From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
We know that the mantle is

solid (S-waves pass through it),
but somehow we have to
derive the magmas erupting
from volcanoes from the
mantle + crust
Since magams cool as they rise
through the mantle & crust, the
temperature of the magmas
generated must be higher than
1100-1200 Clooking at the
geothermal gradient, that puts
the depth at >100 km
Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of oceanic and continental
steady-state geotherms to a depth of 100 km using upper
and lower limits based on heat flows measured near the
surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys.
Space Sci., 18, 269-311. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
Mantle Petrology
There are only four ways to directly sample mantle rocks:

Ophiolites = presumed ancient oceanic crust & upper
mantle slabs; only extend down to a max of 7 km in
the mantle
Sheet-like mafic to ultramafic masses
Thrust onto continents or incorporated into
mountain belts
Well talk about structure in chp 13
Alpine peridotites = dismembered ophiolitic
ultramafics incorporated into mountain belts that
are deformed
Other ultramafic ophiolitic samples include:
harzburgite, dunite, and wehrlite, lherzolite, &
pyroxenite to a lesser extent
2/25/02
2/25/02
Dominated by olivine, opx, cpx, with lesser plag

and oxides
Dredge samples from oceanic fracture zones
This method was common in the 60s and 70s,
but it leads to not knowing exactly where your
sample comes from or the relationship of the
samples to each other
More modern practices involve the use of
submersibles to directly sample from the fracture
wall (e.g. ODP cruise to the Hess Deep)
Only samples the topmost portion of the upper
mantle
Samples are very similar to those taken from
ophiolites
Nodules in basalts
Approximately fist-sized ultramafic xenoliths
2/25/02
Usually found in basanites (a feldspathoid olivine

basalt) or alkali basalts
Most common types are: gabbro, dunite,
harzburgite, spinel lherzolite, plagioclase
lherzolite, sehrlites, garnet lherzolite, and an
eclogite (high P metamorphic rock w/ garnet &
pyroxene)
Can also find xenoliths in basaltic lavas
Not usually found in tholeiites
Must have traveled quickly to the surface for
the xenoliths to still be present
Can include restites (remainder of a rock that
was partially melted) and autoliths (xenoliths
picked up near the magma source)
Xenoliths in kimberlites
Well talk about kimberlites in chp 19 in detail
Considered the result due to deep upper mantle

tapping (250-350 km) and rapid movement of the
material to the surface
Include a variety of mantle and crustal samples to
the surface as xenoliths
All known kimberlites occur within continental
areas
The xenoliths are diverse (heterogeneous upper
mantle)garnet lherzolite and spinel lherzolite are
dominant, though
Only source of deeper mantle petrology
Spinel and garnet lherzolites are the main candidates for
pristine mantle material, if we look at the data above
Have the correct densities and seismic properties for
what has been observed
Basalts can be produced by partially melting them
2/25/02
Wt.% Al2O3
We consider lherzolite 15
Tholeiitic basalt
the correct answer,
because if you look at a
plot of magma
g
composition basalt,
tin
el
lM
lherzolite, harzburgite, 10
tia
ar
P
and dunite plot on the
same linein fact, if
you were to remove
basalt from a lherzolite,
5
you would be left with
Lherzolite
a residuum of
harzburgite and dunite
Harzburgite Residuum
Harzburgite and dunite
Dunite
0
can also have
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.0
Wt.% TiO
cummulate
Figure 10-1 Brown and Mussett, A. E. (1993), The Inaccessible Earth:
texturesevidence for
An Integrated View of Its Structure and Composition. Chapman &
fractional
Hall/Kluwer. From Winter (2001).
crystallization
2/25/02
9
0.8
Our aluminous lherzolite is

divided into four-phases:
olivine, opx, cpx, and a
subordinate aluminous phase
(e.g. garnet, plagioclase,
spinel, Si in VI-CN)
Fertile = undepleted mantle,
normally considered to be
the aluminous lherzolite
The chemical composition of
the various lherzolites
(garnet/spinel) are very
similarthe difference in
mineralogy depends on
pressure
From low to high: plag,
spinel, garnet, Si in VICN
2/25/02
Figure 10-2 Phase diagram of aluminous lherzolite with melting

interval (gray), sub-solidus reactions, and geothermal gradient.
After Wyllie, P. J. (1981). Geol. Rundsch. 70, 128-153. From
Winter (2001).
10
These relationships would

explain why we commonly
find plag-lherzolite in
ophiolites and garnet/spinel
lherzolites in kimberlites

Winter (2001).
2/25/02
11
Melting the Mantle
If we look at where the

approximated geotherm
lies in comparison to the
solidus on the lherzolite
diagram, we realize that
the geotherm alone will
not cause basaltic melt to
form
To create melt we must do
one of three things:
Raise the temperature
Lower the pressure
Change the
composition
(specifically fluids)
2/25/02

Winter (2001).
12
Simplest method:
accumulate heat
created by
radioactive decay
Mantle has a low
amount
radioactive
material, so it
would take 107
years to raise a
peridotite 1
Cthermal
conductivity of
rocks would
dissipate the heat
long before
anything melted
Raising the Temperature
Figure 10-3. Melting by raising the temperature. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
13
Any melt produced would also take the U, Th, K with it, so
that further radioactive decay would not occur
A great deal of heat would be required to cause 20-25%
partial melting, so this method is probably very unlikely
Figure 10-3. Melting by

raising the temperature.
From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
14
Hot spots seem to be the exception to the lower geothermal

gradienthigh heat flow characterizes these limited area
volcanic sites
Origin of hot spots not well known, but they are
currently assumed to come from near the mantle-core
boundary
Only local phenomena, so we need another method to
produce the vast majority of our basalts
(Well talk about them in chp 14)
2/25/02
If we could lower
the pressure while
keeping the rocks at
a constant
temperature, the
rocks would melt
Adiabatic =
conductive heat
loss is zero
Pure adiabatic
process in unlikely,
but we could come
fairly close and
once melting
begins, excess heat
will be used to
xtallize minerals
2/25/02
15
Lowering the Pressure
Figure 10-4. Melting by (adiabatic) pressure reduction. Melting begins when the
adiabat crosses the solidus and traverses the shaded melting interval. Green
dashed lines represent approximate % melting. From Winter (2001).
16
The rising material would have to move quickly in order to

avoid losing heat
Decompression melting = upwelling mantel material that
diverges from the solidus slowly and produces limited
quantities of melt
Where can we reduce the pressure?
At divergent plate boundaries
To produce 20-30% partial melt need for mid-ocean ridge
basalts (MORB), the mantle material would have to rise
between 215-250 km
2/25/02
Some mantle
xenoliths do have
either biotite or
amphibole, which
means some H2O is
present in the
mantleless than 0.1
wt. % normally and
not uniformly
distributed
Also could have CO2
present (chp 19)
Research has been
done with H2Osaturated peridotite,
but we are unlikely to
have that much H2O
Adding Volatiles
Figure 10-4. Dry peridotite solidus compared to several experiments on H2O-saturated peridotites.
2/25/02
17
From Winter (2001)
18
What we need to melt

the mantle:
Free H2O (not in
minerals)
T&P conditions to
melt H2O-saturated
lherzolite
(a): 2 is met, but not 1
(b): both 1& 2 are met,
so thats where oceanic
mantle melts
Figure 10-6 Phase diagram (partly schematic) for a

hydrous mantle system, including the H2O-saturated
lherzolite solidus of Kushiro et al. (1968), the
dehydration breakdown curves for amphibole
(Millhollen et al., 1974) and phlogopite (Modreski
and Boettcher, 1973), plus the ocean and shield
geotherms of Clark and Ringwood (1964) and
Ringwood (1966). After Wyllie (1979). In H. S. Yoder
(ed.), The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks. Fiftieth
Anniversary Perspectives. Princeton University
Press, Princeton, N. J, pp. 483-520. From Winter
(2001)
2/25/02
(c): where melting will occur

if biotite instead of amph is
present in the oceanic mantle
(d): 1 is met, but not 2
(e): where melting will occur
for shield mantle if amph is
presentjust slightly higher
if biotite is present
Shield geotherm is lower
then continental, because
shields are ancient
Only about 1% melt
produced, so not
enoughbut may be enough
to explain the low velocity
zone
2/25/02
19
20
10
Summarizing
Limited volatiles cause reduced amounts of possible melt
productiondifferent case at subduction zones, but well
talk about that in chp 16 & 17
Increasing the temperature is not realistic except at hot
spots, ascending areas of convection cells, or rising diapirs
Pressure reduction is probable at rifts, MORs, or in
association with any rapid rising material
Now we need to see if we can get the range of magmas
found at the surface of the Earth from these partially
melted mantle rocks
2/25/02
21
Different Basalts-Same Mantle

We have assumed that the composition is constant, so the
variance in our system must be pressure and/or
temperature
Though the chemical composition of the mantle is fairly
constant, we did find mineralogical differencesthese
would translate into different partial melts when they reach
the solidus, because it depends on the mineralogy to define
what will melt first, second, etc.
Based on the work we did in chp 7, we know that changing
the pressure will also change where the eutectic
composition lies on a diagram
2/25/02
22
11
If we look at the
effects of pressure on a
simplified diagram for
basalt:
Raising the
pressure will favor
alkaline basalts
Lowering the
pressure favors
tholeiitic basalts
Figure 10-8 Change in the eutectic (first melt) composition with

increasing pressure from 1 to 3 GPa projected onto the base of the
basalt tetrahedron. After Kushiro (1968), J. Geophys. Res., 73, 619634. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
23
Looking at experimental melting of mantle material:

At low pressures tholeiites form (~30 km)
At higher pressures, first more alkaline basalts form (20%
partial melting), but the later melts are more tholeiitic in
composition (25-30% partial melting)
With about 20% partial melting we can create a
harzburgite
Need over 60% partial melting to form a dunite
The fractionating series will vary depending on
pressure as well as the type of basalt magma produced
2/25/02
24
12
Figure 10-9 After Green and Ringwood (1967). Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2, 151-160.
2/25/02
From Winter (2001).
25
A tholeiite at ~60 km through

fractional crystallization of an
aluminum-rich En can turn
into an alkali basalt
At low pressures, the thermal
divide prevents this process
of tholeiite alkaline from
occurring
At high pressures, an Al-rich
pyroxene is possible, which
causes melts with higher SiO2
magmas (nephelinites)at
lower pressures Al is not
soluble in pyroxene, so the
melts are more high-Al
magmas
Figure 10-10 Schematic representation of the fractional crystallization scheme of Green and Ringwood (1967) and Green
(1969). After Wyllie (1971). The Dynamic Earth: Textbook in Geosciences. John Wiley & Sons. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
26
13
Quick Summary
2/25/02
Depth of partial melting & segregation, degree of partial

melting, and amount & type of volatile phase will all
effect the composition of the primary basaltic magma
Fractional crystallization subsequent to the segregation
will also influence a basalts composition
Tholeiites are either formed at low pressures or due to
olivine fractionation of magmas formed a greater depths;
alkaline are due to low degrees of partial melting and
higher pressures
H2O will favor tholeiitesCO2 favors alkalines
27
Primary Magmas
Several criteria to determine a magma is not primary, but
nothing to prove a magma is!
Simplest: low SiO2, high Mg/(Mg+Fe), low alkalias,
high extrusion temp
MgO/(MgO+FeO) = 0.66-0.75
Cr > 1000 ppm
Ni > 400-500 ppm
Multiply saturated
Melts that form at eutectic points (i.e.what the first
melt from a partially melted rock should be), should
be saturated in 2+ minerals
Saturation depends on eutectic location which is
determined by pressure
2/25/02
28
14
ol ol + plag
ol + plag + opx + plag

Multiply saturated!
cpx
cpx + plag
ol + cpx + plag
Figure 10-12 Anhydrous P-T phase relationships for a midocean ridge basalt suspected of being a primary magma.
After Fujii and Kushiro (1977). Carnegie Inst. Wash. Yearb.,
76, 461-465. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
29
Chemical Models of Mantle

Fertile or enriched = xenolith with higher concentrations
of Al, Ca, Ti, Na, and K along with lower Mg/(Mg + Fe)
and Cr/(Cr + Al) ratios
Potential to release magam before becoming refractory
E.g. garnet & spinel lherzolites
Depleted = xenolith at the other end of the spectrum from
an enriched version
E.g. dunites
2/25/02
30
15
For the OIB

(ocean island
basalt), the
negative slope is
typical of an
enriched basalt
For the MORB,
a positive slope
doesnt match
up with either
fractionally
xtallizing or
partially melting
an undepleted
mantle
2/25/02
To get the
tholeiites, first
we have to
deplete the
mantle in
LREEs and
incompatible
element, then
melt it to
produce the
basalt
This would be
indicative of a
heterogeneous
mantle!
2/25/02
increasing incompatibility
Figure 10-13a. REE diagram for a typical alkaline ocean island basalt (OIB) and tholeiitic
mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB). From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall. Data from Sun and McDonough (1989). From
Winter (2001).
31
increasing incompatibility
Figure 10-13a. REE diagram for a typical alkaline ocean island basalt (OIB) and tholeiitic
mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB). From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall. Data from Sun and McDonough (1989). From
Winter (2001).
32
16
Looking at trace element data

for various mantle rocks
supports this heterogeneous idea
For spinel & garnet lherzolites
either a positive or a negative
sloping pattern is possible
If the mantle really were the
same composition as chondrites
(what were standarizing to),
then these lines should have a
slope of zerothe mantle rocks
must have been enriched in
LREEs from either melts or
fluids from below
LREE depleted
or unfractionated
LREE enriched
LREE depleted
or unfractionated
LREE enriched
Figure 10-14 Chondrite-normalized REE diagrams for spinel (a)
and garnet (b) lherzolites. After Basaltic Volcanism Study Project
(1981). Lunar and Planetary Institute. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
33
We can also use isotopes to differentiate between depleted &

enriched mantle compositionsin this case 143N/144Nd and 87Sr/86Sr
Probably represents mixing of a depleted and a non-depleted
magma to make up the compositions in the middle
depleted
Figure 10-15 (a) Initial

143Nd/144Nd vs. 87Sr/86Sr for
oceanic basalts. From Wilson
(1989). Igneous Petrogenesis.
Unwin Hyman/Kluwer. Data
from Zindler et al. (1982) and
Menzies (1983). From Winter
(2001)
enriched
2/25/02
34
17
The depleted upper mantle provides the material to create MORBs

Tapping the undepleted lower mantle, we can form fertile magmas
found in oceanic islands and kimberlites
Figure 10-16b After Basaltic Volcanism Study Project (1981). Lunar and Planetary Institute. From Winter 2001
2/25/02
35
We can create tholeiites with 1030% partial melting from the

depleted mantle
The melt will be more silica rich
at lower pressures
At higher pressures, the melt
will be more alkalic
It is difficult to form a alkali
basalt, however, from this
depleted manlte
Figure 10-17a. Results of partial melting experiments on depleted lherzolites. Dashed lines are contours representing percent
partial melt produced. Strongly curved lines are contours of the normative olivine content of the melt. Opx out and Cpx out
represent the degree of melting at which these phases are completely consumed in the melt. After Jaques and Green (1980).
Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 73, 287-310. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
36
18
Tholeiites possible from melts

created at higher pressures for the
enriched then the depleted mantle
Alkaline basalts can be created by
partially melting 5-20% of the
enriched mantle
Figure 10-17b. Results of partial melting experiments on

fertile lherzolites. After Jaques and Green (1980). Contrib.
Mineral. Petrol., 73, 287-310. From Winter (2001).
2/25/02
37
19
Diversification of Magmas
Chapter 11
2/27/2002
There are more than just basalts on the Earth, so how do we create
these other magmas?
Can we form these other magmas by processes of diversification or
do we have to re-evaluate our thoughts on primary magmas?
What kinds of diversification are possible?
Partial melting
Magmatic differentiation
Fractional crystallization
Volatile transport
Liquid immiscibility
Magma mixing
Assimilation
Boundary layers
In situ crystallization
Compositional convection
2/27/2002
Partial Melting
First melt is always at the eutectic point
You have to attain some minimum value of melt, before
the melt can segregate from the solid (values in the
literature range quite a bit)
Lower viscosity = less melt needed to segregate
More deformation = less melt needed
2/27/2002
Magmatic Differentiation
Magmatic differentiation = any process by which magma is able

to diversify and produce a magma or rock of a different
composition; involves two processes:
Creation of compositional differences between 1+ phases
Elements partition due to an intensive variable change (e.g.
pressure, temperature, composition)
Partitioning determines the trend of differentiation
Fractionation = physical process by which different portions
are mechanically separated
Preserves the chemical differences
Effectiveness determines the extent of the differentiation
Depends on density, viscosity, and size/shape
Can be liquid-solid, liquid-liquid, or liquid-vapor
2/27/2002
Fractional Crystallization
Traditional differentiation method
Since most magmas are found to be multiply saturated at low
pressures, this is indication of magma re-equilibration via crystal
fractionation as the magma traveled to the surface
We can analyze for fractionization via variation diagrams
Gravity settling = differential motion of crystals and liquid under
the influence of gravity due to their difference in density (e.g.
Bowen saw olivine phenocrysts sinking in his melt experiments)
Cumulate texture (chapter 3) is commonly found due to
gravity settlingnormally apparent in thick sills and layered
mafic intrusions
Accepted method since Bowen (1928) suggested it, but more
recent work has questioned the probability of it working
2/27/2002
This variation diagram shows a linear relationship between the most

primitive glass (stars), olivine extracted (dots to the right of the
line), and the resulting magmas (dots to the left of the line)
Figure 11-2 Variation diagram using MgO as the abscissa for lavas associated with the 1959 Kilauea eruption in Hawaii. After
Murata and Richter, 1966 (as modified by Best, 1982) From Winter (2001).
2/27/2002
Math of Gravity Settling

Making a few assumptions to simplify the equation, we
can use Stokes Law to model how the magma-crystal
system should work
Assumptions:
Crystals are spherical
Magma is a Newtonian fluid (no yield stress)
V = 2gr2 (s - l) / 9
V = settling velocity (cm/sec)
g = acceleration (gravity) = 980 cm/sec2
r = radius of the spherical particle (cm)
s = density of the solid sphere (g/cm3)
l = density of the liquid (g/cm3)
= viscosity of the liquid (poise)
2/27/2002
Crystal r
Crystal s
Liquid l
Liquid
V (cm/sec)
Cm/year
Km/104 years
Olivine in
basaltic
magma
Hornblende
in rhyolitic
magma
Feldspar in
rhyolitic
magma
.1
3.3
2.65
1000
.1
3.2
2.3
107
.1
2.7
2.3
107
Large
feldpars in
rhyolitic
magma
.5
2.7
2.3
107
Calculate what the last three rows should be. What does that imply
about gravity settling?
2/27/2002
Olivine
in
basaltic
magma
Crystal r
.1
Crystal s 3.3
2.65
Liquid l
1000
Liquid
V (cm/sec) 0.0013
41024
Cm/year
4
~4100
Km/10
years
Hornblende Feldspar
in rhyolitic in
magma
rhyolitic
magma
.1
3.2
2.3
107
2 x 10-7
6.31
~0.6
.1
2.7
2.3
107
8.7 x 10-8
2.75
~0.27
Large
feldpars
in
rhyolitic
magma
.5
2.7
2.3
107
2.2 x 10-6
69.43
~6.9
Plag in
basaltic
magma
.1
2.7
2.7
1000
How about plagioclase crystals in an Fe-rich basaltic magma?

