Applications for Infrared Thermography as an NDT Method for

Buildings
Gregory R. Stockton
Stockton Infrared Thermographic Services, Inc.
www.StocktonInfrared.com
8472 Adams Farm Road
Randleman, NC 27317-7331
(800) 248-SCAN (toll-free)
(336) 498-GREG (voice)
(336) 689-3658 (cell)
greg@stocktoninfrared.com

Abstract
When one wants to construct a building, he/she first hires several prime contractors to
manage the construction. An architect is retained to design the building, a structural
engineer to design a sound structure, and a general contractor is hired (by bidding or
negotiating) to oversee construction and make sure that the project runs smoothly, on time
and on budget. The general contractor then subcontracts to building trade contractors, such
as: site work, foundations, steel, masonry, electrical, plumbing, heating, ventilation and air
conditioning, roofing, painting, fixtures, finishes and furnishings. All these subcontractors
are given a set of plans, drawings and specifications to follow to construct the building so
that it meets the building codes and satisfies the owners needs.
During the construction process, tests are performed to ensure that the design specifications
are being met. These tests can be cursory and quite subjective in nature. Sometimes the
plans are changed in mid-project because the owner decides to make a change to the
building. At that time, a change order is executed and the building is retrofitted or deconstructed in part. This destructive activity may reveal faults in the building that were not
brought to the attention of the owner during the original testing. At that moment, the owner
may call into question the results of other tests and even the integrity of the building itself.
This paper discusses applications for NDT (non-destructive testesting) of buildings using
infrared thermography to ensure that the design specifications are met.

1. Introduction
Although some of the very first applications for infrared thermography were building
analyses applications, other applications have surpassed building IR in popularity over the
last 20 years. But, building owners are increasingly concerned with the costs and quality of

construction, and the efficiency and operating costs of their buildings. Infrared
thermography can be used as an effective building quality assurance tool during
construction, so that repairs can be made without destroying the building or delaying the
building process.

2. Understanding Infrared Testing Methodology for Buildings

Infrared imagery is often a grayscale picture whose scales (or shades of gray) represent the
differences in temperature and emissivity (opposite of reflectivity) of objects in the image.
As a general rule, objects in the image that are lighter in color are warmer, and darker
objects are cooler. No object in the images is detected via visible light wavelengths (400700 nanometers) rather, only from thermal infrared wavelengths of 3000-5000 nanometers
or 8000-14000 range. Lights and other relatively hot objects are very evident, but as a
result of their heat, not their light emissions.
When an image is taken with an infrared camera, it is often recorded onto videotape and/or
digitally saved to on-board media. The image may be then modified in a number of ways to
enhance its value to the end user. Usually, building images are digitized, saved and
analyzed with specialized software. The images are then adjusted for color, contrast and
brightness before being scaled and placed in a report.
At different times of the day and night, building components show differences in
temperature because of differences in mass, moisture content and heat loss because heat
from thermal changes radiates from these areas at different rates. During these thermal
transient conditions, thermographers can scan the building with a sensitive infrared camera,
detect the sources of heat and record them for later analysis. Since infrared thermographers
use real-time imaging and recording IR equipment, they can immediately determine if and
exactly where any problems exist. Before infrared thermography, determining the
placement of building materials in-situ in a building was a painstaking and destructive
undertaking.
There are four types of buildings by use:
Residential - houses and apartments dwellings of all types
Commercial - office buildings, retail stores, malls
Industrial - manufacturing facilities and plants
Institutional - college and universities, hospitals, government buildings
To be an effective tool, an infrared thermographer must know the limitations of the imager,
the way that buildings absorb and radiate heat energy, and the best time to perform a given
IR survey. He/she must have an imager capable of finding and documenting problems and
more importantly, a very good understanding of building physics. Building IR applications
can actually be some of the most demanding on imager thermal sensitivity and spatial
resolution, the two most important factors in an imagers ability to focus in on sometimes
physically small and/or thermally miniscule problems. For example, there is a different

methodology for surveying the wood framing, missing insulation, heat loss, air-leakage and
moisture intrusion in the same building. IR can only detect surface temperatures, but
differences in surface temperatures and the patterns they leave (IR signatures) can indicate
what is going on inside the building.
Building IR applications can actually be some of the most demanding on thermal imager
sensitivity and spatial resolution, the two most important factors in an imagers ability to
focus in on what can be physically small and/or thermally miniscule problems on a giant
object. Coming up with effective techniques and good timing to perform these surveys also
presents a challenge. For example, there is a different methodology for surveying the
framing, missing insulation, heat loss, air-leakage and moisture intrusion in the same
building. IR can only detect surface temperature differences, but the patterns that these
differences leave (IR signatures) can often indicate, what is going on within the building to
a very high degree of confidence.