2/27/2002
Olivine
in
basaltic
magma
Crystal r
.1
Crystal s 3.3
2.65
Liquid l
1000
Liquid
V (cm/sec) 0.0013
Cm/year
41024
Km/104
~4100
years
Hornblende Feldspar
in rhyolitic in
magma
rhyolitic
magma
.1
3.2
2.3
107
2 x 10-7
6.31
~0.6
.1
2.7
2.3
107
8.7 x 10-8
2.75
~0.27
Large
feldpars
in
rhyolitic
magma
.5
2.7
2.3
107
2.2 x 10-6
69.43
~6.9
Plag in
basaltic
magma
.1
2.7
2.7
1000
0!
0!
0!
What if the magma was even more Fe-rich (e.g. greater density)?
2/27/2002
10
Problems we need to consider based on our assumptions:

Crystals are very rarely sphericaland though other
crystal shapes will settle slower, its difficult to calculate
how much slower
The assumption that magmas behave like Newtonian
fluids is probably only true for basaltic liquids near their
liquidus temperatures
The addition of crystals to the liquids will raise the
yield strength
Experimental calculations for a basalt at 1195 C
(McBirney and Noyes, 1979) found a yield strength of
60 Parequiring an olivine to be several cm in
diameter before it could sink!
The more viscous liquid, the higher the yield strength
Thus gravity settling may only be reasonable for a
mafic magmas near their liquidus temperatures
2/27/2002
11
The math would indicate that only more mafic magmas

would be capable of crystal settling, however evidence for
fractional crystallization exists in various silicic bodies:
Evolution of magma bodies over time towards the
minimum eutectic composition
Bivariate diagrams that show progressive
diversification
How can fractional crystallization occur without crystal
settling?
2/27/2002
12
Diagram showing
the eutectic point for
granitic magmas on
a Qtz-Ab-Or
diagram, which
indicates how the
eutectic continually
moves towards Qtz
as the pressure
lowers (lines)
The various dots &
shaded areas are the
composition of most
magmas, showing a
progression from the
higher P eutectic to
the low P eutectic
2/27/2002
Figure 11-3 Position of the H2O-saturated ternary eutectic in the albite-orthoclasesilica system at various pressures. The shaded portion represents the composition
of most granites. Included are the compositions of the Tuolumne Intrusive Series
(Figure 4-32), with the arrow showing the direction of the trend from early to late
magma batches. Experimental data from Wyllie et al. (1976). From Winter (2001).
13
Three possible alternatives to crystal settling:

Filter pressing (compaction) = crystal-liquid system
is squeezed like a spongeliquid migrates from the
compacted solids out into open space
The amount of liquid can range up to 60 vol. %
Can also work in a crystal-laden mush that is
constrictedliquid can move on while the crystals
get left behind
Flow segregation = process by which crystals are
concentrated away from country rock walls in order
to reduce grain dispersive pressure
Motion of magma past stationary country rock
walls causes shear due to the velocity gradient
This differential motion forces magma to flow
around phenocrysts causing pressure constrictions
when grains are near one another
2/27/2002
14
Grain dispersive pressure =

pressure that forces grains
apart and away from the
contact caused by
differential velocities
Effect greatest near
boundary walls and
drops off quickly
towards the center of the
magma body
Requires flow to be
parallel (or nearly
parallel) to the country
rock-magma contact
2/27/2002
Figures 11-4 Drever and Johnston (1958). Royal Soc.

Edinburgh Trans., 63, 459-499. From Winter (2001).
15
Causes phenocrysts to
concentrate away from
walls
Can only produce small
proportion of the
diversification seen
Separation & rise of buoyant
liquids from boundary layers
Crystals form in situ
(without moving)
Figures 11-5 Relative grain size and concentration of olivine

phenocrysts in small dikes on the Isle of Skye. Drever and
Johnston (1958). Royal Soc. Edinburgh Trans., 63, 459-499.
From Winter (2001).
2/27/2002
16
A few more considerations:

The old model of a magma chamber considered the
system to be isobaric, but more modern views see the
magma rising during differentiation
Changes in which minerals are stable depending on
pressure (e.g. garnet to spinel to plagioclase)
Shift of eutectic point with pressure (e.g. P = in
the olivine field)
Fractional crystallization cant form all of the magmas
found on the Earth
The amount of basalt need to fractionate to form a
granite is ~20:1where did the basalt go that formed
the huge granite batholiths commonly found out west?
Fractional crystallization important, but something else
must also be at work to provide for all of the different
magmas
2/27/2002
17
Volatile Transport
Chemical differentiation can also occur in the presence

of a free-fluid phase
There are several ways to have a free-fluid phase:
Heating hydrated or carbonated wall rocks
Release of a fluid phase due to decompression of a
melt (lower pressure, less fluid a melt can dissolve)
Advanced fractional crystallization will concentrate
the dissolved fluid within the melt until it becomes
saturated and forms a free phase
Occurs due to the fact the primary minerals to
crystallize are anhydrous
The fluid phase will have a lower density then the
surrounding melt and will rise to concentrate near the
roof of the magma chamber
2/27/2002
18
The elements in the system will partition themselves

between the free-fluid and the magma
Produces a silica-saturated vapor phase and a vaporsaturated silicate phase
Vapor phase may include:
H2O, CO2, S, Cl, F, B, and P
Incompatible (LIL) and chalcophile elements
Release of a free-fluid phase may result in an increase in
pressurecauses fracturing of the roof rock in shallow
intrusions
Vapor phase & late melt may escape along the fractures
and crystallize
Dikes/Sills commonly consists of quartz & feldspar
with a sugary texture = aplite
2/27/2002
19
Pegmatite is technically a textural descriptive word, but

most pegmatites are formed by the following method:
Large grain size is due to poor nucleation and very high
diffusivity in the H2O-rich phase
simple pegmatite = essentially a coarse granite
More complex pegmatites contain large concentrations
of incompatible elements & a wide variety of mineral
phases
Commonly displays a concentric zonation
Vapors may cool and crystallize low-temperature minerals
(e.g. sulfides)
Miarolitic pods or cavities = small fluid segregations
trapped within a plutonic host
They appear to be coarse mineral clusters (several cm
across) when exposed at the surface
2/27/2002
20
10
Centers of the pods are hollow voids and minerals may extend
into them
Since the presence of H2O within a magma lowers the melting
temperature, removing H2O suddenly may cause rapid
crystallization of the magma with no temperature changecause
porphyritic texture!
Figure 11-6 Sections of three zoned
fluid-phase deposits (not at the same
scale). a. Miarolitic pod in granite
(several cm across). b. Asymmetric
zoned pegmatite dike with aplitic base
(several tens of cm across). c.
Asymmetric zoned pegmatite with
granitoid outer portion (several meters
across). From Jahns and Burnham
(1969). Econ. Geol., 64, 843-864.
From Winter (2001).
2/27/2002
21
Liquid
Immiscibility
Caused by two liquids that
will not mix (e.g. oil and
water), though they will
homogenize at higher
temperatures
On the Fo-Si diagram, we
had an immiscibility gap
which produced two
liquids
Problems:
Liquid immiscibility
occurs at >1700 C in
the Fo-Si system
2/27/2002
Figure 6-12. Isobaric T-X phase diagram of the system Fo-Silica at 0.1
MPa. After Bowen and Anderson (1914) and Grieg (1927). Amer. J. Sci.
From Winter (2001).
22
11
The gap
doesnt exist
when alkalis
+ Al + Ca
are added!
Though popular
up into the early
1900s, these
problems soon
dropped the
concept down
to old idea
status
Figure 7-4. Isobaric diagram
illustrating the cotectic and
peritectic curves in the system
forsterite-anorthite-silica at 0.1
MPa. After Anderson (1915) A.
J. Sci., and Irvine (1975) CIW
Yearb. 74. From Winter (2001).
2/27/2002
Renewed interest
came in the 50s
after Roedders
discovery of a
low-temperature
immiscibility gap
in the fayaliteleucite-silica
systempossibl
e in Fe-rich
magmas
Roedder (71)
also pointed out
dozens of natural
immiscibility
references
including quite a
few moon rocks
2/27/2002
23
Figure 11-7. Two immiscibility gaps in the system fayalite-leucite-silica (after Roedder,
1979). Yoder (ed.), The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks. Princeton University Press. pp.
15-58. Projected into the simplified system are the compositions of natural immiscible
silicate pair droplets from interstitial Fe-rich tholeiitic glasses (Philpotts, 1982). Contrib.
Mineral. Petrol., 80, 201-218. From Winter (2001).
24
12
There are three magmatic systems that have immiscible

liquids:
Fe-rich tholeiitic basalts, which during late stages of
fractionization have a granitic melt (>75% SiO2)
separate from the basalt melt (~40% SiO2)
Density differences would normally cause separation,
but may be countered by the high crystal content that
prevents magma movement
Droplets found in interstitial glass support the idea of
immiscible melts, but separation of the two liquids is
less obvious
May work fine for late-stage mafic systems (e.g. tops
of Palisades Sill or Skaergrd intrusion), but unlikely
for large-scale granitic bodies
Sulfide-rich silicate magmas also separate into a sulfiderich liquid and a sulfide-saturated silicate liquid
2/27/2002
25
2/27/2002
It only takes <0.1% sulfur to over-saturate a

silicate melt, so the formation of a secondary ironsulfide melt containing Cu, Ni, other chalcophile
elements is fairly easy
Massive sulfide segregations have formed large
portions of layer mafic complexes and are
economically important
The presence of CO2 in an alkaline melt can also
cause the separation of the melt into two phases: one
silica- & alkali-rich and the other carbonate-rich
Causes the nephelinite-carbonatite relationship,
which is talked about in section 19.2.5.2 of Winter
(2001)
There are also possibilities of liquid separation in
lamprohyres, komatiites, lunar mare, and some other
volcanics
26
13
Tests for Liquid Immiscibility
Either the magmas must be immiscible upon

experimental heating or plot on the boundaries of a
known gap
The two liquids must be in equilibrium with the same
minerals, since theyre in equilibrium with each other
Partitioning of trace and major elements must follow the
rules discussed in chapters 8 & 9
Though immiscibility is now well-accepted, it still is not
a likely candidate for producing a large percentage of the
evolved magmatic rocks found on the Earth
2/27/2002
27
Magma Mixing
At the beginning of the 20th century, one hypothesis for
producing the wide variety of magmas found was the
concept of magma mixing
If there were two primary magma types, one derived
from the mantle (basaltic) and one from the crust
(rhyolitic), then all the magmas of intermediate
composition could be created by mixing the two endmembers
Bowens fractional crystallization caused the waning of
this idea
But, as all things go, the current literature is returning
to ideas of magma mixing to explain some systems
2/27/2002
28
14
We should be able to test for magma mixing on variation

diagrams, though once again, this cant prove one process
occurred
Textural evidence may be the best way to distinguish a
fractionally crystallized melt from a magma-mixing melt
Magma mixing depends on:
Viscosity, temperature, composition, and volatile
content
Location and turbulence with which one magma enters
the chamber
Comingled = swirls of two magmas that have such
different properties that they dont become one
homogenous liquid
2/27/2002
29
Comingled basalt-Rhyolite
Mt. McLoughlin, Oregon
Figure 11-8 and 11-9. From Winter (2001)
An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall
Basalt pillows
accumulating at the bottom
of a in granitic magma
chamber, Vinalhaven
Island, Maine
2/27/2002
30
15
The most probably occurence of magma mixing is in the

replenishment of evolved magma chambers by more
primitive magmas injected in from below; evidence:
Structure: cross-cutting dikes and layers
Minerals: going back up a liquid line of descent; maybe
becoming too hot to crystallize one phase previously
saturated
Texture: phenocryst resorption; zoning reversals
Geochemical: reverses on variation diagrams
Isotopes: changes in the proportions of ions
2/27/2002
31
Assimilation
Assimilation = incorporation of chemical components of
the wall or roof rock into the magma
Depending on the country rock composition, this can
drastically change the composition of the magmatrace
elements more sensitive than majors/minors
Evidence: altered and resorbed contacts and the presence
of xenoliths
The extent of assimilation will depend on the amount of
heat the magma can donate to the project of melting the
country rock
2/27/2002
32
16
Whats left?
Recent petrologists have come up with a few other ideas about how
differentiation can occurmost of them involving in situ processes
An important concept (that was developed by a Swiss chemist Soret)
deals with the thermal diffusion or Soret effect
In a stagnant homogeneous binary solution, a concentration
gradient will form when the solution is subjected to a
temperature gradient
The heavier element will drift towards the cooler end and the
lighter elements towards the warmer end
This will lower the overall energy of the solution, which makes
it more stable
Has been experimentally seen in basaltic magmas (Walker et al.,
1981; and Walker and DeLong, 1982) for gradients of 50
C/mmnot realistic in real situations
2/27/2002
33
It is assumed that the volcanic material that spewed out

first was at the top of the magma chamber and the last
material to be erupted was at the bottom of the chamber
Looking at the variation in a volcanic sequence, then,
might reveal magma chamber layering
Field & lab work on this basis has suggested for several
silicic chambers that stratification into layers occurred
2/27/2002
34
17
Zoned wall boundary

layers and stratified
cap boundary layers
have also been
observed and are
probably caused by
water saturation of the
adjacent
magmamore H2O,
more buoyantor by
simply cooling the
magma near the
contact quicker
thenless temp is also
more buoyant
2/27/2002
Figure 11-12
Formation of
boundary layers
along the walls
and top of a
magma chamber.
From Winter
(2001) An
Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic
Petrology.
Prentice Hall
35
Idea of compositional gradients based on H2O-enrichment

of the melt directly in contact with wall-rockmelt rises
and forms a non-convecting fluid-rich melt cap
Figure 11-11. Schematic section through a rhyolitic magma chamber undergoing convection-aided in-situ
differentiation. After Hildreth (1979). Geol. Soc. Amer. Special Paper, 180, 43-75. From Winter (2001).
2/27/2002
36
18
Mixing Processes
As in all things, most systems probably have multiple
differentiation processes occurring at the same time
2/27/2002
37
19
Mid-Ocean Ridges
Chapter 13
3/18/02
Mid-Ocean Ridges (MOR)

MORs stand about 1-3 km above the abyssal plain and are
about 2000 km wide
Together, the ridges form a continuous chain of volcanic
mountains that is about 65,000 km long
Volcanism and topography are normally symmetrical
across the MOR parallel to the rift direction, but this
doesnt have to always hold true
MORs are also high-activity seismic areas and high heatflow areas
Spreading rates at MORs also range from < 3 cm/year
(slow) to > 4cm/year (fast)the East Pacific is at 8-9
cm/year and the Mid-Atlantic 1-2 cm/year
3/18/02
Figure 13-1. After Minster et al. (1974) Geophys. J. Roy. Astr. Soc., 36, 541-576. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
Slow vs. fast rifts look different

Slow-intermediate:
Axial valley are 30-50 km wide, 1-5 km deep
Step-like inward-facing scarps (similar to continental
rift valleys)
Inner rift valley = contained within the larger valley; 39 km wide with a flat floor
Concentrated location of volcanism and crustal
extension
Fissure open and pillow lavas form on the flat floor
Constrained by the scarp walls, most of the flows
are parallel to the axial direction
Activity is not evenly distributed; volcanic mounds
>300 m high can form coalescing cones 10-20 km
long
3/18/02
One formed, the cones are split (not symmetrically),

dismembered by faulting, and carried away from the
axis
Fast:
Smoother and less disrupted by large fault
displacements
Central rift valley is small/poorly developed/absent
Most segments have an axial summit caldera
~100 km high, few km wide, extends for many
tens of km along the axis
Zone of ~continuous volcanism 0.5-2 km wide
Center of ridge has small pillow lava hills, which are
flanked by smooth lava plains
Away from the ridge, the rocks are older (not
uniform) and more fractured
3/18/02
Huge amount of material has been produced at MORs

1.4 x 109 km3 for 140 Ma
5% of the size of the upper mantle in 1.4 Ga
Can deplete the mantle to a great extentmay be
replenished by subduction
Fracture zones = sub-parallel large-scale zones that off-set
the ridges, which are perpendicular to the axis ridge
Transform faults = seismically active portion between
the major offset ridges; strike-slip faults
3/18/02
Structure of MORs
Since it is difficult to sample all of the layers of the MOR
directly (weve never managed to drill all the way to the
Moho), petrologists base quite a bit of our knowledge on
ophiolites
We divide the MOR into 4 sections based on: 1. Ophiolites
and 2. Characteristic P-wave velocities
Layer 1 = thin layer of pelagic sediment; absent on the
newly formed basaltic crust, but thickens as the basalt
moves away from the ridge
Layer 2 = basaltic layer; subdivided into:
Layer 2A = pillow basalts; seismic studies suggest the
upper portion are porous, but lower portions have most
likely been filled by diagenetic minerals
3/18/02
Layer 2B = vertical sheeted dikes; emplaced in the

shallow brittle extensional environment through which
magma reached the surface
Layer 3 = gabbros; commonly assumed to have
crystallized from a shallow axial magma chamber
Layer 3A = uppermost isotropic gabbros & middle
gabbros, which are somewhat foliated (transitional)
Layer 3B = layered gabbros with common cumulate
textures
Layering can be either horizontal or dips up to 90
At the top of layer 3 in some of the ophiolite sequences
is a plagiogranite layersmall discontinuous diorite
and tonalite bodies
Layer 4 = ultramafics
Upper portion is considered to be layered and is a
cumulate from the axial magma chamber
3/18/02
The lower portion is the original, unlayered, residual

mantle material
This brings up the question of where is the Moho
Seismic Moho = where P-wave velocities go from 7.3
km/s to 8.1 km/s; regardless of ultramafic origin
Petrologic Moho = top of the original ultramafics not
including those created by cumulate processes
3/18/02
Proposed MOR
3/18/02
Figure 13-4.
Modified after
Brown and Mussett
(1993) The
Inaccessible Earth:
An Integrated View
of Its Structure and
Composition.
Chapman & Hall.
London.
Figure 13-3.
Lithology and
thickness of a
typical ophiolite
sequence, based on
the Samial
Ophiolite in Oman.
After Boudier and
Nicolas (1985)
Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett., 76, 84-92.
From Winter
(2001).
Typical Ophiolite
10
MORB Petrography & Majors

If we could define a typical MORB, it would be:
Olivine tholeiite
Low K2O (<0.2%)
Low TiO2 (<2.0%)
Glassy to phyric in texture (rarely gabbroic)
Common phenocrysts are:
Plagioclase (An40-An88)
Olivine (Fo65-Fo91)
Mg-Cr spinel
Groundmass = plagioclase and cpx microlites with a Fe-Ti oxide
phase
Glass samples are used to define the liquid composition, since the
phyric samples may have been modified by crystal accumulation
3/18/02
Low pressure
experimental &
textural data
indicates that the
crystallization
order is: ol ( MgCr spinel) ol +
plag ( Mg-Cr
spinel) ol +
plag + cpx
Other sequences
would be possible
with different
compositions,
pressures, and
fractionation
processes
3/18/02
11
Figure 7-2. After Bowen (1915), A. J. Sci., and Morse (1994), Basalts and Phase
Diagrams. Krieger Publishers. From Winter (2001).
12
Since Fe-Ti oxides are only

in the groundmass, they
formed late
MORBs have a range of
chemical compositions, but
are still restrictive in
comparison to other
petrogenetic associations
Note that quartz-hypersthene
are in the norm composition
and the very low K2O values
Table 13-2. Average Analyses and CIPW Norms of MORBs

(BVTP Table 1.2.5.2)
Oxide (wt%)
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
FeO*
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2 O
P 2 O5
Total
All
50.5
1.56
15.3
10.5
7.47
11.5
2.62
0.16
0.13
99.74
MAR
50.7
1.49
15.6
9.85
7.69
11.4
2.66
0.17
0.12
99.68
EPR
50.2
1.77
14.9
11.3
7.10
11.4
2.66
0.16
0.14
99.63
IOR
50.9
1.19
15.2
10.3
7.69
11.8
2.32
0.14
0.10
99.64
Norm
q
or
ab
an
di
hy
ol
mt
il
ap
0.94
0.95
22.17
29.44
21.62
17.19
0.0
4.44
2.96
0.30
0.76
1.0
22.51
30.13
20.84
17.32
0.0
4.34
2.83
0.28
0.93
0.95
22.51
28.14
22.5
16.53
0.0
4.74
3.36
0.32
1.60
0.83
19.64
30.53
22.38
18.62
0.0
3.90
2.26
0.23
All: Ave of glasses from Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean ridges.
MAR: Ave. of MAR glasses. EPR: Ave. of EPR glasses.
IOR: Ave. of Indian Ocean ridge glasses.
3/18/02
13
Increase of FeO relative to MgO

characteristic for tholeiites
Compatible with fractional
crystallization of:
Olivine: raise FeO/MgO ratio
Ca-plag: decrease Al2O3 and
CaO
However, the CaO/Al2O3 ratio
probably indicates the removal
of another phenocryst beyond
plagperhaps cpx?however
this trend does not always
occur and may indicate only
occasional involvement
Figure 13-5. Fenner-type variation diagrams for
basaltic glasses from the Afar region of the MAR. Note
different ordinate scales. From Stakes et al. (1984) J.
Geophys. Res., 89, 6995-7028. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
14
Though considered earlier in igneous petrology to be

uniform, MORBs obviously do vary some
MORBs also show trends consistent with fractional
crystallizationMORBs are not primary magmas
Fractional crystallization most likely took place in a
shallow magma chamber
Taking the increase in K2O, TiO2 and P2O5 of 200300%, we can calculate that 50-67% fractional
crystallization might have occurred
The MORBs are kept at intermediate composition
probably through periodic injection of more primitive
magmas
3/18/02
15
Fast and slow ridges also show

variation in their compositions
Fast: broader compositional
range and a larger number of
evolved liquids
Magmas that erupt offaxis are more evolved
Variations also exist along
the axes
Figure 13-8. Histograms of over 1600 glass

compositions from slow and fast mid-ocean ridges.
After Sinton and Detrick (1992) J. Geophys. Res., 97,
197-216. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
16
To compare samples from different locations, we try to minimize

the effect of differing amounts of fractional crystallization by
looking at samples with the same Mg#still have a wide variation,
as seen in the K2O, TiO2, or P2O5 vs. Mg# diagrams
Suggests that there are different MORB source regions!
Figure 13-9. Variation in

K2O vs.. Mg# for MORBs
from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Data from Schilling et al.
(1983). From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
17
N-MORB = normal MORB; taps the depleted,

incompatible-poor mantle
E-MORB or P-MORB = enriched (plume) MORB; taps
deeper, incompatible-richer mantle
But does this really hold true for trace elements?
3/18/02
18
There
definitely is
some
correlation
between
LREEdepletion
and NMORBS
and LREEenrichment
and EMORBS
3/18/02
MORB: Trace & Isotopes
Figure 13-10. Data from Schilling et al. (1983) Amer. J. Sci., 283, 510-586.
From Winter (2001).
To look at the data

from multiple analyses,
we use ratios of various
REEs and plot them on
a variation diagram
On a La/Sm vs. Mg#
graph there are three
fields:
Blue squares = EMORB (>1.5-1.8
La/Sm)
Green circles = TMORB
(transitional)
Red triangles = NMORB (<0.7
La/Sm)
3/18/02
19
Figure 13-11. Data from

Schilling et al. (1983) Amer.
J. Sci., 283, 510-586. From
Winter (2001).
20
10
T-MORBs are most likely just a result of mixing the other

two
Since isotopes wont fractionate during partial melting or
fraction crystallization, we should be able to use them to
indicate source variations
Figure 13-12. Data from Ito et

al. (1987) Chemical Geology,
62, 157-176; and LeRoex et
al. (1983) J. Petrol., 24, 267318. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
21
Though all the MORBs plot in the more depleted field

from the bulk Earth, E-MORBs are relatively more
enriched then N-MORBs
Note the difference between Atlantic and Pacific NMORBswhy do you think that exists?
Figure 13-12. Data from Ito et

al. (1987) Chemical Geology,
62, 157-176; and LeRoex et
al. (1983) J. Petrol., 24, 267318. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
22
11
Lets go back to
our REE data to
help us decide
what the parent
rock of the
MORB might be
Assuming were
in one of the four
lherzolite fields,
what are our
options for
aluminous phases?
How would they
manifest
themselves on this
diagram?
3/18/02
How do MORBs form?

No Eu anomaly-no plag
HREE isnt
depleted-no garnet
Figure 13-10. Data from Schilling et al. (1983) Amer. J. Sci., 283,
510-586. From Winter (2001).
23
Experimental results to discover where opx + cpx + olivine

are multiply saturated are 0.8-1.2 Ga
How deep is that? 25-35 km
Does it correspond to the phase you chose based on the
REE data?
And this means?
Multiple saturation = last point melt in equilibrium with
the solid mantle phasescontrols major elements &
mineralogy
Separation depth = minimum depth of origin
Incompatible trace & isotopes = equilibrium with the
ultimate source reservoir
3/18/02
24
12
As the magma partially melts and

separates, what do you envision
occurring to it? What lies beneath
the MOR?
Figure 13-14. From Byran and Moore (1977) Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 88, 556-570. Figure 13-15. After
Perfit et al. (1994) Geology, 22, 375-379. From Winter (2001)
3/18/02
25
Along strikeonly pockets of magma, explaining why only

some portions of the ridge erupt.
Figure 13-16 After Sinton and Detrick (1992) J. Geophys. Res., 97, 197-216. From Winter
(2001).
3/18/02
26
13
Also have a different idea for the rare-erupting slow ridge.
Depth (km)
2
Figure 13-16 After
Sinton and Detrick
(1992) J. Geophys.
Res., 97, 197-216.
From Winter
(2001).
Rift Valley
4
6
Moho
Gabbro
Transition
zone
Mush
8
10
3/18/02
0
Distance (km)
10
27
14
SubductionIsland Arcs
Chapter 16
3/18/02
Subduction-related volcanism is distinctively different

from the mainly basaltic provinces weve dealt with so far
Volcanism tends to be more diverse & silicic as well as
explosive
The subducting plate is always oceanic (due to density),
but the overriding plate can be either oceanic (forms an
island arc) or continental (forms a continental arc or active
continental margin)
Subduction produces:
Characteristic igneous rocks
Distinctive metamorphic belts (chp 25)
Orogeny
3/18/02
Figure 16-1. Principal subduction zones associated with orogenic volcanism and plutonism. Triangles are on the overriding plate. PBS =
Papuan-Bismarck-Solomon-New Hebrides arc. SAfter Wilson (1989) Igneous Petrogenesis, Allen Unwin/Kluwer. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
Island-Arc Volcanism
Island arcs commonly are between 200 and 300 km long
Trench is normally >11 km deep
Rate of subduction ranges from 0.9-10.8 cm/yr
Figure 16-2. Schematic cross section through

a typical island arc after Gill (1981),
Orogenic Andesites and Plate Tectonics.
Springer-Verlag. HFU= heat flow unit (4.2 x
10-6 joules/cm2/sec) From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
The angle of subduction will range from 30-nearly

vertical (average 45)
Hotter (younger) crust = shallower dip
Thicker crust (e.g. aseismic ridges, oceanic plateaus) =
shallower dip

3/18/02
Wadati-Benioff zone (Xs on diagram) represents a series

of earthquakes that are observed on the upper boundary of
the subducting slabonly found at subduction zones
Deep EQs extend up to 700 km into the Earth along the
zone

3/18/02
Using the Wadati Benioff zone, we can calculate the dip angle:
The vertical depth from the volcano to the zone (h) is almost
always ~110 km
We only need to measure the distance from the trench to the
volcano to find the dip

3/18/02
Fore arc = portion between trench and volcanic arc; immature

sediment eroded from arc and oceanic sediment scraped off the
down-going plate
Accretionary prism = accumulation of oceanic sediment, crust, and
mantle that are highly deformed and imbricated by thrusting

3/18/02
The volcanic arc is composed of accumulated lava,

pyroclastic flows and plutons that are intermediate to sialic
(rich in Si + Al) in composition
Back-arc basin = site of MORB-like volcanism created in
the thin extensional environment behind the arc

3/18/02
Volcanism is not uniform in island arcs

Activity begins at the volcanic front ~150-300 km from the
trench
The front is ~10 km wide and runs parallel to the trench
Activity declines gradually towards the back-arc
Secondary arc = late appearing arc ~50 km behind the main arc
that is found in the Aleutians, Kamchatka, Kuriles, NE Japan,
Sunda-Banda, and Scotia
Along axis, the volcanism is also not continuous
50-300 km linear segments are common
Segments are normally off-set from each othercorrespond
to offsets in the subducted plate (e.g. fracture zones)
Volcanic centers tend to regularly spaced with the segments,
though the distance depends on the arc
Arcs tend to range from 12-36 km thick (ave. 30 km & thicker ~
older)only produces 10% of what comes from the MORs
3/18/02
10
Rocks and Magma Series

Confusion due to a lack of homogeneity in terms applied
Basalts, dacites, and rhyolites are normally rareandesites
dominate at convergent plate boundaries
Calc-alkaline series considered to be the hallmark of convergent
magmatism, but tholeiitic and alkaline also occur at subduction
zones
Table 16-1. Relative Proportions of Quaternary Volcanic
Island Arc Rock Types
From Winter (2001)
Locality
Talasea, Papua
Little Sitkin, Aleutians
Mt. Misery, Antilles (lavas)
Ave. Antilles
Ave. Japan (lava, ash falls)
B
9
0
17
17
14
B-A
23
78
22
A
55
4
49
42
85
D
9
18
12
39
2
R
4
0
0
2
0
After Gill (1981, Table 4.4) B = basalt B-A = basaltic andesite

A = andesite, D = dacite,
3/18/02
R = rhyolite
11
The next two diagrams were constructed in 1946 based on

100 volcanic centers in ~30 arcs
Alkaline rocks are much rarer then subalkaline (calcalkaline and tholeiites) rocks
Tholeiites, however, are present in about equal numbers as
the calc-alkalines
Figure 16-3a and b.
Data compiled by
Terry Plank (Plank
and Langmuir,
1988) Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett., 90, 349370. From Winter
(2001).
3/18/02
12
Though both diagrams distinguish between tholeiites and

calc-alkaline rocks, they show different results for the
same series of samplesthis is due to how we define what
is tholeiitic and calc-alkaline for each diagram
Best bet: plot a series of rocks on the diagram and hope
that helps
Figure 16-3a and c.
Data compiled by
Terry Plank (Plank
and Langmuir,
1988) Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett., 90, 349370. From Winter
(2001).
3/18/02
13
Gill (1981) chose to use

K2O to differentiate
between different series of
andesites and came up with
four series:
Low K
Medium K
High K
Shoshonite (very rare)
Figure 16-4. The three andesite series of Gill (1981) Orogenic

Andesites and Plate Tectonics. Springer-Verlag. Contours represent
the concentration of 2500 analyses of andesites stored in the large
data file RKOC76 (Carnegie Institute of Washington). From
Winter (2001).
3/18/02
14
This method becomes

useful when we combine
it with the FeO/MgO
diagram and
distinguishes six series
Though we find a scatter
within the six series:
Low-K is mainly
tholeiitic = island
arc tholeiite
Medium-K is
dominated by calcalkalines
High-K is a mix of
both
3/18/02
Figure 16-5. Combined K2O - FeO*/MgO diagram in which the Low-K to High-K
series are combined with the tholeiitic vs. calc-alkaline types, resulting in six
andesite series, after Gill (1981) Orogenic Andesites and Plate Tectonics.
Springer-Verlag. The points represent the analyses in the appendix of Gill (1981).
From Winter (2001).
15
Major Chemistry
Well look at a series of diagrams for three types of
subduction-related volcanic rocks:
Tonga-Kermedec (low-K tholeiite)
Guatemala (med-K calc-alkaline)
Papua New Guinea Highlands (high-K calc-alkaline)
3/18/02
16
Less variation among

the basalts as the
trends converge at
more primitive
compositionsevolut
ion causes
differentiation
Differentiation occurs
through fractional
crystallization or
magma mixing
Crustal contamination
low since the crust
composition ~
igneous composition
3/18/02
In general the
higher the K2O,
the lower the
FeO* enrichment
All three series
show the typical
FeO/MgO
alkalis trend
Note the change
of the Guatamala
(white arrow)
from plotting in
the tholeiitic
field to the calcalkaline
areanot
3/18/02
unusual
Figure 16-6. a. K2O-SiO2 diagram distinguishing high-K, medium-K and low-K

series. Large squares = high-K, stars = med.-K, diamonds = low-K series from
Table 16-2. Smaller symbols are identified in the caption. Differentiation within a
series (presumably dominated by fractional crystallization) is indicated by the
arrow. Different primary magmas (to the left) are distinguished by vertical
variations in K2O at low SiO2. After Gill, 1981, Orogenic Andesites and Plate
Tectonics. Springer-Verlag. From Winter (2001)
17
Figure 16-6. b. AFM diagram distinguishing tholeiitic and calc-alkaline series. Arrows represent
differentiation trends within a series. From Winter (2001).
18
The medium
series straddles
the two fields and
appears more
tholeiitic in
nature
Lets look at
some Harker
diagrams to
address the major
element variation
more closely
(diagrams
represent more
than 1 volcano)
Do the various
trends make
sense?
3/18/02
Figure 16-6. c. FeO*/MgO vs. SiO2 diagram distinguishing tholeiitic and calc-alkaline series.
From Winter (2001).
19
Figure 16-6. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/18/02
20
10
Tholeiitic silica in the

Skaergrd Intrusion. From
Winter (2001).
No change
SiO2 variations have to be observed

on different diagrams:
Calc-alkaline rocks have a steady
increase throughout the series
Tholeiites have a fairly constant
SiO2 content until the late stages
of formation
How about differences in FeO*
enrichment between calc-alkaline and
tholeiitic rocks?
Fe-enrichment in tholeiitic
rocksno enrichment in
calc-alkaline
3/18/02
21
Spatial and Temporal Variations

Arcs tend not just to have one magmatic series association
with them, but multiple oneseven single volcanoes may
have multiple series!
K-h relationship = correlation between the K2O
concentration and h (depth to subducting plate)
Low-K tholeiites near the trench
Medium- and high-K rocks (mainly calc-alkaline)
farther away from the trench
Some arcs also vary depending on where you are (e.g.
Antilles N S has low-K tholeiites calk-alkaline
alkaline)
Differences in composition over time can also
occurtholeiites early on grading into calc-alkalines (and
even alkaline) as the arc matures
3/18/02
22
11
Petrography
Most island arc volcanic rocks are
phyrictholeiites may be less so
Plag: complex zoning & resorption
An50An70 (up to An90)
What was the average for MORBs?
More Ca-rich due to high H2O, why?
Olivine (Fo70Fo85) or augite (Mg# 8590) in
all the series mafic rocks + low-K andesites
Cpx is more Al-rich then MORBs also due to
high H2O
Med- to high-K have black
hornblendeonly occurs in melts with >3
Figurewt.%
16-9. Major
mineralogy of the low-K tholeiitic, medium-K calc-alkaline, and
Hphenocryst
2O
high-K calc-alkaline magma series. B = basalt, BA = basaltic andesite, A = andesite, D = dacite,
R = rhyolite. Solid lines indicate a dominant phase, whereas dashes indicate only sporadic
development. From Wilson (1989) Igneous Petrogenesis, Allen-Unwin/Kluwer. From Winter
(2001). 3/18/02
23
Trace Elements
Primitive island arcs:
Ni = 75-150 ppm
Cr = 200-400 ppm
V = 200-400 ppm
Primary mantle partial melts?
Andesites:
Ni = 10-60 ppm
Cr = 25-100 ppm
V = 100-200 ppm
Drop is evidence of what process?
3/18/02
24
12
How do the patterns vary due

to:
Change in SiO2? Why?
Change in K2O?
What do the slopes of each
trend indicate about sources of
the melt?
We cant derive one series
from the others, since fractional
crystallization wouldnt vary
the REEs at low depths (at high
depths it might work)
Figure 16-10. REE diagrams for some representative Low-K (tholeiitic),
Medium-K (calc-alkaline), and High-K basaltic andesites and andesites.
An N-MORB is included for reference (from Sun and McDonough,
1989). After Gill (1981) Orogenic Andesites and Plate Tectonics.
Springer-Verlag. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
25
Testing an idea: some

scientists believe the melt
comes directly from melting
the subducting plate
If basalt was subducted it
would turn into eclogite by
110 km
Eclogite contains garnet +
cpx
Is there evidence for the
presence of garnet?
Thumbs up or down on the
melting the down-going
plate idea?
Figure 16-10. REE diagrams for some representative Low-K (tholeiitic),
Medium-K (calc-alkaline), and High-K basaltic andesites and andesites.
An N-MORB is included for reference (from Sun and McDonough,
1989). After Gill (1981) Orogenic Andesites and Plate Tectonics.
3/18/02
26
13
On a MORB normalized
spider diagram for IA basalts,
we see a very characteristic
pattern
Why basalts?
Which are the LILs and the
HFSs?
If the rock had the exact
same values as a MORB
spider diagram, how would
it plot?
What is the LIL
relationship to the MORB?
What is the HFS
relationship?
Why would these
relationships occur?
3/18/02
Lets look a bit more closely at

the HFS:
YYb have implications
regarding the formation of
garnetif garnet was
involved, they should be
depleted
The slightly lower values of
HFS to MORBs could either
be due to:
Which MORBs we
chose to compare it to
IA basalts are even more
depleted then MORBs
3/18/02
Figure 16-11a. MORB-normalized spider diagrams for

selected island arc basalts. Using the normalization and
ordering scheme of Pearce (1983) with LIL on the left and
HFS on the right and compatibility increasing outward from
Ba-Th. Data from BVTP. Composite OIB from Fig 14-3 in
yellow. From Winter (2001).
27
Figure 16-11a. MORB-normalized spider diagrams for

selected island arc basalts. Using the normalization and
ordering scheme of Pearce (1983) with LIL on the left and
HFS on the right and compatibility increasing outward from
Ba-Th. Data from BVTP. Composite OIB from Fig 14-3 in
yellow. From Winter (2001).
28
14
There are a wide

range of results
when we look at the
isotopic evidence for
IAs
A large group plot
near the limited
depleted range of the
MORBssuggestin
g what?
The rest of the
results extend along
a mantle array that
goes from depleted
to enriched
valuesbut its a mix
16-12. Nd-Sr isotopic variation in some island arc volcanics. MORB and mantle array
between MORB and Figure
from Figures 13-11 and 10-15. After Wilson (1989), Arculus and Powell (1986), Gill (1981),
and
McCulloch
et al. (1994). Atlantic sediment data from White et al. (1985). From Winter
Atlantic sediments (2001).
Isotopes
3/18/02
29
The trend could be

explained by
mixing some
partially melted
depleted mantle
source and the
sediments residing
on the down-going
plate
Figure 16-12. Nd-Sr isotopic variation in some island arc volcanics. MORB and mantle array
from Figures 13-11 and 10-15. After Wilson (1989), Arculus and Powell (1986), Gill (1981),
and McCulloch et al. (1994). Atlantic sediment data from White et al. (1985). From Winter
(2001).
3/18/02
30
15
Overlap of
MORB and
some
arcsdepleted
mantle source
Most of the IAs
are enriched
towards marine
sedimenta
further
indication that
there must be
some sediment
input in the
system, but we
cant tell if the
enrichment was
recent or not
Figure 16-13. Variation in 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb for oceanic island arc volcanics. Included
are the isotopic reservoirs and the Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL) proposed in
Chapter 14. The geochron represents the mutual evolution of 207Pb/204Pb and 206Pb/204Pb in a
single-stage homogeneous reservoir. Data sources listed in Wilson (1989). From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
To tell when the

enrichment occurred,
we can use 10Be
10Be is created by the
interaction of cosmic
rays with oxygen and
nitrogenonly has a
half life of 1.5 Ma
(undetectable >10 Ma)
10Be is readily
incorporated into clayrich sediment, so we
can use it to distinguish
between recent and
old sediment
enrichment
3/18/02
31
Figure 16-14. 10Be/Be(total) vs. B/Be for six arcs. After Morris (1989) Carnegie Inst.
of Washington Yearb., 88, 111-123. From Winter (2001).
32
16
Since 9Be is stable, it

works well as a direct
normalization factor
Be is can be measured
in oceanic sediments,
but exists in
undetectable amounts
in MORBs, OIBs, and
continental crust
B also has be brief
residence time, but its
in more enriched in
altered oceanic crust
then in sediment
So, what do the results
reveal?
3/18/02
Figure 16-14. 10Be/Be(total) vs. B/Be for six arcs. After Morris (1989) Carnegie Inst.
of Washington Yearb., 88, 111-123. From Winter (2001).
33
Petrogenesis
The first problem with how to develop magma at a
subduction zone is the thermal regime, which is controlled
by:
Rate of subduction
Age of the subduction zone
Age of the subducting slab
Extent to which the subducting slab induces flow in the
mantle wedge
A few other minor factors (e.g. metamorphic fluid flow,
dip of the slab, etc.)
For the first three factors, what values would make the
thermal regime warmer?
3/18/02
34
17
What happens to the

isotherms near the
subducting slab?
Which numbers on the
diagram are unlikely to
be involved in
producing the magma?
Why?
Could we melt
anhydrous material
with this thermal
regime? Do we have
evidence of H2O?
3/18/02
Figure 16-15. Cross section of a subduction zone showing isotherms (red-after