3. Applications for Building Thermography

Below, some building IR applications are discussed and example imagery shown:
3.1 Construction Defects
Liability is a real issue for sellers, buyers and insurers. The costs of construction, repairs
and renovation are increasing dramatically as owners bring construction lawsuits against
the contractors. Perspective building owners are increasingly concerned and IR can be used
as a building quality assurance tool during construction, so that repairs can be made without
destroying the building or delaying the building process. Since all building materials will
absorb, retain and radiate heat energy at a different rate, building components can be
checked for the quality of installation using IR.
3.2 Structural IR Surveying of CMU Walls
CMU (concrete masonry unit) walls are erected on nearly every street corner as malls,
schools, warehouses, retail stores, etc. These walls often have reinforcing bars imbedded in
grout-filled cells as a critical structural component. By allowing the wall to absorb energy
during the day and watching the heat energy dissipate at night, the building infrared
thermographer can use the picture of the heat from the wall, to define exactly where the
grouted cells are and where they are missing (see Figure 1). A time vs. temperature graph
of a typical CMU wall (see Figure 2) over a 24-hour period shows how grouted and nongrouted areas heat and cool at different rates. Unfortunately, all walls cannot always be
surveyed under ideal conditions. For instance, during some times during the year, because
of the orientation and low angle of the Sun to the building, some outside walls do not
receive direct sunlight at any time during the day. Inside walls never receive any direct
sunlight but often can still be surveyed. Also, the walls can be heated by using heaters (see
Figure 3) to achieve the desired delta-T.

Figure 1. Visual and infrared image of a CMU wall showing a bond beam (horizontal
reinforcing) incomplete on the left side of the man door.

Figure 2. Time vs. Temperature Graph of a CMU wall over a 24-hour period.

Figure 3. Visual image of a CMU wall being heated, with cart-mounted IR imager in
the right foreground.
3.3 Rodent and Insect Infestations
Rodents (Figure 4) inside a building can be tracked-down because they are warm-blooded.
Insects, especially termites (Figure 5) damage millions of dollars worth of buildings each
day. The decrease in mass left by these building materials-destroying creatures can be
quantified by using infrared thermography.

Figure 4. Visual and infrared image a mouse inside the wall.

(Images courtesy of Jon Grossman, High-Tech Inspections, Inc.)

Figure 5. Visual and infrared image of a church vaulted ceiling with termites.
3.4 Quality Assurance of the Thermal Envelope
The proper installation of thermal insulation and air barriers can also be checked using
infrared thermography (see Figures 6, 7, 8, 9). Every building owner wants to get their
moneys worth and also know that they are getting the building that they designed and are
paying for. Other methods of testing; on-site testing companies, installing inspection ports,
performing destructive testing and X-raying are ineffective, inefficient and/or too
expensive. Infrared thermography can be used on the job site as an inexpensive, efficient
and effective way to improve the quality of construction.

Figure 6. Infrared image of a convention center wall with missing (black) and
misplaced (dark gray) fiberglass batt insulation.

Figure 7. Infrared and visual image of a CMU wall showing that grouted, empty and
insulated cells have a different rate of heat dissipation.

Figure 8. Visual and infrared image of a new residential building with air leakage and
missing insulation.

Figure 9. Infrared and visual image of an office building wall. Taken when outside
temperatures were low, the heat from the misplaced insulation in the interstitial space
above a suspended ceiling, shows the reverse heat pattern from the missing insulation.
3.5 Stucco Delamination
Stucco is an exterior plaster or interior plasterwork applied directly to the framed structure
of a building. There are two types of stucco; cement and synthetic. Cement stucco has been
used for thousands of years. It is a mixture of Portland cement, sand and lime. Synthetic
stucco or EIFS (exterior insulation and finish system) is a combination of foam board
insulation and several coats of acrylic polymers.
Because both types of stucco are layered onto a building, there is a possibility that the
layers will delaminate (see Figure 10) from one another or from the building. Because
synthetic stucco has tightly placed high density foam insulation as one of the components,
there is a possibility that the building is too well insulated or that it will not breathe well,
trapping moisture inside the walls. With both types of stucco, the quality of the installation
can be monitored using IR NDT methods (see Figure 11).