Furukawa, 1993, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8309-8319) and mantle flow lines (yellowafter Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995, Subduction Zone Magmatism. Blackwell. Oxford).
From Winter (2001).
Pressure-temperaturetime path or P-T-t path =

sequence of pressures and
temperatures that a rock
undergoes
The yellow lines represent
the paths of various aged
arcs
Age of the subducted slab
also matters, as seen by
the pink lines
Water is required, so the
line for chlorite (lowest T)
and hornblende (highest T)
have been included
Others between those
two; what are they?
3/18/02
35
Figure 16-16. Subducted crust pressure-temperature-time (P-T-t) paths for

various situations of arc age (yellow curves) and age of subducted lithosphere
(red curves, for a mature ca. 50 Ma old arc) assuming a subduction rate of 3
cm/yr (Peacock, 1991). Included are some pertinent reaction curves, including
the wet and dry basalt solidi (Figure 7-20), the dehydration of hornblende
(Lambert and Wyllie, 1968, 1970, 1972), chlorite + quartz (Delaney and
Helgeson, 1978). Winter (2001). An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
36
18
D = cases where the rock

has dehydrated (free H2O
available), but wet solidus
has not been
reachedoccurs for older
arc material
M = cases where the rock
is dehydrated above the
wet solidus and melting
will occurvery young
arcs
The orange question area
depends on when the arc
is hydrated (what
minerals are present)
whether or not it will melt
3/18/02
Figure 16-16. Subducted crust pressure-temperature-time (P-T-t) paths for

various situations of arc age (yellow curves) and age of subducted lithosphere
(red curves, for a mature ca. 50 Ma old arc) assuming a subduction rate of 3
cm/yr (Peacock, 1991). Included are some pertinent reaction curves, including
the wet and dry basalt solidi (Figure 7-20), the dehydration of hornblende
(Lambert and Wyllie, 1968, 1970, 1972), chlorite + quartz (Delaney and
Helgeson, 1978). Winter (2001). An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
37
Arguments against slab melting:

Many workers believe that once the water is released
via dehydration it rises and leaves the systemwere
back at drying to melt dry rock
Instead of melt forming, an anhydrous eclogite forms
through metamorphism of the basalt
This is where people begin to argue over whether its the
crust (eclogite + H2O) melting or the overlying mantle
What is some evidence against the eclogite melting?
Erupted magmas are normally >1100too hot for the
slab to be melting
3/18/02
38
19
At the current
moment, the more
generally accepted
model is one of
upper plate mantle
melting caused by
hydration
Water released from
the down-going
plate rises into the
upper plate and
transforms the
lherzolite to
pargasitic
amphibole &
phlogopite (pink)
3/18/02
Due to mantle flow,

the amphibole &
phlogopite are carried
downwards to A
where they are heated
up and cause melting
Two different arcs
may be due to the fact
that hornblendeperiodite should melt
at ~100 km, but
phlogopite-periodite
at ~200 km
Fluid transfer should
account for the LIL,
10Be, B, and other
incompatible element
enrichments
3/18/02
Figure 16-11b. A proposed model for subduction zone magmatism with particular
reference to island arcs. Dehydration of slab crust causes hydration of the mantle
(violet), which undergoes partial melting as amphibole (A) and phlogopite (B)
dehydrate. From Tatsumi (1989), J. Geophys. Res., 94, 4697-4707 and Tatsumi and
Eggins (1995). Subduction Zone Magmatism. Blackwell. Oxford. From Winter (2001).
39
Figure 16-11b. A proposed model for subduction zone magmatism with particular
reference to island arcs. Dehydration of slab crust causes hydration of the mantle
(violet), which undergoes partial melting as amphibole (A) and phlogopite (B)
dehydrate. From Tatsumi (1989), J. Geophys. Res., 94, 4697-4707 and Tatsumi and
Eggins (1995). Subduction Zone Magmatism. Blackwell. Oxford. From Winter (2001).
40
20
The depleted
mantle
characteristics are
due to the mantle
wedgeand will
become further
depleted as the arc
ages
First arc
Second arc
Figure 16-18. Some calculated P-T-t paths

for peridotite in the mantle wedge as it
follows a path similar to the flow lines in
Figure 16-15. Included are some P-T-t
path range for the subducted crust in a
mature arc, and the wet and dry solidi for
peridotite from Figures 10-5 and 10-6. The
subducted crust dehydrates, and water is
transferred to the wedge (arrow). After
Peacock (1991), Tatsumi and Eggins
(1995). Winter (2001). An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
3/18/02
3/18/02
41
Summary
Subducted oceanic crust undergoes dehydration below

the wet basalt solidus, so no partial melting on a large
scale, though there may be local melting (especially in
young arcs or young subducted material)
The released fluid rises into the overriding plate taking
with it the incompatible elements
Fluid hydrates the mantle material, which is then
dragged down to to greater depths where it dehydrates
above the wet periodite solidus and meltsan olivine
tholeiitic basalt forms with only 1-2 wt.% H2O
The tholeiitic magma ponds at the base of the arc crust
and fractionates to form the high-alumina magma;
heating may also cause partial melting of the crustal
silicic magmas that mix with the more mafic magmas
near the surface
42
21
3/18/02
Differentiation (fractional crystallization, assimilation,

magma mixing) of the tholeiitic and calc-alkaline rocks
to form the wide spectrum of igneous material found at
arcs
More alkaline rocks may be found further away from the
trench where water is not as abundant
Mantle flow can cause back-arc rifting behind the arc
43
22
SubductionContinental Arcs
Chapter 17
3/18/02
Possible Differences
3/18/02
Crust contamination is much more likely, since the

magmas generated must rise up to 70 km through the
upper plate
The crustal density is fairly low, which may retard the
rise of the mafic/intermediate bodiesmore assimilation
and/or differentiation of stagnant bodies likely
Since the melting point of the continental crust may be
lower, we may have a considerable addition of silicic
magmatism to the system
Example: western side of the Americas

Some areas are undergoing subduction
with little to no volcanism, while
others are experiencing active
volcanism
Subduction dip angles vary and the
angle of collision can also be different
from fairly normal to oblique
(transpression) to pure strike-slip
(e.g. San Andreas)
Allochthonous or exotic terranes
(offshore island arcs/continental
fragments) have also collided
Figure 17-1. Map of western South America showing the plate tectonic framework,
and the distribution of volcanics and crustal types. NVZ, CVZ, and SVZ are the
northern, central, and southern volcanic zones. After Thorpe and Francis (1979)
Tectonophys., 57, 53-70; Thorpe et al. (1982) In R. S. Thorpe (ed.), (1982). Andesites.
Orogenic Andesites and Related Rocks. John Wiley & Sons. New York, pp. 188-205;
and Harmon et al. (1984) J. Geol. Soc. London, 141, 803-822. Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/18/02
Three actives zones in the Andes:

NVZ = northern volcanic zone;
young continent = 30-45 km thick
~140 km trench arc
CVZ = central volcanic zone; old
continent = up to 75 km thick
~140 km trench arc
SVZ = southern volcanic zone;
young continent = 30-45 km thick
~90 km trench arc
What could account for the different
distances between the trench and the
arc?
Figure 17-1. Map of western South America showing the plate tectonic framework,
and the distribution of volcanics and crustal types. After Thorpe and Francis (1979)
Tectonophys., 57, 53-70; Thorpe et al. (1982) In R. S. Thorpe (ed.), (1982). Andesites.
Orogenic Andesites and Related Rocks. John Wiley & Sons. New York, pp. 188-205;
and Harmon et al. (1984) J. Geol. Soc. London, 141, 803-822. Winter (2001) An
3/18/02
The active areas have steep

subduction angles, while the
shallow dips are areas of
quiescence
Low dip angles are present in
areas with thicker and less dense
oceanic crust is going down
The asthenosphere is pushed
off further away from the
trench due the narrow space
above the shallowly dipping
plate
Figure 17-2. Schematic diagram to illustrate how a shallow dip of the

subducting slab can pinch out the asthenosphere from the overlying mantle
wedge. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
3/18/02
Geochemistry
Using the Andes as a testing
ground, lets look at
differences between the
three active zones
What differences can you
see on an AFM diagram?
On the K2O vs.. SiO2
diagram?
Figure 17-3. AFM and K2O vs.. SiO2 diagrams (including Hi-K,
Med.-K and Low-K types of Gill, 1981; see Figs. 16-4 and 166) for volcanics from the (a) northern, (b) central and (c)
southern volcanic zones of the Andes. Open circles in the NVZ
and SVZ are alkaline rocks. Data from Thorpe et al.
(1982,1984), Geist (personal communication), Deruelle (1982),
Davidson (personal communication), Hickey et al. (1986),
Lpez-Escobar et al. (1981), Hrmann and Pichler (1982).
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
3/18/02
Petrology
SVZ = olivine, two pyroxenes and plagioclase are the
common phenocrysts
High alumina basalts & basaltic andesites on top of
older andesites in the south
In the northern end, silicic hornblende-bearing andesitedacite is dominant
NVZ = olivine and two pyroxenes as phenocrysts
Basaltic andesites and andesites as well as evolved
dacites and rhyolites
More calc-alkaline in the west and potassic andesite
and latite to the east then alkaline and shoshonitic in the
very far east (K-h relationship)
3/18/02
CVZ = plagioclase is the dominant phenocryst (though

olivine and pyroxene in the basaltic andesites); hornblende
and biotite as well
Diverse basaltic to rhyolitic rangeandesites and
dacites most common
Hint of K-h relationship with low-K in west and
alkaline & shoshonites in the east
3/18/02
REE
What do the REE
patterns suggest
about the
generation of
continental
magmas?
Was garnet
present?
Plagioclase?
Figure 17-4. Chondrite-normalized REE diagram for selected Andean volcanics. NVZ (6
samples, average SiO2 = 60.7, K2O = 0.66, data from Thorpe et al. 1984; Geist, pers.
comm.). CVZ (10 samples, ave. SiO2 = 54.8, K2O = 2.77, data from Deruelle, 1982;
Davidson, pers. comm.; Thorpe et al., 1984). SVZ (49 samples, average SiO2 = 52.1, K2O
= 1.07, data from Hickey et al. 1986; Deruelle, 1982; Lpez-Escobar et al. 1981). Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/18/02
Spider
What can you say
about the LILs vs..
the HFSs?
Does this match
up with our results
for oceanic arcs?
What does that
indicate?
Figure 17-5. MORB-normalized spider diagram (Pearce, 1983) for selected Andean
volcanics. NVZ (6 samples, average SiO2 = 60.7, K2O = 0.66, data from Thorpe et al. 1984;
Geist, pers. comm.). CVZ (10 samples, ave. SiO2 = 54.8, K2O = 2.77, data from Deruelle,
1982; Davidson, pers. comm.; Thorpe et al., 1984). SVZ (49 samples, average SiO2 = 52.1,
K2O = 1.07, data from Hickey et al. 1986; Deruelle, 1982; Lpez-Escobar et al. 1981).
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/18/02
10
Isotopes
What do the
isotopes suggest?
How does this
relate to the island
arc results?
Figure 17-6. Sr vs.. Nd isotopic ratios for the three zones of the Andes. Data from James et
al. (1976), Hawkesworth et al. (1979), James (1982), Harmon et al. (1984), Frey et al.
(1984), Thorpe et al. (1984), Hickey et al. (1986), Hildreth and Moorbath (1988), Geist
(pers. comm), Davidson (pers. comm.), Wrner et al. (1988), Walker et al. (1991), deSilva
(1991), Kay et al. (1991), Davidson and deSilva (1992). Winter (2001) An Introduction to
3/18/02
11
12
What is the
relationship between
the arc (dots) and
MORBs?
How does that
compare with island
arcs?
What is that indicative
of?
Figure 17-7. 208Pb/204Pb vs.. 206Pb/204Pb and
207Pb/204Pb vs.. 206Pb/204Pb for Andean volcanics
plotted over the OIB fields from Figures 14-7 and
14-8. Data from James et al. (1976), Hawkesworth
et al. (1979), James (1982), Harmon et al. (1984),
Frey et al. (1984), Thorpe et al. (1984), Hickey et al.
(1986), Hildreth and Moorbath (1988), Geist (pers.
comm), Davidson (pers. comm.), Wrner et al.
(1988), Walker et al. (1991), deSilva (1991), Kay et
al. (1991), Davidson and deSilva (1992). Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
3/18/02
There are several different ratios plotted on the next

diagram vs. latitude for the Andes:
87Sr/86Sr
143Nd/144Nd
7/4 deals with enrichment of 207Pb over NHRL from
figure 17-7
8/4 deals with enrichment of 208Pb over NHRL from
figure 17-7
18O (oceanic 5-6 per mil, 10-25 per mil for continental
crust)
For each diagram:
Does it vary over latitude?
What do the numbers indicate?
3/18/02
13
14
Figure 17-8. 87Sr/86Sr, D7/4, D8/4,

and d18O vs.. Latitude for the
Andean volcanics. 7/4 and 8/4
are indices of 207Pb and 208Pb
enrichment over the NHRL values
of Figure 17-7 (see Rollinson,
1993, p. 240). Shaded areas are
estimates for mantle and MORB
isotopic ranges from Chapter 10.
Data from James et al. (1976),
Hawkesworth et al. (1979), James
(1982), Harmon et al. (1984),
Frey et al. (1984), Thorpe et al.
(1984), Hickey et al. (1986),
Hildreth and Moorbath (1988),
Geist (pers. comm), Davidson
(pers. comm.), Wrner et al.
(1988), Walker et al. (1991),
deSilva (1991), Kay et al. (1991),
Davidson and deSilva (1992).
Winter (2001) An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic
3/18/02
Petrogenesis
Island arcs and continental arcs probably originate in the
same manner, however crustal interactions play a role
where the magma travels through older & thicker crust (e.g.
CVZ)
3/18/02
15
Granitoid Rocks
Part of Chapter 17 & all of Chapter 18
3/18/02
Plutons related to Arcs
Cordilleran-type batholith = large composite plutons

created in mountain belts at a leading plate edge
These plutons are a group of hundreds to thousands of
individual intrusions that make up the composite body
Can span 107 to 108 years
Composition ranges from gabbros to granites
E.g. Coastal Batholith (Peru) 7-16% gabbro & diorite,
48-60% tonalite, granodiorite 20-30%, and true granite
1-4 %
Granitoid = coarse-grained felsic rock, can range from
a tonalite to a syenite
Usually found in sections where volcanism is not active, so
that erosion and uplift can reveal the batholiths
Why might volcanism cease?
3/18/02
Figure 1715b. Major

plutons of the
South
American
Cordillera, a
principal
segment of a
continuous
MesozoicTertiary belt
from the
Aleutians to
Antarctica.
After USGS.
From Winter
(2001).
3/18/02
Figure 17-15a. Major

plutons of the North
American Cordillera,
a principal segment
of a continuous
Mesozoic-Tertiary
belt from the
Aleutians to
Antarctica. After
Anderson (1990,
preface to The Nature
and Origin of
Cordilleran
Magmatism. Geol.
Soc. Amer. Memoir,
174. The Sr 0.706
line in N. America is
after Kistler (1990),
Miller and Barton
(1990) and
Armstrong (1988).
Winter (2001) An
Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice
Hall.
Batholiths tend to be linear and parallel to the plate

boundary
Unit = group of plutons with similar texture and mode
Super-unit or suite or sequence = plutons with a distinctive
mineralogical, chemical and textural patterns evident over
a range of compositions; normally easy to recognize even
when separated by 100s of kilometers
Huge volumes created at once? Generation processes
similar so that smaller pulses create nearly identical
plutons?
Complex = nested group of plutons regularly spaced apart
(~120 km)
3/18/02
3-D maps of batholiths show individual bell-jar (flattopped & steep-sided) plutons
Flat sides parallel to regional fracture
patternspartially induced by the pluton emplacement
Wall rocks have little to no distortion
Emplaced at shallow depths by cauldron subsidence
(stopping of huge fault-bounded crustal blocks) and
roof-uplift
Figure 17-16. Schematic
cross section of the
Coastal batholith of
Peru. The shallow flattopped and steep-sided
bell-jar-shaped
plutons are stoped into
place. Successive pulses
may be nested at a
single locality. The
heavy line is the present
erosion surface. From
Myers (1975) Geol. Soc.
Amer. Bull., 86, 12091220. From Winter
(2001).
3/18/02
Batholith Geochemistry
Batholith
compositions
correspond
closely to the
associated
volcanics
What are the
trends
indicative of?
Figure 17-17. Harker-type and AFM
variation diagrams for the Coastal
batholith of Peru. Data span several
suites from W. S. Pitcher, M. P.
Atherton, E. J. Cobbing, and R. D.
Beckensale (eds.), Magmatism at a
Plate Edge. The Peruvian Andes.
Blackie. Glasgow. Winter (2001)
3/18/02
In the field, we can find:

Diffuse concentric zonation of a single plutonin situ
differentiation
Sharp internal contacts indicative of separate surges
from the chamber below
Some suites are differentiated, but the pulses of
magmatism are scattered between a number of different
plutons in the fielddeeper and larger parental
chambers
Evidence for magma mixing
3/18/02
The REE patterns for

volcanics and batholiths are
remarkably similar
Presence of plagioclase
evident?
Garnet?
Enriched or depleted mantle
source?
Figure 17-18. Chondrite-normalized REE abundances for the

Linga and Tiybaya super-units of the Coastal batholith of Peru
and associated volcanics. From Atherton et al. (1979) In M. P.
Atherton and J. Tarney (eds.), Origin of Granite Batholiths:
Geochemical Evidence. Shiva. Kent. Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice
Hall.
3/18/02
For diagram (a)

Lima segment
into younger
rocksnot much
contamination
Arequipa &
Toquepala
segment intrude
older
cratonelevated
ratios due to
contamination
What does (b)
mean?
Figure 17-19. a. Initial 87Sr/86Sr ranges for three principal segments of the Coastal batholith of Peru (after Beckinsale et al., 1985) in W. S
Pitcher, M. P. Atherton, E. J. Cobbing, and R. D. Beckensale (eds.), Magmatism at a Plate Edge. The Peruvian Andes. Blackie. Glasgow, pp.
177-202. . b. 207Pb/204Pb vs.. 206Pb/204Pb data for the plutons (after Mukasa and Tilton, 1984) in R. S. Harmon and B. A. Barreiro (eds.), Andean
Magmatism: Chemical and Isotopic Constraints. Shiva. Nantwich, pp. 235-238. ORL = Ocean Regression Line for depleted mantle sources
(similar to oceanic crust). Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/18/02
Batholiths tend to be more

evolved and felsic then the
volcanic arc rocks
Most mafic rocks occur early in
the batholiths history and
tonalites dominate in later
stages
Mafic rocks due to partial
melting of mantle wedge
Tonalites due to remelting
of basaltic magmas that
pond at the base of the crust
Proposed process for the
latter, is a two-step process
of extension followed by
compression
3/18/02
Figure 17-20. Schematic diagram illustrating (a) the formation of a

gabbroic crustal underplate at an continental arc and (b) the remelting
of the underplate to generate tonalitic plutons. After Cobbing and
Pitcher (1983) in J. A. Roddick (ed.), Circum-Pacific Plutonic
Terranes. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir, 159. pp. 277-291. From Winter
(2001).
10
Across-Axis Variations
Similar to the K-h relationships
of the volcanics, some
batholiths also have distanceto-trench relationshipsnot all
though
Relationship: mafic near
trench to more SiO2 and
K2O rich further away
Some batholiths also show
temporal trends
Older ages near the trench
17-21. Isotopic age vs.. distance across (a) the Western Cordillera
and younger further away Figure
of Peru (Cobbing and Pitcher, 1983 in J. A. Roddick (ed.), Circum-Pacific
Plutonic Terranes. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir, 159. pp. 277-291) and (b) the
Peninsular Ranges batholith of S. California/Baja Mexico (Walawander et
al. 1990 In J. L. Anderson (ed.), The Nature and Origin of Cordilleran
Magmatism. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir, 174. pp. 1-8). From Winter (2001)
3/18/02
Isotopicly, the trends tend to

show enrichment as you
move away from the trench;
isotopes used for this
evidence:
REEs
87Sr/86Sr
U/Pb
143Nd/144Nd
18O
Does this trend make sense?
Same source for both the
western & eastern rocks?
3/18/02
11
Figure 17-22. Range and average chondrite-normalized rare earth element

patterns for tonalites from the three zones of the Peninsular Ranges
batholith. Data from Gromet and Silver (1987) J. Petrol., 28, 75-125.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
12
Starting with Chapter 18
Granitoids also occur in other localities then subduction

zones, so we need to explore them in different settings
Well continue to focus on intrusive rocks, but keep in
mind that extrusive felsic volcanism also occurs
Three main generalizations to granitoid petrogenesis:
Granitoids with large volumes occur in areas of
continental crust thickening
Occur at continental arc subduction zones or in
continent-continent collision areas
Many post-date the thickening event by 10s Ma
Thermal disturbances are required to provide the liquid
for granitoid genesiswhy?
3/18/02
13
Most igneous petrologists consider granitoids a result of

crustal anatexis
Some mantle contribution may occur either as a
source of heat or material
3/18/02
14
Petrography
General features:
Medium to coarse grain size
Evidence of volatiles, especially H2O
Plagioclase, quartz and alkali feldspar dominant
phasesdo all three need to exist for our current
definition of granitoid?
Which of the three would be an early vs.. late phase?
Hornblende and biotite are the dominant mafic phases
Muscovite occurs in Al-rich granitoids either as a
primary or as a secondary mineral
Layering and cumulates very rare
Sub-solvus granite = low Ca alkaline granite with both a
Na- and K-feldspar; formed in a system with high H2O
pressuremore common
3/18/02
15
Hypersolvus granite = low Ca alkaline granite with only a

single alkaline feldspar; low H2O pressure
Common accessory minerals include:
Zircon
Apatite
Ilmenite
Monazite
Sphene
Allanite
Tourmaline
Pyrite
Fluorite
Magnetite
Which ones are useful for dating? Which one is useful
for determining the paleolatitude of the sample?
3/18/02
16
Restite = solid refractory material remaining

after partial melting of a source rock; in
granitoids, it may contain garnet, cordierite,
opx, corundum, or an aluminosilicate
Xenocryst = foreign crystal within a rock
Zircons are extremely durable to both
chemical and physical weathering as well as
being hard to melt
Metamorphic zircon ~ unzoned
Igneous zircon ~ zoned
Granitoids can inherit Pb from either
sedimentary rocks or wall rocks and
have erroneously high ages
What happened to this zircon?
Figure 18-1. Backscattered electron image of a zircon from the Strontian Granite, Scotland. The grain has a rounded, un-zoned core (dark)
that is an inherited high-temperature non-melted crystal from the pre-granite source. The core is surrounded by a zoned epitaxial igneous
overgrowth rim, crystallized from the cooling granite. From Paterson et al. (1992), Trans. Royal. Soc. Edinburgh. 83, 459-471. Also Geol.
Soc. Amer. Spec. Paper, 272, 459-471. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
17
Enclave = any igneous inclusion

A number of the common ones are listed below, though
this list is not all-inclusive
Table 18-1. The Various Types of Enclaves
Nature
Margin
Shape
Features
Xenolith
Name
piece of country
rocks
sharp to
gradual
angular
to ovoid
contact metamorphic
texture and minerals
Xenocryst
isolated foreign
crystal
sharp
angular
corroded
reaction rim
Surmicaceous
Enclave
residue of melting
(restite)
Schlieren
sharp,
lenticular metamorphic texture
biotite rim
micas, Al-rich minerals
disrupted enclave
gradual
oblate
coplanar orientation
Felsic Microgranular Enclave
disrupted
fine-grained margin
sharp to
gradual
ovoid
fine-granied
igneous texture
Mafic Microgranular Enclave
Blob of coeval
mafic magma
mostly
sharp
ovoid
fine-granied
igneous texture
Cumulate Enclave
(Autolith)
disrupted
cumulate
mostly
gradual
ovoid
coarse-grained
cumulate texture
After Didier and Barbarin (1991, p. 20).
Table 18-1. Didier, J. and Barbarin (1991) The different type of enclaves in granites: Nomenclature. In J. Didier and B. Barbarin (1991)
(eds.), Enclaves in Granite Petrology. Elsevier. Amsterdam, pp. 19-23. From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
18
Geochemistry
No standard set of elements that are analyzed for
Lower crustal rocks tend to have lower SiO2, alkalis,
incompatible and LIL trace elements
What are the factors that control the chemical composition
of the igneous rock?
Calc-alkaline varieties are more common than tholeiitic,
but alkali-calcic and alkaline plutons
Characteristics hold true for the entire magma series, so
they must be due to parent body & its melting
3/18/02
19
Figure 18-2. Alumina saturation classes based on the molar proportions of

Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) (A/CNK) after Shand (1927). Common non-quartzo-feldspathic
minerals for each type are included. After Clarke (1992). Granitoid Rocks. Chapman Hall.
From Winter (2001).
3/18/02
20
10
Figure 18-3. The Ab-Or-Qtz system with the ternary cotectic curves and eutectic minima from 0.1 to 3 GPa. Included is the locus of most
granite compositions from Figure 11-2 (shaded) and the plotted positions of the norms from the analyses in Table 18-2. Note the effects of
increasing pressure and the An, B, and F contents on the position of the thermal minima. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/18/02
21
If these rocks have the

same values as MORBs,
how should they plot?
What are the implications
of these two different
patterns?
Figure 18-4. MORB-normalized spider diagrams

for the analyses in Table 18-2 . From Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
3/18/02
22
11
Crustal Melting
When we start to talk about crustal
anatexis and the reactions that
accompany raising the temperature
of the crust, we cross into the hazy
field between metamorphic and
igneous rocks
With dehydration of your typical
pelitic rock (e.g. muscovitebiotite-Al2SiO3-garnet-quartzfeldspar gneiss), we can start
melting the rock at ~650
How much melt forms will
depend on the mode of the
phases present
3/18/02
The reaction to form melt usually

occurs at one temperature due to
the low amounts of muscovite (#1
in diagram)low amount of melt,
so it usually stays trapped in rock
Migmatite = gneiss with blebs,
lenses, or small dikelets of
granitic melt
When the biotite begins to break
down (#2), usually enough melt is
formed that it can escape and rise
away from the metamorphic rock
The remaining material in our
hypothetical rock will require a
substantial amount of heat
increase before it melts, since its
now anhydrous
3/18/02
Figure 18-5. a. Simplified P-T phase diagram after Clarke

(1992) Granitoid Rocks. Chapman Hall, London; and
Vielzeuf and Holloway (1988) Contrib. Mineral. Petrol.,
98, 257-276. Shaded areas in (a) indicate melt generation.
23
Figure 18-5. b. quantity of melt generated during the melting of

muscovite-biotite-bearing crustal source rocks, after Clarke
(1992) Granitoid Rocks. Chapman Hall, London; and Vielzeuf
and Holloway (1988) Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 98, 257-276.
24
12
Classification
We can classify granitoids based on mineralogy (e.g. chapter 2), but

we can also use chemical composition to classify based on source
and tectonic setting
There are more than one genetic classifications, but the majority of
the literature will use the S-I-A-M classification
Table 18-3. The S-I-A-M Classification of Granitoids
SiO2
K2O/Na2O
Type
M
46-70%
low
Ca, Sr
high
53-76%
low
high in
mafic
rocks
65-74%
high
low
A/(C+N+K)*
low
Fe3+/Fe2+
Sr/86Sr
18O
< 9
low
< 9
< 0.705
low
high
> 9
> 0.707
var
low
var
var
low
low: metal- moderate

uminous to
peraluminous
high
87
Cr, Ni
low
< 0.705
metaluminous
A
high
77%
Na2O
high
* molar Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O)
3/18/02
low
var
peralkaline
From Winter (2001)

Misc
Petrogenesis
Low Rb, Th, U
Subduction zone
Low LIL and HFS or ocean-intraplate
Mantle-derived
high LIL/HFS
Subduction zone
med. Rb, Th, U
Infracrustal
hornblende
Mafic to intermed.
magnetite
igneous source
variable LIL/HFS Subduction zone
high Rb, Th, U
biotite, cordierite
Supracrustal
Als, Grt, Ilmenite sedimentary source
low LIL/HFS
Anorogenic
high Fe/Mg
Stable craton
high Ga/Al
Rift zone
High REE, Zr
High F, Cl
Data from White and Chappell (1983), Clarke (1992), Whalen (1985)
25
I-type granitoid ~ igneous source material; two-stage

remelts of underplates
E.g. continental arc granitoids
S-type granitoid ~ partial melting of sedimentary source
rocks
Mixing of I and S can occur due to assimilation and
may be common
E.g. crustal melts
M-type granitoid ~ direct mantle source; single-stage
mantle melts
A range between I and M is very likely
E.g. immature arc plutons, oceanic Plagiogranite in
ophiolites
A-type granitoid ~ anorogenic granitoids
Occur in non-orogenic settings; common intraplate
trace element signature
3/18/02
26
13
Tectonic Classification
Though the alphabet classification is probably the most

common, several igneous petrologists (including Winter)
would prefer a more tectonically-based differentiation of
granitoids
In the classification scheme of Pitcher (1983, 1993) and
Barbarin (1990) the following terms are defined slightly
differently:
Orogenic = mountain building due to compressive
stresses associated with subduction
Anorogenic = magmatism within a plate or a a
spreading margin
Post-orogenic = occurs after the true orogenic event;
has also been classified as orogenic, anorogenic, and
transitional
3/18/02
27
28
Table 18-4. A
Classification of
Granitoid Rocks Based on
Tectonic Setting. After
Pitcher (1983) in K. J.
Hs (ed.), Mountain
Building Processes,
Academic Press, London;
Pitcher (1993), The
Nature and Origin of
Granite, Blackie,
London; and Barbarin
(1990) Geol. Journal, 25,
227-238. Winter (2001)
An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic
3/18/02
14
Continent-continent collision (e.g. Himalayas) will be

characterized by suture zones (fault zones separating
terranes with different lithologies, fossils, etc)
Dehydration of the lower, overthickened crust will provide
the required H2O and radiogenic heating (U, Th, K) for
anatexis to occur in the upper portions of the crust
Figure 18-7. Schematic cross section of the Himalayas showing the dehydration and partial melting zones that produced the leucogranites.
After France-Lanord and Le Fort (1988) Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 79, 183-195. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
3/18/02
29
Role of Mantle in Petrogenesis

A question that concerns granitoids is how much of a role
does the mantle play in creating granitoids
Just a heat source?
Supply melt?
An addition of heat, would mean were recycling the crust
over and over again
If melt is supplied from the mantle, then the crust must be
growing over time
In many ways, this discussion is going to depend on where
the granitoid formedwhy?
3/18/02
30
15
Intro to Metamorphism
Chapter 21
3/29/02
Where does metamorphism end?

Metamorphism = change in form; a change in a rocks
mineralogy, texture and/or composition that occurs in a
solid state (almost always)
The lower boundary of metamorphism is relative to the end
of sedimentary processes (e.g. weathering, diagenesis)
The boundary between diagenesis and very low-grade
metamorphism is rather hazy
An IUGS committee is trying to decide where to draw
boundaries, but the arguments continue online (mainly
through email)generally metamorphism occurs at
temperatures > 100-150 C
At the other end, the boundary between igneous and
metamorphic realms is blurred by several things:
Inability to distinguish between silica-saturated fluid
and fluid-saturated melt deposits
3/29/02
Since the whole rock wont melt at the same point,

where do we distinguish between a metamorphic rock
with only small pockets of melt (migmatite) and an
igneous rock with xenoliths?
Most metamorphic rocks are crustal samples and did not
reach pressures above 3 GPa
Metamorphic petrologists normally do not deal with:
Coal
Petroleum
Ore deposits
As Lukas Baumgartner said to me on my first day of
metamorphic petrology You cant do metamorphic
petrology without an understanding of structural geology,
so there will be some overlap during these lectures
3/29/02
What factors change the rock?
Were going to talk about four agents of metamorphism:

Temperature
Probably the most considered agent when dealing
with a metamorphic rock
Heat can come from either burying the rock
(geothermal gradient) or by putting a hot body next to
a colder one (e.g. igneous intrusion)
Effects of an increase in T:
Recrystallizationincreased grain size, since less
surface area = more stable grain
Minerals react to form more stable assemblages
for that particular T
Devolitization = removal of volatiles from lowtemperature minerals at higher Ts
3/29/02
At low temperatures, disequilibrium is common

due to the fact that the rock can not acquire
enough activation energy to reequilibrateraising the T may provide enough
energy for reactions and diffusion to make the
system stable
Pressure
Lithospheric pressure or confining pressure =
uniform pressure exerted by burying a rock to a given
depth
Since increasing depth will increase not only the
pressure, but also the temperature, the two are closely
linked
The relationship between the pressure/temperature
increase is determined by the geothermal gradient,
which varies depending on tectonic situation (e.g.
subduction zones = low gradient, rifting = high
gradient)
3/29/02
5
Just as there are temperature stability limits for

various minerals, there are also pressure constraints
High pressure metamorphism favors high density
minerals
Deviatoric stress
Stress = state a rock experiences while under a
specific pressure; force per unit area
If the pressure is unequal in the various directions,
then the rocks undergoes a deviatoric or differential
stress:
= stress direction; we use three mutually
perpendicular stresses to define things
1 = maximum principal stress
2 = intermediate principal stress
3 = minimum principal stress
In a lithospheric situation 1 = 2 = 3
3/29/02
The overall pressure and temperature will determine

how the rock will behave
Low P&T = brittle behavior (e.g. things break)
High P&T = ductile behavior (e.g. things flow like
silly putty)
Strain = deformation of the rock in response to stress;
does not have to be proportionally related to the
stress that caused it
Differential stress can change what the textures,
structures, and minerals are present within a rockit
can not, however, change what the kinetically stable
mineral assemblage will be
Well deal with three types of differential stress:
Tension = 3 is negative
Compression = 1 is dominant and positive
Shear = 1 is at an angle to deformation direction
3/29/02
Tension usually occurs at shallow depths and causes

brittle fracturing of the rock
Tension gash or fracture = gap that opens (yellow below)
within a rock/mineral that fills with precipitated
minerals from the fluid phase
Figure 21-2. a. Tension, in which one stress in negative. Tension fractures may open normal to the extension direction and become
filled with mineral precipitates. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/29/02
Compression can result

in either folding (top) or
by flattening (bottom)
During flattening,
elongate minerals are
rotated to being
approximately parallel
with one another
New minerals will also
grow in the minimum
stress direction
Foliation = non-genetic
term referring to planar
textures or structures
Figure 21-2. b. Compression, causing flattening or folding. Winter (2001) An

Figure 21-3. Flattening of a ductile homogeneous sphere (a)

containing randomly oriented flat disks or flakes. In (b), the
matrix flows with progressive flattening, and the flakes are
rotated toward parallelism normal to the predominant stress.
3/29/02
Metamorphic foliations include:

Cleavage
Schisosity
Gneissic or gneissose structure
For a planar foliation to form 1 > 2 = 3
You can also form a lineation, where the elongate
minerals either rotate or grow so that the maximum
elongation is parallel to the longest axis of the
deformed ellipsoid (e.g. amphiboles align in
needles) 1 = 2 > 3 will form a pure lineation
with no foliation, but you can get both a lineation
and foliation with 1 > 2 > 3 (squish it from the
top more then you squish it from the sides)
3/29/02
10
Shear is like pushing on the top of the deck of

cardsthings get rotated and flattened
Figure 21-2. The three main types of deviatoric stress with an example of possible resulting structures. b. Shear, causing slip along
parallel planes and rotation. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3/29/02
11
Metamorphic fluids
Metamorphic fluid = either a liquid or a gas present as an
intergranular phase
Super-critical fluid = phase present above the critical
point, where gas and liquid are not separate phases
Difficult to actually see, since the fluids escape easily
during uplift and erosion
Evidence:
fluid inclusions (could be either primary or
secondary)
Presence of hydrous or carbonate minerals
CO2 and H2O dominant components, though other may
be present
Present due to: meteoric sources, juvenile magmatic source,
subducted material, trapped sedimentary brines,
dehydrating metamorphics or degassing of the mantle
3/29/02
12
Fluids may move various chemical components over

long distances
Metasomatism = substantial chemical change of a rock
due to the movement of a fluid phase through a rock
during metamorphism
Most metamorphic reactions are isochemical (chemical
composition remains constant), though the fluid phase
may change things to a minor extent
3/29/02
13
Types
There are varying types of metamorphism that geologists
deal withsome more common then others
One system of classifying types is to use the following
terms:
Thermal metamorphism = change due mainly to heat
Dynamic metamorphism = the dominant agent is
deviatoric stress (deformation and recrystallization)
Dynamo-thermal metamorphism = combination of
temperature and stresses
We are going to use the more tradition (e.g. what we talk
about in physical) classification scheme, which is what I
will outline in the next few slides
3/29/02
14
Contact metamorphism
Due to thermal & metasomatic influences of intruding
a pluton into country rock
You can also have some differential pressure changes
due to the emplacement of the pluton, but this tends to
be a factor that quite a few people ignore
Contact aureole = metamorphosed country rock
surrounding the pluton
Easier to spot in shallow crustal rocks, since the deep
rocks are already metamorphosed to higher grades
We use heat-flow models to determine what the effect
the pluton will have on the rocks surrounding, which
depend on:
Temperature of country rock
Temperature of igneous intrusion
Composition of country rock
3/29/02
15
Composition of igneous intrusion

Fluid composition and amount
Thickness of intrusion
Figure 21-5. Temperature distribution within a 1-km thick vertical dike and in the country rocks (initially at 0oC) as a function of time. Curves are
labeled in years. The model assumes an initial intrusion temperature of 1200oC and cooling by conduction only. After Jaeger, (1968) Cooling and
solidification of igneous rocks. In H. H. Hess and A. Poldervaart (eds.), Basalts, vol. 2. John Wiley & Sons. New York, pp. 503-536. From
Winter (2001).
3/29/02
16
Fluid can change how the system looks rather

drastically, changing not only how far out the contact
metamorphism reaches but where the maximum
temperature occurs
Pyrometamorphism = rare type of metamorphism due
to the contact of a volcanic deposit with the country
rocknormally accompanied by partial melting
Regional metamorphism
Occurs over a wide geographical area and can occur
due to:
Orogeny
Due to collision (either continent-continent,
ocean-continent, or ocean-ocean)
Involves changes in temperature and deviatoric
stresses
Rocks tend to be foliated
3/29/02
17
Metamorphism may continue on after

deformation finishes and may also occur in
multiple phases (polymetamorphism)
Contact metamorphism occurs locally, but is not
the dominant form of metamorphism
Burial
Low-grade metamorphism in sedimentary basins
due to burial by continued deposition
Change in temperature and pressure
Evidence of fluid-driven reactions, so
hydrothermal metamorphism may play an
important part of this process
Processes at the MOR
Considerable metasomatic alteration of basalts
produced at the MOR at low pressures, but a
large range of temperatures
3/29/02
18
Normally is seen as a loss of Ca and Si

concurrent with a gain in Na and Mg
Black and white smokers are evidence of the
interaction between the heated seawater and the
rocks
The cold seawater descends through fractures
into the warm basalt, is heated and dissolves
various elements from the rock, then rises and
cools, at which point it re-precipitates the ions
Fault-zone metamorphism
Occur in areas of high shear stress, with a low
thermal change
Can be referred to as either dislocation
metamorphism or shear-zone metamorphism
3/29/02
Depends on the temperature (which

is dependent on what?) of the rocks
you started with:
Cataclasis = minerals are bent,
broken, or crushed (brittle
behavior) with little or no
recrystallizationlow
temperature
Fault breccia = product of
cataclasis; broken and crushed
filling within a fault zone
Fault gouge = alteration of a
breccia to clays via interaction
with groundwater
Mylonite = minerals are folded
and stretched (ductile
behavior)higher temperatures
3/29/02
19
Figure 21-7. Schematic cross section across fault

zones. After Mason (1978) Petrology of the
Metamorphic Rocks. George Allen & Unwin.
London. From Winter (2001).
20
10
More esoteric types of metamorphism

Shock metamorphism = due to impact of a meteorite
or the explosion of a bomb, plane, building, etc.
Lightening metamorphism = sudden increase in
temperature due to a lightening bolt
3/29/02
21
Time and Metamorphism

We divide our metamorphic reactions into two categories:
Prograde = an increase in grade due to an increase in
temperature and/or pressure
Retrograde = a decrease in metamorphic grade as
temperatures and/or pressures wane
You may see both types of reactions in the same set of
rocks, so that some of the reactions occurred on the
prograde path and some on the retrograde path
Progressive metamorphism = concept that if the rock saw
high-grade metamorphism, it must have also seen low- and
medium-grade either somewhere on its journey
P-T-t path = pressure-temperature-time path
3/29/02
22
11
Metamorphic rocks are not at equilibrium at the surface of

the Earth, but we assume that they record normally the
maximum metamorphic gradeas research progresses,
however, this assumption is being called into question
We use geothermobarometry, which is applying the
concepts of physical chemistry (e.g. thermodynamics) to
real-rock situationsnot a precise art, but well discuss
this very important concept in greater detail later
3/29/02
23
What are our protolith choices?
Basically, if its a rock, we can metamorphose it, but we tend to

divide rocks into six broad categories for easy referral:
Category
Parent rock
Elemental make-up
Ultramafic Mantle, komatiites, cumulates
v.high Mg, Fe, Ni, Cr
Mafic
Basalts, gabbros, graywackes
High Ca, Mg, Fe
Pelitic
Shales, clays, silts
High Al, K, Si
Calcareous Limestones, dolostones
High Ca, Mg, CO2
Quartz
Nearly pure SiO2
Cherts, quartz-sandstones
QuartzoArkose, granitoids, rhyolites

feldspathic
3/29/02
High Si, Na, K, Al

24
12
Some more terms...

Index mineral = a characteristic mineral within a
metamorphic area; indicates an approximate temperature
and pressure
Isograd = first occurrence of an index mineral; connects
areas of approximately equal pressure and temperature
Metamorphic zone = region characterized by a specific
mineralogy, named based on the index mineral (e.g.
chlorite zone, biotite zone) and is bounded on by isograds
Barrovian series or zones = sequence of metamorphic
zones characteristic for regional metamorphism at higher
pressures; type locality is the Scottish Highlands that were
mapped by Barrow (late 1800s, early 1900s)
Buchan or Abukuma series = low pressure metamorphic
PT path; contains andalusite instead of sillimanite
3/29/02
25
Figure 21-9. The P-T phase diagram for the system Al2SiO5 showing the stability fields for the three polymorphs andalusite, kyanite, and
sillimanite. Also shown is the hydration of Al2SiO5 to pyrophyllite, which limits the occurrence of an Al2SiO5 polymorph at low grades in the
presence of excess silica and water. The diagram was calculated using the program TWQ (Berman, 1988, 1990, 1991). From Winter (2001).
3/29/02
26
13
Metamorphic facies = defined by a specific pressure and

temperature regime; irregardless of mineralogy, so good
from transferring from one protolith to another; named,
however, based on what occurs to a basalt at various
conditions (e.g. greenschist, amphibolite)
Paired metamorphic belts = parallel metamorphic belts,
which are also parallel to the subduction trench
Inner belt (furthest away from trench) is a low P-style
metamorphic seriesgranitoids common
Outer belt (closer to trench) is typically high P, low T
metamorphic faciesblueschists common
3/29/02
27
Figure 21-13. Some of the paired metamorphic belts in

the circum-Pacific region. From Miyashiro (1994)
Metamorphic Petrology. Oxford University Press.
From Winter (2001).
Figure 21-12. The Sanbagawa and Ryoke

metamorphic belts of Japan. From Turner (1981)
Metamorphic Petrology: Mineralogical, Field,
and Tectonic Aspects. McGraw-Hill and
Miyashiro (1994) Metamorphic Petrology.
Oxford University Press. From Winter (2001).
3/29/02
28
14
Microstructural Analysis
a.k.a. Metamorphic Textures and
Structures
Chapter 23
4/15/02
Texture or fabric = small-scale features that are penetrative

(occurs in virtually all of the rock body at the microscopic
level)
Structure = larger-scale features; found in hand-sample,
outcrop, or regional scale
Microstructure = advocated term (instead of texture) for
microscope-scale features
This chapter will mainly deal with microstructural analysis,
however what we find on the thin section scale is often
mirrored by structures found at the hand-sample and larger
scaleso looking at thin sections can help us understand
the structural history of a region
Growth of new minerals depends on:
Detachment of ions from the reacting minerals
Diffusion of the ions to where the new minerals will
grow
4/15/02
Nucleation of the new mineral(s)

Growth of the new mineral(s)
What will be the rate-determining factor?
Deformation, recovery, recrystallization, and timing of
deformation vs. crystallization also influence what the
microstructure will look like
Alone they processes cause clear microstructures, but if two
or more occur concurrently it can make analysis
complicated
-blast or blastic = microstructure that is metamorphic in origin
Blasto- or relict = microstructure is NOT metamorphic in
origin; inherited from parent rock
Idioblastic = euhedral; hybidioblastic = subhedral; xenoblastic
= anhedral
Winter has taken a great deal of this chapter from Passchier and
Trouw (1998)Ill leave it in the room
4/15/02
Deformation, Recovery, and

Recrystallization
Deformation depends on:
Mineralogy
Grain size and orientation
Presence, composition, and mobility of intergranular
fluid phases
Temperature
Pressure
Deviatoric stress
Fluid pressure
Strain rate
4/15/02
The following list is in order of increasing temperature

and/or decreasing strain-rate:
Cataclastic flow = mechanical fragmentation of a rock
accompanied by the sliding and rotation of the fragments
Products: fault gouge, breccia, or cataclasite
Pressure solution = grain contacts at a high angle to 1
become highly strained higher energy; mineral
dissolves readily at the contact, then the dissolved
material migrates to areas of low energy to reprecipitate
Works better with a fluid phase involved
Low-energy = low strain rate
Intracrystalline deformation of a plastic type =
permanent changes in the position of ions, normally
dealing with the breaking of chemical bonds
No cohesion loss of the rock
Often multiple processes happens concurrently
4/15/02
Little arrows are dissolving,

big arrow is where mineral
is precipitating
Figure 23-2 a. Highest strain in areas near grain contacts (hatch

pattern). b. High-strain areas dissolve and material precipitates
in adjacent low-strain areas (shaded). The process is
accompanied by vertical shortening. c. Pressure solution of a
quartz crystal in a deformed quartzite (1 is vertical). Pressure
solution results in a serrated solution surface in high-strain
areas (small arrows) and precipitation in low-strain areas (large
arrow). ~ 0.5 mm across. The faint line within the grain is a
hematite stain along the original clast surface. After Hibbard
(1995) Petrography to Petrogenesis. Prentice Hall. From
Winter (2001).
4/15/02
Defect = places within a crystal lattice where the ions

are not in the correct location
Point defect = an individual ion either out of place
(interstitial) or missing (vacancy)
Line defect = a plane of ions in the wrong place
either by an extra half-plane added (edge
dislocation) or a half-plane shifted over from where
it should be (screw dislocation)
Edge and screw dislocations can be connected to
one another
Fig. 3.7 from Passchier and Trouw: (a) point defects, (b)
line defects, (c) combo edge and screw dislocation
Defects can migrate under deformation as the crystal
tries to become more stable
Dislocation glide = movement of dislocations within
the crystal
4/15/02
Figure 23-2. a. Migration of a

vacancy in a familiar game.
b. Plastic horizontal shortening of a
crystal by vacancy migration. From
Passchier and Trouw (1996)
Microtectonics. Springer-Verlag.
Berlin. From Winter (2001).
Fig. 3.9 from

Passchier and Trouw
to talk about elastic
vs. permanent and
migration
4/15/02
Slip direction = the only way the dislocation can move due
to crystallographic constraints; defined by a Miller index
(e.g. [010])
Slip plane = plane along which slip can occur; characterized
by a Miller index (e.g. (001))
Slip system = describes both the slip direction and plane by
using Miller indices (e.g. (001)[010]); usually determined by
TEM
In some minerals, several slip systems can be active (e.g.
calcite, quartz), but in others only one way will work
Strain hardening = when different slip systems run into one
another, the dislocations can become tangled and now
require a higher amount of stress to move further, causing
the mineral to be more difficult to deform
e.g. if you take a piece of wire and bend it back and forth,
it will first become more difficult to bend then finally
break
4/15/02
Strain hardening promotes brittle behavior of

minerals over ductile deformation
Movement of vacancies to the tangle can overcome
strain hardening, by allowing the dislocation to
climb over the tangle and escape = dislocation
creep
Lattice-preferred orientation (LPO) = preferred
orientation of the lattice due to the movement of
dislocations through a rock
Undulose extinction = heterogeneous extinction of a
crystal due to bending of the crystal lattice
Can be either sweeping (due to large-scale regular
bending of crystal) or patchy & irregular (caused by
microscopically invisible fractures and kinks)
Common in quartz
4/15/02
10
Figure 23-4 a. Undulose extinction and (b) elongate

subgrains in quartz due to dislocation formation and
migration Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous
and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
4/15/02
11
Deformation twinning or mechanical twinning =

dislocation to accommodate a limited about of strain;
only occurs in specific crystallographic orientations
Common in plagioclase and calcite
Twins taper inwards instead of being nice and
straight all the way through
Occurs at low temperatures
Recovery = lowering of strain energy by:
Migration of vacancies to dislocation tangles
straightens out blocked and tangled areas
Migration can straighten bent dislocations
Migration of dislocations can allow them to arrange
themselves into more stable networks
Two dislocations can meet and cancel each other out
4/15/02
12
During deformation, recovery and dislocation occur

simultaneously and will depend on temperature,
strain rate, etc. for which one is the dominant feature
Recovery dominates once deformation begins to die
down
Subgrains = portions of a grain in which the lattices
differ by a small angle; caused by dislocations
concentrating in planar arrays
Recovery reduces the amount of potential energy in
the system, so that the grain can be more
metastable
Recrystallization = movement or development of new
grain boundaries to reduce lattice strain energy
Produce different grains, with high-angle orientation
differences from their neighbors (in contrast to
subgrains)
4/15/02
13
Figure 23-5. Illustration of a recovery process in which

dislocations migrate to form a subgrain boundary. Winter (2001)
An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice
Hall.
4/15/02
14
Grain boundary migration (GBM) = growth of a low

dislocation density crystal at the expense of a neighboring
high dislocation density crystal
Bulging = the boundary may push its way into the high
dislocation density crystal and form a new, independent
crystal
A new crystal may also nucleate in the middle of a highly
deformed grain, but this is rare
No chemical difference between the old and new grains is
required, but it may occur (e.g. feldspars have been
observed to have a small compositional difference)
Subgrain rotation (SR) = dislocations are continuously added
to a subgrain boundary
Dislocations must be able to move from one lattice plane to
another
Gradually the the angle between the two sides of the
subgrain boundary increases until its a new grain
4/15/02
Figure 23-6. Recrystallization by (a) grain-boundary migration

(including nucleation) and (b) subgrain rotation. From Passchier and
Trouw (1996) Microtectonics. Springer-Verlag. Berlin. From
Winter (2001).
4/15/02
15
Figure 23-7a. Recrystallized quartz with irregular

(sutured) boundaries, formed by grain boundary
migration. Width 0.2 mm. From Borradaile et al.
(1982). From Winter (2001).
16
Dynamic recrystallization = processes of

recrystallization during deformation
Tends to produce elongated grains and welldeveloped schistosity
Annealing or static recrystallization = post-deformation
recrystallization
Solid-state diffusion creep = deformation of crystals by
only the migration of vacancy sites through the lattice;
occurs at high temperatures
Crystalplastic deformation = term used when
dislocation creep and diffusion creep can not be
distinguished from one another
Grain boundary sliding = in fine-grained aggregates
crystals may slide past one another
Voids prevented by solid-state diffusion creep or
solution and precipitation of a fluid phase
4/15/02
17
Grain Boundary Area Reduction (GBAR) = decrease in

the total surface area of grain boundaries to reduce the
internal free energy
Straight boundaries and polygonal shapes are
favored
Though GBAR may occur during deformation, it
dominates only after deformation has
ceasedespecially at high temperatures
How a specific mineral will react depends greatly on
temperaturedifferent minerals undergo different
processes at the same temperature
E.g. at 200-300 C quartz is ductile, but feldspars still
act brittlely
4/15/02
18
Contact Metamorphism Textures

Remember: Winter considers contact metamorphismas
do quite a few other petrologistsnot to have a large
amount of deviatoric stress involved
So, if we assume little to no deviatoric stress, what should
the texture be?
Near-static environment
Lack of preferred mineral orientation
Random orientation of elongated minerals
Equidimensional minerals preferred
Common relict textures
4/15/02
19
Granoblastic polygonal or polygonal mosaic = texture

occurring in monomineralic aggregates caused by GBAR;
all grains meet along straight boundaries with triple
junction contacts at ~120
Occurs if no particular face has lower or higher energy
levels then the other faces; e.g. calcite and quartz
What will size depend on?
Decussate = an arrangement of randomly oriented elongate
grains
For grains that do have higher & lower surface energy
faces, the lower energy faces will tend to grow larger
than their counterparts; e.g. micas and amphiboles
In polymineralic aggregates, the contact between two
different types of minerals commonly has a lower surface
energy then two grains of the same composition, so
metamorphism will favor contact between different
minerals; e.g. quartz grains separated by biotite grains
4/15/02
20
10
Porphyroblast =
larger grains in a
matrix of smaller
grains
Poikiloblast =
porphyroblast that
incorporate numerous
inclusionsoccur in
quickly growing
grains
Skeletal or web or
spongy = extreme
poikiloblast
textureextremely
quick growth
Figure 23-9. Typical textures of contact
metamorphism. From Spry (1969)
Metamorphic Textures. Pergamon.
Oxford. From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
21
Porphyroblasts occur due to low nucleation rates for

certain minerals, which means that ions must diffuse over
greater distances for the grain to continue growing
Depletion halo = area surrounding a porphyroblast from
which certain ions have been removed in order to grow
the grain; can refer to a lack of certain elements or a
lack of certain minerals
Progressive development of a
depletion halo about a
growing porphyroblast. From
Best (1982). Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. W.
H. Freeman. San Francisco.
From Winter (2001).
Depletion halo around garnet

porphyroblast. Boehls Butte area,
Idaho From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
22
11
Nodular = ovoid porphyroblasts; common in

fine grained rocks
Spotted = small porphyroblasts in handsample; can be ovoid in shape
Spotted shales and spotted phyllites are
relatively common due to low-grade
regional metamorphism
Figure 23-14. Overprint of contact
metamorphism on regional. a. Nodular
texture of cordierite porphyroblasts
developed during a thermal overprinting
of previous regional metamorphism (note
the foliation in the opaques). Approx. 1.5
x 2 mm. From Bard (1986) Microtextures
of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks.
Reidel. Dordrecht. b. Spotted phyllite in
which small porphyroblasts of cordierite
develop in a preexisting phyllite. Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
23
Whether or not a grain is euhedral is dependent on the type

of mineralunlike igneous grains when time of
crystallization determined shape
Depending on surface energy, lattice structure, etc. some
grains are just naturally more euhedral then others; the
following list goes from most commonly euhedral to most
commonly anhedral:
Sphene, rutile, pyrite, spinel
Garnet, sillimanite, staurolite, tourmaline
Epidote, magnetite, ilmenite
Andalusite, pyroxene, amphibole
Mica, chlorite, dolomite, kyanite
Calcite, vesuvianite, scapolite
Feldspar, quartz, cordierite
4/15/02
24
12
High-Strain Textures
What occurs at shallow vs. deep depths?
Shredded = thin sheets of phyllosilicates that bend or break
due to slip at high strain rates
Undulose extinction is very, very, very common
Porphyroclasts = large pieces of broken material within a a
matrix of crushed material; survived either because they
were larger to start with or they were more resistant to
breakage
Mortar = large porphyroclasts surrounded by a matrix of
crushed material
Pseudotachylite = irregular deformed grains suspended in
a glassy matrix caused by localize melting due to shear
heating
4/15/02
25
Undeformed
granite
b
Mortar
texture
4/15/02
Figure 23-15.
Progressive
mylonitization of a
granite. From Shelton
(1966). Geology
Illustrated. Photos
courtesy John Shelton.
From Winter (2001).
26
13
4/15/02
At greater
depths,
twinning
and
elongation
are
prevalent
mylonites
Ribbons =
highly
elongate
quartz
grains
27
Polygonization = result of recovery processes that form

subgrains
Coalescence = larger grains form from subgrains or by the
addition of smaller grains by grain boundary migration
recrystallization
Figure 23-16a. Large polygonized quartz

crystals with undulose extinction and
subgrains that show sutured grain
boundaries caused by recrystallization.
Compare to Figure 23-15b, in which little,
if any, recrystallization has occurred.
From Urai et al. (1986) Dynamic
recrystallization of minerals. In B. E.
Hobbs and H. C. Heard (eds.), Mineral
and Rock Deformation: Laboratory
Studies. Geophysical Monograph 36.
AGU. From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
28
14
Shear Sense Indicators

This is material I really learned about during my structure
classwhich was taught by a metamorphic petrologist
This is really where we start using microstructure to say
something about the tectonics of what occurred
The sense of the shear will tell us which one of the two
opposite possible motions associated with a given shear
direction actually occurredand is, unfortunately, more
difficult to distinguish than just the direction of shear
Since shear occurs in 3-D, we need to be extremely careful
when looking at something in 2-D, which all thin sections
are!
Hand samples are oriented at the outcrop with a
Brunton
4/15/02
29
Thin sections are carefully cut parallel or perpendicular

to the direction of motiondepends on what you want
to study
Thin sections are also marked so we can relate them
back to the outcrop orientation
If life was easy, we could just use offset dikes or some
other linear/planar structure to determine what the sense of
shear wasnot a normal feature, though
Figure 23-17. Some features that permit the determination of
sense-of-shear. All examples involve dextral shear. 1 is oriented
as shown. a. Passive planar marker unit (shaded) and foliation
oblique to shear planes. After Passchier and Trouw (1996)
Microtectonics. Springer-Verlag. From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
30
15
Oblique foliation = cuts across the the Sfoliation developed due to shear
When we try to
deform a deck of
cards that have a
line on them, the
plane of the
contact between
the cards will
rotate more then
the line we drew
on themtheyll
approach parallel,
but never get
there.
Figure 23-17. Some features that permit the determination of sense-of-shear. All examples involve dextral shear. 1 is oriented as shown.
a. Passive planar marker unit (shaded) and foliation oblique to shear planes. After Passchier and Trouw (1996) Microtectonics. SpringerVerlag. Winter (2001).
4/15/02
31
Shear bands = spaced cleavages that cut across

a well-developed mineral foliation that form
simultaneously; C in the diagram to the right
Shear band cleavage or S-C texture = the
combined feature of shear bands and mineral
foliations
C surfaces parallel to shear plane
Sense of shear determined from angle
between S and C
Figure 23-17. Some features that permit the determination of sense-of-shear. All examples involve dextral shear. 1 is oriented as shown.
a. Passive planar marker unit (shaded) and foliation oblique to shear planes. After Passchier and Trouw (1996) Microtectonics. SpringerVerlag. Winter (2001).
4/15/02
32
16
Mantle porphyroclasts = porphyroclast with a rim of fine

grained material; e.g. more resistant feldspars surrounded
by micas, quartz, and other feldspars
Mantle forms by ductile deformation
Augen = more resistant grains within mantles
Tail = extension of mantle into the foliation
Different types of tails can form:
-type = no tail
-type = symmetrical tails
Figure 23-19. Mantled porphyroclasts and mica fish as sense-of-shear indicators. After Passchier and Simpson (1986) Porphyroclast
systems as kinematic indicators. J. Struct. Geol., 8, 831-843. From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
33
-type or stair-step = asymmetrical tails; foliation

drags at the softer mantle probably to form these
-type = believed to begin as a -type, whose core
was further rotated to bend the tail further around it
We can use the -type and the -type to get sense of
shear, though you have to be careful not to confuse
the twoyou would get the opposite sense of shear!
Figure 23-19. Mantled porphyroclasts and mica fish as sense-of-shear indicators. After Passchier and Simpson (1986) Porphyroclast systems
as kinematic indicators. J. Struct. Geol., 8, 831-843. From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
34
17
Continued rotation of the core can cause complex

objects that are even more funky
Mica fish = single mica grains shaped like -type grains;
the (001) plane be either // or at an angle to the slip
direction (as shown by the two different drawings below)
Figure 23-38. Snowball garnet with

highly rotated spiral Si. Porphyroblast
is ~ 5 mm in diameter. From Yardley
et al. (1990) Atlas of Metamorphic
Rocks and their Textures. Longmans.
From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
Figure 23-19. Mantled porphyroclasts and mica fish as sense-of-shear indicators. After
Passchier and Simpson (1986) Porphyroclast systems as kinematic indicators. J. Struct.
Geol., 8, 831-843. From Winter (2001).
35
Quarter structures = unmantled

porphyroclasts around which small
folds in the foliation have been
dragged by shear
Quarter mats = concentration of
mica in the extension direction
that formed from the dissolved
grains in the shortened quadrants
Asymmetric folds = folds that do
not have mirror symmetry
Pairs of dikes can also be used, if
they were once at a big enough
angle to each other
Figure 23-20. Other methods to determine sense-of-shear. Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice
Hall.
4/15/02
36
18
Regional Orogenic Textures
Pressure and temperature as well as differential stress play

a role
Orogenies are normally discontinuous and contain multiple
tectonic events, which can also consist of several
deformation phases
Deformation phase = distinct period of active deformation
with a specific orientation and style
You can have multiple phases of deformation with the
same orientationactually, thats fairly common and
often hard to distinguish them from one another
Basic met pet would like you to believe that PT paths are
simple, but in reality, complex patterns are more likely
Deformation breaks things down & temperature makes
grains grow biggermakes differentiating what occurred
difficult
4/15/02
37
Normal PT path concept

Two metamorphic rocks are found at
the surface of the Earth:
1st went through the simple path
2nd went through the more
complicated path
However, both rocks are garnetstaurolite schists that record the same
peak P, T, and have the same
retrograde reactionshow are we
supposed to tell apart the complicated
path rock from the simple path?
Commonly, we dont and just assume
that the simpler path occurredas
you can see, not always a correct
Multiple deformation phase
assumption!
PT path
4/15/02
38
19
Tectonites, Foliations, and

Lineations
Tectonite = a microstructure that records the deformation
by developing a preferred mineral orientation
Foliation = any planar texture element; e.g. cleavage,
bedding
Lineation = a linear texture element; e.g. aligned
amphiboles along their c-axes
Primary = pre-deformation; e.g. bedding
Secondary = deformational; e.g. schistosity
4/15/02
39
Foliations
A number of different foliations are

possible:
Compositional layering
Preferred orientation of platy
minerals
Shape of deformed grains
Grain size variation
Preferred orientation of platy
minerals in a matrix without
preferred orientation
Preferred orientation of lenticular
mineral aggregates
Preferred orientation of fractures
Combinations of the above
Figure 23-21. Types of fabric elements that may define a foliation. From
Turner and Weiss (1963) and Passchier and Trouw (1996). From Winter
(2001).
4/15/02
40
20
Continuous = foliation
does not vary across
area of thin section
Spaced = thin section
has microlithons
(unfoliated areas) and
cleavage domains
(fractures or
concentrations of platy
minerals)
Figure 23-22. A morphological (non-genetic) classification of foliations. After Powell

(1979) Tectonophys., 58, 21-34; Borradaile et al. (1982) Atlas of Deformational and
Metamorphic Rock Fabrics. Springer-Verlag; and Passchier and Trouw (1996)
4/15/02
41
Crenulation cleavage = two foliations; 1st

cleavage/schistosity, 2nd is microfolding of
the existing foliation; can be either
symmetrical or asymmetrical
We can sometimes still find primary bedding
in thin sections (right photomicrograph)
Figure 23-24a. Symmetrical

crenulation cleavages in
amphibole-quartz-rich schist.
Note concentration of quartz in
hinge areas. From Borradaile et
al. (1982) Atlas of
Deformational and Metamorphic
Rock Fabrics. Springer-Verlag.
From Winter (2001).
Figure 23-24b. Asymmetric crenulation cleavages

in mica-quartz-rich schist. Note horizontal
compositional layering (relict bedding) and
preferential dissolution of quartz from one limb of
the folds. From Borradaile et al. (1982) Atlas of
Deformational and Metamorphic Rock Fabrics.
Figure 23-25. Stages in the development of crenulation cleavage as a function of temperature

and intensity of the second deformation. From Passchier and Trouw (1996) Microtectonics.
4/15/02
42
21
Lineations
Preferred orientation of
elongated mineral
aggregates
Preferred orientation of
elongate minerals
Lineation defined by
platy minerals
Fold axes (especially of
crenulations)
Intersecting planar
elements (e.g. bedding
& cleavage, cleavage &
cleavage)
Figure 23-26. Types of fabric elements that define a

lineation. From Turner and Weiss (1963) Structural Analysis
of Metamorphic Tectonites. McGraw Hill. From Winter
(2001).
4/15/02
43
Mechanisms of Development
Mechanical
rotation =
minerals as rigid
bodies rotate; low
T
Oriented mineral
growth = minerals
grow in low stress
direction
Competitive
growth = 3
aligned minerals
grow at the
expense of 1
aligned minerals
4/15/02
Figure 23-27. Proposed mechanisms for the development of foliations. After Passchier
and Trouw (1996) Microtectonics. Springer-Verlag. From Winter (2001).
44
22
Crystal-plastic
deformation &
recrystallization =
flattening (pure
shear) or rotation
(simple shear)
Transposition =
reorientation by
shear or folding
by a foliation
4/15/02
45
Figure 23-28. Development of foliation by simple shear and pure shear (flattening). After Passchier and Trouw (1996)
4/15/02
46
23
Pressure solution
and solution
transfer = dissolve
minerals from the
1 direction and
reprecipitate them
in the 3 direction;
causes elongate
minerals; more
effective if fluid
present
Combination of (a)
and (e)
Constraints placed
by neighboring
grains may also
cause elongate
growth
4/15/02
Mimetic = growth
during a postdeformational stage
that mimics the
orientation of the
syn-deformational
crystal growth
Thermodynamic
equilibrium is
assumed to occur
quicker then
textural
equilibriumbut
both depend on
time
4/15/02
47
48
24
Gneissose Structure and Layers

Metamorphic differentiation = a not-well understood
concept of how metamorphic rocks segregate into mafics +
felsics with increasing temperature
Winter discusses some of the current (& past) ideas, but
lets just leave it with the idea that at higher temperatures
the rocks forms secondary layering
4/15/02
49
Other Textures...
In addition to foliations, lineations, and
gneissic textures, we can also find:
Folds
Kink bands = zones bounded by
parallel planes in which some feature
has a different orientation; usually
develops in conjunction with
cleavages
Boudinage = less ductile elements
than their surroundings stretch and
separate into tablets or sausageshapes (boudins) as the surrounding
material flows around them
4/15/02
Figure 23-30. Kink bands involving cleavage in

deformed chlorite. Inclusions are quartz (white),
and epidote (lower right). Field of view ~ 1 mm.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
http://www.geol-alpes.com/0_accueil/glossaire_tecto.html
50
25
Deformation vs. Mineral Growth
Foliations are defined as S-surfaces (we use S for short)

and lineations as L-tectonites (L for short)
If multiple foliations or lineations are present, we start
using subscripts
S0 or L0 = primary structures
S1, S2, S3, etc = secondary structures in the order they
formed
Normally when first working in an area, you dont
really know how many foliations/lineations youre
going to findor what the earliest will beso
traditionally the first foliation you discover is Sx and
then successive foliations either become Sx+1 or Sx-1
We also use the subscripts to delineate between
different deformational (D) and metamorphic (M)
phases
4/15/02
51
Figure 23-42.
(left)
Asymmetric
crenulation
cleavage (S2)
developed over
S1 cleavage. S2
is folded, as can
be seen in the
dark subvertical S2
bands. Field
width ~ 2 mm.
Right:
sequential
analysis of the
development of
the textures.
From Passchier
and Trouw
(1996)
Microtectonics.
SpringerVerlag. From
Winter (2001).
4/15/02
52
26
We use the terms pre-, syn-, post- and inter-kinematic to

distinguish between mineral growth that occurred before,
during, after, and between two phases of deformation
When a mineral formed, however, is usually not
blatantly clear, so some care must be taken in assigning a
time-designation to itand some minerals will have
grown during multiple phases
Porphyblasts are probably one of the most useful tools
for determining what happened to the rock over time for
several reasons:
Tend to be more resistant, so they are commonly
porphyroclasts during deformation (sense-of-shear
indicators)
The inclusions within a given porphyroblast may
impart information about the deformational history
4/15/02
53
We can sometimes find aligned inclusions

within a porphyroblast which form an
internal-S (Si)
Which came first: the porphyroblast or the
foliation? What principle from physical
geology can you use to determine this?
The foliation must have been there
before the porphyroblast, since the
theory of cross-cutting relationships
states that to either cross-cut a feature
or to include it within a second body, it
must have been their first!
Figure 23-33. Illustration of an Al2SiO5 poikiloblast that consumes more
muscovite than quartz, thus inheriting quartz (and opaque) inclusions. The nature
of the quartz inclusions can be related directly to individual bedding
substructures. Note that some quartz is consumed by the reaction, and that quartz
grains are invariably rounded. From Passchier and Trouw (1996) Microtectonics.
4/15/02
54
27
Armored relic = relict phase

protected as an inclusion
within a porphyroblast even
after the remaining matrix
grains of that phase have
been consumed by a reaction
Evidence for pre-kinematic
crystals
Bent crystal with undulose
extinction
Foliation wrapped around a
porphyroblast
Pressure shadow or fringe
Kink bands or folds
Microboudinage
Deformation twins
4/15/02
Evidence for
Post-kinematic
crystals
Helicitic folds
Randomly
oriented crystals
Polygonal arcs
Chiastolite
Late, inclusionfree rim on a
poikiloblastthi
s is only a
possibility, not a
guarantee
Random
aggregate
pseudomorph
4/15/02
Figure 23-34. Typical textures of pre-kinematic crystals. From

Spry (1969) Metamorphic Textures. Pergamon. Oxford. From
Winter (2001).
55
Figure 23-35. Typical textures of post-kinematic crystals. From Spry (1969)

Metamorphic Textures. Pergamon. Oxford. From Winter (2001).
56
28
It is much more difficult to determine

concretely whether or not a mineral in
syn-kinematic, even though its probably
the most common type
If we look at the micro-boudinage
occurring to the right, as the mineral
breaks, a new composition of our original
phase forms
As the crystal continues to break apart,
new layers are added to the grains
eventually forming a zoned crystal
This has been seen in amphiboles
(Wintsch et al., 1999), which change
color as you vary their compositions
You need the zoning + the microboudinage to say it is syn-kinematic
4/15/02
The variance of the

inclusion trail orientation
from core to rim has
been used as evidence for
syn-kinematic growth of
porphyroblasts
This diagram is one
interpretation of how the
pictured garnet grew: the
porphyroblast rotated as
it grew into a spiral
pattern
Not everyone accepts
this interpretationsome
believe its the foliation
moving around the
grainthey give
opposite senses of shear!
4/15/02
Figure 23-36. Syn-crystallization microboudinage. Syn-kinematic crystal growth can

be demonstrated by the color zoning that grows
and progressively fills the gap between the
separating fragments. After Misch (1969)
Amer. J. Sci., 267, 43-63. From Winter (2001).
57
Figure 23-38. Traditional interpretation of spiral Si train in which a porphyroblast

is rotated by shear as it grows. From Spry (1969) Metamorphic Textures.
Pergamon. Oxford. From Winter (2001).
Figure 23-38. Snowball garnet with

highly rotated spiral Si. Porphyroblast
is ~ 5 mm in diameter. From Yardley
et al. (1990) Atlas of Metamorphic
Rocks and their Textures. Longmans.
From Winter (2001).
58
29
Traditional view...but we can come up with other explanations!
Figure 23-37. Si characteristics of clearly pre-, syn-, and post-kinematic crystals as proposed by Zwart (1962). a. Progressively flattened Si
from core to rim. b. Progressively more intense folding of Si from core to rim. c. Spiraled Si due to rotation of the matrix or the
porphyroblast during growth. After Zwart (1962) Geol. Rundschau, 52, 38-65. From Winter (2001).
4/15/02
59
Crystallography Controlled Inclusions
Some types of inclusions occur because by either the

lattice or growth surfaces of the porphyroblast
Chiastolite cross = cross found in andalusite, which
most likely develops in a few steps:
Preferential attachment of impurities during growth
(e.g. graphite) at the rapidly growing corners of the
grain
Retardation of crystal growth due to the impurities
Overgrowth of the impurity by the porphyroblast
Sector zoning = faster-growing faces preferentially
incorporate inclusionsif it only occurs on one pair of
growing faces, you get an hour-glass pattern
Exsolution also falls into this category either of 1
feldspar to 2 feldspars, or from biotite to biotite + rutile
4/15/02
60
30
Figures 23-50 and 23-51
4/15/02
61
Replacements & Reaction Rims
Replacement textures are probably one of the neatest/most

frustrating things to see when trying to derive the geologic
history from a thin section
Record at least one reaction that did not go to
completion
May give a good indication of the path the rock took
Screw up any chance of trying to do thermobarometry
(well discuss this in chp 27)
Can range from a reaction frozen that was almost
complete, to half-finished, to just started
Pseudomorph = reaction products retain the shape of the
original grain
Symplectite = wormy-looking intergrowths of two minerals
that replaced some other phase
4/15/02
62
31
Pseudomorph pics (chlorite + quartz after

garnet in ERG-3b) and symplectite pic
(microprobe image from the allanite
sample)also have the nice reaction
texture pics from NEK97-13 (cordierite
sample)
4/15/02
63
Reaction rim = partial reaction of one phase to another that

occurs at the rim of the grain; rim can include 1+ phases
Corona = rim that completely encircles the original phase
Several ERG-32b pics of chlorite rimming garnet
4/15/02
64
32
Questions for Chapter 24

Stable Mineral Assemblages in Metamorphic Rocks
While Im gone for NC-SE GSA, Im going to leave you a chapter to read in your Winter
textbook. To help you focus on the text, I have formulated the following questions. If I ask the
question here, I can ask the question on the exam. Do not settle for the quickest answer, but
make sure you have the complete answer! If you have questions, we can talk about them on
Tuesday, but otherwise I will consider this material covered and move on.
1.
What fixes the equilibrium mineralogy of a rock?
2.
What do metamorphic petrologists use to assume equilibria? Explain each one briefly.
(There are six forms of evidence.)
3.
What is the phase rule?
a.
What does each of the letters stand for?
b.
Why can we assume that F 2?
c.
How can we use (b) to evaluate whether a rock is at equilibrium or not?
d.
What are the implications if 1 > C ?
e.
What will determine how long a reaction can occur?
f.
4.
In a metamorphic rock that went along a path from the garnet to chlorite zone,
how can garnet still be present within the rock? (hint: look at the formula of
chlorite to determine what must be present for it to form)
Chemographic Diagrams
a.
Do metamorphic petrologist and igneous petrologists plot compositions based on
the same quantitative basis? If yes, how do they differ?
b.
Plot the following phases on a ternary diagram:

i.
A
ii.
B
iii.
C
iv.
B2C
v.
A2BC
vi.
AC
c.
What are the five stable mineral assemblages for the ternary diagram in (b)?
Draw tie-line connecting the stable assemblages.
d.
What are the assumptions behind the ternary diagram condition-wise?
e.
If we plot the bulk composition in a smaller triangle bounded by tie-lines, which

minerals will be present?
f.
What is we plot the bulk composition directly on a tie-line?
g.
What is the difference between diagram 24-2 and 24-3? Which one is probably
more realistic?
h.
Why must the two stable phases for bulk composition (f) in diagram 24-3 plot
directly on the edge of the solid solution areas?
i.
5.
6.
7.
What will happen to a chemographic diagram as we change metamorphic

conditions?
ACF diagram
a.
What do A, C, and F stand for?
b.
Why are H2O and SiO2 not plotted on this diagram?
c.
What minerals must be present within the rock for the ACF diagram to be valid?
Why?
d.
For diagram 24-4, write down the formula for each mineral plotted on the diagram.
AKF diagram
a.
What do A, K, and F stand for?
b.
Why did Eskola decide to construct a different kind of diagram from the ACF
diagram?
c.
For diagram 24-6, write down the formula for each mineral present (most of them
you already have for part (d) of #5)
Projections
a.
What is the main assumption when choosing to project from some point on a
diagram onto a simpler diagram?
b.
c.
For the ACF and AKF diagram, what were we essentially projecting from? Why?
What is the major problem in using projection diagrams?
8.
Thompson Diagrams
a.
J.B. Thompson developed the AKFM diagram in the 50's. What is it commonly
called?
b.
What do A, K, F and M stand for?
c.
What kind of rocks is the diagram meant for?
d.
Why separate Mg and Fe?
e.
What assumptions did Thompson have to make to construct his diagram?
f.
What did Thompson choose to project his 3D diagram into a 2D diagram from?
Why?
g.
Where does biotite plot on a Thompson diagram? Why?
h.
Is there a difference between what we project from for low temperature and high
temperature metamorphic rocks? If yes, what?
i.
What do we use for the three corners to plot an AFM diagram?
j.
What are the minerals plotted on figure 24-19? List their formulas.
Metamorphic Facies
and
Mafic Rocks
Chapter 25
15 April, 2002
Metamorphic Facies
Facies = a rock a chemical equilibrium for a specific
metamorphic pressure and temperature that is independent
of the bulk chemical composition of the rock
Zone = chemical equilibrium for a pressure and
temperature that depends on chemical composition of the
rock; based on specific isograds (e.g. in pelitic systems the
garnet, staurolite, and cordierite isograds define different
zones)
Eskola was the first proponent of using facies and based
his names on metamorphic mafic rocks based on
increasing temperature and/or pressure
Greenschist, amphibolite, hornfels, sanidinite, eclogite
Later added: granulite, epidote-amphibolite,
glaucophane-schist and change hornfels to pyroxene
hornfels
15 April, 2002
Other workers have added a few more phases:

Coombs: zeolite, prehnite-pumpellyite
Fyfe: albite-epidote hornfels, hornblende hornfels
A few others have been suggested/used in the
literature, but arent very commonthe problem with
metamorphic rocks is that the IUGS is only trying to
standardize them right now, so there are some
problems with nomenclature still to be resolved
We divide facies into four groups:
High pressure
Blueschist (glaucophane schist) and eclogite facies
Both develop in the high P/low T subduction
environment, though eclogite can also occur due to
deep crust or mantle metamorphism
15 April, 2002
Fig. 25-2. Temperaturepressure diagram showing the

generally accepted limits of
the various facies used in this
text. Boundaries are
approximate and gradational.
The typical or average
continental geotherm is from
Brown and Mussett (1993).
Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
15 April, 2002
Medium pressure
Greenschist, amphibolite, and granulite facies
The majority of rocks at the surface fall into one of
these three categories, since they follow the typical
continental geothermal gradient
Low pressure
Albite-epidote hornfels, hornblende hornfels, and
pyroxene hornfels facies
Develop commonly due to contact metamorphism,
but can also occur in regional terranes with very high
geothermal gradients
Sanidinite is rare and normally only found as either
xenoliths in basic magmas or directly adjacent to a
magma body in contact aureoles
Low grades
Zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite facies
15 April, 2002
Commonly referred to as the sub-greenschist facies

At low grades, equilibrium is difficult to attain, so these
facies are not always represented (rocks skips from
unaltered to greenschist facies directly)
Most common in burial or hydrothermal metamorphism
Facies are defined based on mineral isograds in mafic
rocks, but the boundaries are gradational due to fluid
content and bulk rock composition
Facies are useful when trying to compare rocks of different
bulk compositions to one another
15 April, 2002
Facies
Zeolite
Definitive Mineral Assemblage in Mafic

Rocks
Zeolites: laumontite, airakite, anacime
especially
Prehnite + pumpellyite (+ chlorite + albite)
Prehnitepumpellyite
Greenschist Chlorite + albite + epidote (or zoisite) + quartz
actinolite
Amphibolite Hornblende + plagioclase (oligoclase
andesine) garnet
Granulite
Opx + cpx + plagioclase garnet hornblende
Blueschist
Eclogite
15 April, 2002
Glaucophane + lawsonite or epidote (+ albite

chlorite)
Pyralspite garnet + omphacitic pyroxene
Facies Series
Facies series = progressive sequence of facies that

should be encountered on a large-scale traverse through
any metamorphic terrane
Three main series (basic types) were defined by
Miyashiro:
High P/T series
Subduction zones where normal geothermal
gradients are depressed by the rapid descent
Goes through: zeolite prehnite-pumpellyite
blueschist eclogite facies
Medium P/T series
Typical of orogenic belts
Sequence is: zeolite prehnite-pumpellyite
greenschist amphibolite granulite facies
15 April, 2002
Granulite may not exist due to H2O-saturated melting

of the crust
Low P/T series
High-heat flow orogenic belts, rift areas, or contact
metamorphism
Either the same sequence as #2 with the substitution
of cordierite and/or andalusite in the aluminous rocks
or: zeolite albite-epidote hornfels hornblende
hornfels pyroxene hornfels
15 April, 2002
10
Fig. 25-3.
Temperaturepressure diagram
showing the three
major types of
metamorphic facies
series proposed by
Miyashiro (1973,
1994). Winter
(2001) An
Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice
Hall.
15 April, 2002
Mafic Rocks
We will deal with ultramafic rocks in chapter 29, since

mafic metamorphic rocks are defined as having a protolith
that is either:
Basaltic to andesitic volcanic rock
Gabbroic to dioritic plutonic rock
An immature mafic graywacke
Most mafic rocks require an addition of H2O to
reactotherwise they remain in their original state
Coarse-grained intrusives are less permeable then
volcanics & graywackes, so the latter tend to
metamorphose and the former remain metastable
Mafic rocks tend to have fewer phases (due to solid
solution) then pelitesfewer reactions & isograds
Principle changes are due to the breakdown of plag & cpx
15 April, 2002
11
Plagioclase:
What type of plagioclase forms at high
temperatures? Ca-plagioclase
What type of plagioclase is stable at low
temperatures? Na-plagioclase
Is plagioclase solid-solution free of any miscibility
gaps? If not, where are they?
Peristerite gap = An7 to An20
Bogglid gap = An45 to An57
Huttenlocher gap = An66 to An90
In going from question 1 to 2, what elements are
going to be needed? Na and Si
What elements will be freed in the 1 2 reaction?
Ca and Al
15 April, 2002
What minerals could form due to #6?

An epidote group member, hornblende, calcite, sphene
12
Clinopyroxene
Whats the formula of cpx?
Ca(Mg, Fe)(SiO3)2
What minerals could form due to its breakdown?
Chlorite, epidote, actinolite, hornblende,
metamorphic pyroxene
What will determine which mineral will form?
What the pressure and temperature of
metamorphism is
15 April, 2002
13
Low Grade Mafics
Fig. 25-4. ACF diagrams illustrating representative mineral assemblages for metabasites in the (a) zeolite and (b)
prehnite-pumpellyite facies. Actinolite is stable only in the upper prehnite-pumpellyite facies. The composition range of
common mafic rocks is shaded. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
15 April, 2002
14
Fig. 25-5. Typical

mineral changes that
take place in metabasic
rocks during progressive
metamorphism in the
zeolite, prehnitepumpellyite, and
incipient greenschist
facies. Winter (2001)
An Introduction to
Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
15 April, 2002
15
Medium P/T Series

Greenschist facies ACF
diagram
What are the new phases
on this diagram vs. the
low grade triangle?
What are the new
minerals formulas?
What are the reactions
that occurred?
Fig. 25-6. ACF diagram illustrating
representative mineral assemblages for
metabasites in the greenschist facies.
The composition range of common
mafic rocks is shaded. Winter (2001)
An Introduction to Igneous and
15 April, 2002
16
ACF diagram for

amphibolite facies
What are the new phases on
this diagram vs. the low
grade triangle?
What are the new minerals
formulas?
What are the reactions that
occurred?
What differentiates between
a rock that contains garnet
vs. a rock with cpx?
Where would cordierite plot
on this diagram? What
kind of composition is
required for it +
anthophyllite to form?
15 April, 2002
The amphibolite
granulite transition occurs
at about 650-800 C
Quartzo-feldspathic
rocks that contain
water will start to melt
~600-650 C at low to
medium pressures
Partially melting of the
felsic rock may
produce a residue that
is H2O-deficient that
will make it to
granulite facies
Mafic rocks require
high Ts even with
water to melt
15 April, 2002
Fig. 25-7. ACF diagram illustrating representative mineral

assemblages for metabasites in the amphibolite facies. The
composition range of common mafic rocks is shaded.
17

assemblages for metabasites in the granulite facies. The
composition range of common mafic rocks is shaded. Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
18
Fig. 25-9. Typical mineral changes that take place in metabasic rocks during progressive metamorphism in the medium
P/T facies series. The approximate location of the pelitic zones of Barrovian metamorphism are included for comparison.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
15 April, 2002
19
Low P/T Series

For mafic rocks, this series doesnt look very different then
the medium P/T rocksits really just for pelitic rocks
well deal with this series
15 April, 2002
20
10
High P/T Series

Were going to focus on
this series for basaltic
compositions, since the
reactions tend to be more
drastic for mafics
Where do we find the
correct thermal gradient
for these rocks?
Blueschists are
characterized by the
presence of which
amphibole?
Albite will transform to
what minerals on this
diagram?
15 April, 2002

assemblages for metabasites in the blueschist facies. The composition
range of common mafic rocks is shaded. Winter (2001) An Introduction
to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
21
Which pyroxene forms in

the eclogite facies? What
color is it?
Do the garnets contains
Ca?
What reactions
characterizes the transition
from blueschist to eclogite
facies?
What reactions would
characterize the granulite
to eclogite transition?
assemblages for metabasites in the eclogite facies. The
composition range of common mafic rocks is shaded. Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
15 April, 2002
22
11
P-T-t paths
Pressure-temperature-time paths are used in metamorphic
petrology to determine the cycle the rock must have gone
through to become metamorphosed (e.g. burial, uplift,
erosion)
What are some ways we might see evidence of a path and
not just one moment in the metamorphic history?
Clockwise P-T-t path = metamorphic history that has a
greater increase in pressure then temperature, followed by
a decrease in pressure, then a decrease in temperature;
typically due to crustal thickening followed by uplift
Counterclockwise P-T-t path = equal increase in pressure
and temperature followed by isobaric cooling; suggested to
occur due to an intrusion of mafic magma into the low- and
mid-crust
15 April, 2002
23
Fig. 25-12. Schematic pressure-temperature-time paths based on heat-flow models. The Al2SiO5 phase diagram and two
hypothetical dehydration curves are included. Facies boundaries, and facies series from Figs. 25-2 and 25-3. Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
15 April, 2002
24
12
Metamorphic Reactions
Chapter 26
4/18/02
In examining the sequence of what occurred within a rock

and the maximum temperatures/pressures the rock reached
we depend heavily on first and last appearances of certain
minerals
Mineral-out isograd = line that connects geographic points
of a minerals last occurrence
Multiple reactions can occur to produce the same mineral,
so its often more important to know what the reaction is
that produced a given mineral than where the isograd is
4/18/02
Order of the Day
4/18/02
Phase transformations
Exsolution
Solid-solid net-transfer
Devolatilization
Continuous
Ion exchange
Oxidation/reduction
Dissolved species
Phase Transformations
Polymorphs are probably the easiest reactions to
understand, since we only have to deal with a
crystallographic and not a chemical change
What are a few common polymorphs?
Whether you have one or a different polymorph depends
on what? What might mix this simple answer up a bit?
If you had two polymorphs is the same rock, could you
automatically assume that both were in equilibrium? Why
or why not?
We can put about twice as much Fe3+ in andalusite as in
kyanite/sillimanite, which would influence the system how
according to Le Chateliers Principle?
4/18/02
Exsolution
How does this occur?
What are two common examples?
4/18/02
Solid-Solid Net-Transfer
Involve solids of differing compositions and result in
changes of modal amounts of the various phases
Volatiles consumed during reaction, so theres no free
fluid phase in the system
These reactions are discontinuous in systems with
restricted solid solutionwhat does discontinuous mean?
Solid-solution promotes continuous reactionswhats a
continuous reaction?
4/18/02
Devolatilization
The most common type of metamorphic reactions are those
that either consume or release volatiles
Dehydration = involving H2O
Decarbonization = involving CO2
Can also deal with:
O2
H2
CH4
F
Cl
SO2
4/18/02
The partial pressure of the

fluid phase will also
contribute to the progress of
a devolatilization reaction;
according to Le Chatelier,
which should occur at a
lower temperaturea 70%
saturated or 30% saturated
reaction?
Which side should the
hydrous assemblage be on
almost always?
What are two ways to make
PH2O < Plith?
4/18/02
Figure 26-2. P-T phase diagram for the reaction Ms + Qtz = Kfs +
Al2SiO5 + H2O showing the shift in equilibrium conditions as pH2O
varies (assuming ideal H2O-CO2 mixing). Calculated using the program
TWQ by Berman (1988, 1990, 1991). Winter (2001) An Introduction to
The implication of these

processes is that isograds
dependent on some form of
devolatilization will be very
sensitive to the partial
pressure & content of the
fluid phase present
We can use a T-Xfluid phase
diagram to examine the
relationship between moles
of fluid, temperature, and
when a specific reaction will
occur
The x-axis will either be
the mole fraction of CO2
or H2O most of the time
4/18/02
Pressure must be specified
Figure 26-4. T-XH2O phase diagram for the reaction Ms + Qtz = Kfs +
Sil + H2O at 0.5 GPa assuming ideal H2O-CO2 mixing, calculated using
the program TWQ by Berman (1988, 1990, 1991). Winter (2001) An
What would be the 5 types of devolatilization reactions as

you increase temperature?
Can you give examples of each?
Dehydration
Ms + Qtz = Kfs + Als + water
Decarbonization
Cal + Qtz = Wo + carbon dioxide
Combined dehydration-decarbonization
5Mgs + Tlc = 4Fo + 5carbon dioxide + water
Prograde reactions that consume H2O and liberate CO2
3Mgs + 4Qtz + water = Tlc + carbon dioxide
Prograde reactions that consume CO2 and liberate H2O
2Zo + carbon dioxide = 3An + Cal + water
4/18/02
10
The fluid phase produced/consumed in these reactions may

be mobile and will depend on:
Pressure
Temperature
Progress of reaction
Permeability of rock (remember, a permeable rock must
also be porous)
High permeability will can allow an external fluid
source to control the compositionexternal source
controls mineralogy
Low permeability will make the fluid more likely to
remain in equilibrium with the minerals around
itmineralogy controls fluid content
4/18/02
11
Continuous
Reactions
The composition of one or
more solid solution phases
(normally most if not all of
them) varies over time
The proportions of the
minerals will change in
relationship to the
composition until one of the
reactants is completely
consumed and the reactions
stops
E.g. during the reaction, the
Mg/Fe ratio will increase
for chlorite and garnet
4/18/02
Fig. 26-9. Schematic isobaric T-XMg diagram representing the simplified

metamorphic reaction Chl + Qtz Grt + H2O. From Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall. Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice
Hall.
12
Ion Exchange
Ion exchange deals with the reciprocal exchange of ions
between 2+ phasescan consider either anions or cations,
but the latter has been studied more
The Fe-Mg exchange occurs between quite a few pairs of
minerals and is often the basis for thermobarometry
equations (will get to how that works in chp 27), since the
reactions are commonly temperature (or pressure)
dependent
E.g. En + Hd = Fs + Di
E.g. Annite + Pyrope = Phlogopite + Almandine
The modal proportions of the phases will remain constant
as the reaction progresses (unlike continuous reactions)
Blockage or closure temperature = point on a cooling
curve at which ion exchange is prevented by kinetics
4/18/02
13
Oxidation/Reduction
Redox = oxidation/reduction reaction that deals with ions
or ionic compounds that occur in more that one state
E.g. Fe2+ and Fe3+, Cu+ and Cu2+, Mn2+ and Mn4+, O0
and O2-, S0 and S2-, C0 and C4-, and so on
Oxygen buffer = system where only one variable is free
and is either P,T or pO2usually T is variable and partial
pressure of oxygen (expressed as oxygen fugacity) and P
are fixed
Which types of oxygen buffer depends on the redox
reaction that is occurring
4/18/02
14
Dissolved Species Involvement

Fluids can transport various ions through a rock and
interact with the mineral assemblage
Fluid-rock interaction = approach to equilibrium between
a fluid and mineral assemblage; will not occur if the flow
rate is too fast and/or an external source is controlling the
fluid composition
Hydrolysis = change in mineral composition due to the
addition of water
E.g. 2Kfs + 2H+(aq) + H2O = Kln + SiO2 (aq) + 2K+(aq)
Well deal more with this topic in chapter 30
4/18/02
15
Chemographics
Per
Fo
En
MgO
Qtz
SiO2
What are the different reactions that could occur according

to this binary diagram?
What would determine which reactions did occur?
4/18/02
16
What reaction is possible

on this ternary diagram?
This triangle could either be
equilateral (what it is now)
or any other triangular
shape
We could also be looking at
a subtriangle within a larger
triangle
Any phase that lies within a
triangle can be formed by
combining the three corners
of the triangle in some
proportion to one another
4/18/02
A+B+C=X
(unbalanced)
Fig. 26-12. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and

17
What reactions is
possible on this
projection diagram?
A+B+C=X
D+E=X
A+B+C=D+E
(all unbalanced)
Fig. 26-13. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
4/18/02
18
What are the possible

stable mineral
assemblages on this
diagram?
X-A-D
A-D-B
C-A-B
D-B-Y
Fig. 26-14a. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
4/18/02
Below the
isograd
19
What are the stable assemblages above

the isograd?
X-A-D
A-D-C
C-B-D
B-D-Y
At the isograd
Whats the
reaction
occurring in
this
sequence of
diagrams?
Above the
isograd
This is called a
tie-line flip
A+B=D+C
Fig. 26-14. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
4/18/02
20
10
Multicomponent Phase Diagrams

Many metamorphic reactions involve not one, but multiple
reactions occurring concurrently
We use petrogenetic grids to illustrate the various
reactions that could occur in a given system
Fig. 26-19.
Simplified
petrogenetic
grid for
metamorphosed
mafic rocks
showing the
location of
several
determined
univariant
reactions in the
CaO-MgOAl2O3-SiO2H2O-(Na2O)
system
(C(N)MASH)
Winter (2001).
4/18/02
4/18/02
21
Lab today:
Do problem #1 (all parts!) on p. 534 in Winter
A Schreinermakers Law problem?
22
11
Metamorphic Thermodynamics
Chapter 27
4/18/02
Review
Gibbs free energy = measure of the energy content in a
chemical system; specified at a pressure and temperature
for a given phase
G = H TS
G = (nproductsGproducts nreactantsGreactants)
dG = VdP SdT
The minimum Gibbs energy phase is the stable one
4/18/02
Calculating Equilibrium Curves

We can use the dG = VdP SdT equation to calculate
where equilibrium occurs for a given reaction and then plot
those results on a phase diagram
Since Winter does an example problem starting on page
535, Im just going to assign problem #1 on page 560 in
Winter for lab
The assumption of a constant S and V work fine for
these cases, but the volume and entropy change when a
gaseous phase is introduced
4/18/02
Gas Phases
Volume will change as the pressure on a gas changes, so

we have to modify our V, P, T, and S relationships in the
presence of a gas phase
At low pressures and when few molecular interactions
occur, we can use the ideal gas equation (PV = nRT)
n = number of moles
R = 8.3144 J/mol K
GP2 GP1 = RTlnP2 RTlnP1 = RTln(P2/P1)
GP,T = GT + RTln(P/P) at P = 0.1 MPa
Gas, however, rarely acts ideally, so we need to modify
our equation to be able to apply it to geologically realistic
conditions
We use fugacity in the place of P, where f = P
is the fugacity coefficient; determined experimentally
4/18/02
The fugacity coefficient depends on proportions of the

various gases, T and P
GP,T = GT + VS(P P) + RTln(f / P)
VS is for solids only in the above equation
The diagram below is typical for for most
devolitalization curves
Figure 27-2. Pressure-temperature phase

diagram for the reaction muscovite +
quartz = Al2SiO5 + K-feldspar + H2O,
calculated using SUPCRT (Helgeson et
al., 1978). Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and
4/18/02
Compositional Variation
Most phases are not compositionally homogeneous, so we also
need to amend our Gibbs free energy calculations to include this
new factor
How much a given component influences the free energy is
going to depend on the number of moles:
dG = VdP SdT + idni
i
= chemical potential = manner in which the free energy of
a phase changes with the number of moles of a given
component in the phase, if all other components were held
constant
The other definition of the G is: G = idni
i
At equilibrium the chemical potential of a given component
must be the same in every coexisting phase that contains it
4/18/02
Activity (aAi)= difference between the chemical potential of a

given component at a given P and T, and the chemical
potential at the reference state
A = whatever phase were discussing
Ai = i + RTln(aAi)
For an ideal gas: aAi = Pi / Pi
For a real gas: aAi = fi / Pi
The activity of a pure phase in the reference state
(whatever P and T we choose) is 1
Doing a bit of substitution and rearranging, we end up with:
G = RTlnK
K = equilibrium constant = the activities of the reactants
multiplied by each other divided by the activities of the
products multiplied together
E.g. 4Opx + Plag = Grt + Cpx + Qtz would give you
K = (aopx)4(aplag)/(agrt)(acpx)(aqtz)
4/18/02
Unfortunately, figuring out what the activity of a given component

in a phase is not easy and we have to come up with models to
describe what the activity of a phase will be as we vary the
components
Solution models are used to determine how the activity will vary,
but they range from simple equations that dont really fit the
data (ideal solution) to complicated combinations of matrixes
and differential equations (real solution)
We need to use mole fractions (XAi) to calculate solution models
XAi = ni / (ni + nj + nk + ...)
aAi = (XAi)y for ideal situations
y = number of crystallographic sites on which the mixing
takes place
aAi = (iXAi)y for real situations
i = activity coefficient = modify X to conform to real models
4/18/02
Ideal (grey straight lines) vs. simple mixture model (real model);
dots are what have been observed experimentally
Figure 27-3. Activity-composition relationships for the enstatite-ferrosilite mixture in orthopyroxene at 600oC and 800oC. Circles are data
from Saxena and Ghose (1971); curves are model for sites as simple mixtures (from Saxena, 1973) Thermodynamics of Rock-Forming
Crystalline Solutions. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
4/18/02
Geothermobarometry
Using the info on the last few slides, petrologists have

calculated methods to estimate the temperature and/or
pressure at which a rock equilibrated
Geothermometry = temperature calculation
Geobarometry = pressure calculation
Different thermometers and barometers exist depending on
the mineral assemblage of the rockWinter lists a number
of them in table 27-4
Each thermometer/barometer has a certain
pressure/temperature range over which it can be applied
Most thermometers & barometers also limit what
compositions of minerals you can use
If you want to look at how to develop a
thermometer/barometer either read section 27.4.1 in
Winter or chapter 15 in the Spear
4/18/02
10
Applying Geothermobarometry
There are some requirements for applying a thermometer
and/or a barometer:
EQUILIBRIUMnow, no metamorphic rock at the
surface of the Earth is at equilibrium, so we have to
assume local equilibrium (at a certain scale the rock is
in equilibrium)
A fit between your rocks and the rocks that were used
to calibrate the thermometer/barometer
Good chemical analyses (usually with a microprobe)
Estimation of the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio (cant be done with a
microprobe)
4/18/02
11
Zoned Crystals
Zonation of a crystal is a guarantee that that grain is not at
equilibrium, but examining the zonation can also give us
an idea of the conditions that phase formed under
Garnets in pelitic rocks have been studied in gory detail by
metamorphic petrologists to the extent that just examining
the zoning pattern can indicate whether the garnet grew in
a prograde or retrograde situation
You can also use inclusions within a given zoned crystal to
calculate a P and/or T if you think they are still in local
equilibrium (e.g. biotite inclusions within garnet)
4/18/02
12

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Classification and Nomenclature

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Figure 2-1b. Method #2 for plotting a point with the

Since the IUGS

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Any point between

Figure 2-1b. Method #2 for plotting a point with the components:

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

To classify a rock via the IUGS system, the following

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

M = total % mafics and accessories

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Anorthosites = greater 90% plagioclase in the unnormalized mode

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

The rock must contain a total of

Figure 2-2. A classification of the phaneritic igneous

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

A few notes for aphanitic rocks:

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Normalize the chemical analysis to 100% on

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Figure 2-3. A classification and nomenclature

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Mafic (plagioclase + mafics) and ultramafic (>90% mafics)

Figure 2-2. A classification of the phaneritic

Plagioclase-bearing ultramafic rocks

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Figure 2-2. A classification of the phaneritic

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Igneous Rock Textures

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

We use the textures of a rock to determine not only how

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

For crystals to form and grow, three processes must

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

The other option is for the mineral to crystallize on a

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Low-energy faces are more stable then high-energy

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Undercooling causes the

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Examples: a melt that

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Rocks that cool at two different temperatures are also possible

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Different minerals crystallize at different rates and will also

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Since crystal corners and edges have a larger volume of

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Skeletal and Swallow-Tailed Crystals

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Nucleation at Preferred Sites

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Variolitic deals with needles of only plagioclase

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke

Petrology-Spring 2002, Goeke