Figure 10. Infrared images of a new condominium with stucco delamination shown.

Figure 11. Infrared images of a new condominium with stucco, missing insulation.

3.6 Quality Assurance of the Moisture Envelope

In buildings, excessive moisture can create huge problems, like mold, mildew and
deterioration of the building itself. IR thermography can effectively be used to find
moisture...but not mold. [Mold does not exhibit an exothermic reaction that can be seen
with an infrared camera walking around a building.] Moisture in buildings is usually caused
from the installation of wet building components, water intrusion and/or a faulty thermal or
moisture envelope. Water intrusion implies that the building has been compromised and
that water is coming from somewhere; either from the roof, the walls, the basement or from
a mechanical or plumbing leak. Moisture inside the structure is often the result of any one
or a combination of factors, such as water intrusion problems, thermal envelope problems,
ventilation problems and/or HVAC system problems (see Figures 12, 13, 14). High relative
humidity inside is common, as are badly designed, poorly constructed and poorly
maintained buildings. Preventive/predictive maintenance of buildings is very uncommon,
therefore most IR NDT is performed on buildings with problems.
To reduce moisture in buildings, all buildings and all building components should be kept
dry during the construction process. All buildings should be also be tested within a few
months after construction or major renovations to the structure, the thermal envelope, the
moisture envelope and/or the HVAC system. Also, pressure and humidity in the building
should be constantly monitored. In many cases, damage to the building is caused by
insufficient ventilation and/or an under- or over-designed HVAC systems. If an imbalance
is noted, blower-door testing and IR thermography should be used.

Figure 12. Visual and infrared image of a new residential building with air-leakage.

Figure 13. Visual and infrared

image of moisture and mold
in the wall-papered outside
wall of a hotel.

Figure 14. Visual and infrared

image of moisture in the
sheetrock ceiling of a
private residence.

3.7 Commissioning and Maintaining Flat and Low-Sloped Roofs

After a new roof or recover is installed on a building, it should be commissioned by
infrared NDT. The roof is designed to keep water out and heat in. Roof waterproofing
problems manifest themselves in two ways: leakage and entrained moisture contamination.
Leakage would appear to be simple, but the leak inside the building rarely directly relates to
the exact spot on the roof, since the water flows down the slope of the roof to a spot that is
not sealed and into the building at that point. Most leaks occur where the waterproofing is
sealed or where there is a penetration of the roof. Since most types of roof systems absorb
some amount of water, it is harder to find the exact spot of water in the insulation because it
may not leak into the building until it has absorbed all the water it can hold.

3.7.1 NDT of Flat and Low-Sloped Roofs

There are three types of NDT surveys that are used to find water in a roof: nuclear gauges,
which count neutrons; capacitance meters, which measure resistance; and infrared, which
measures heat. Both nuclear gauges and capacitance meters are used to take spot readings
on a 5 x 5, 10' x 10' or 20' x 20' grid on the roof. These measurements are used to
extrapolate where the water is from the readings obtained from the gauges. These surveys
are very labor-intensive and therefore expensive. They are good for types of roofs that do
not gain or lose much solar energy and therefore, do not lend themselves to infrared.
3.7.2 Roof Infrared Basics
During the day, the sun radiates energy onto the roof and into the roof substrate, and then at
night, the roof radiates the heat back into outer space. This is called radiational cooling.
Areas of the roof that are of a higher mass (wet) retain this heat longer than that of the
lower mass (dry) areas. Infrared imagers can detect this heat and "see" the warmer, higher
mass areas, during the "window" of uneven heat dissipation (see Figure 15).

Figure 15. Representation of daily radiational heating and cooling cycle.

3.7.3 On-Roof and Aerial Infrared NDT
Performing infrared roof moisture surveys while standing on the roof is not the best method
because imagery from a walk-on survey is not as useful as aerial imagery. But there are a
few advantages to performing on-roof surveys. Small roofs are less expensive to survey.
Roofs can be marked with paint so that repairman can patch small areas (see Figure 16).

Figure 16. Visual and on-roof infrared image of a wet area on a flat roof.

The same laws of physics apply to both on-roof IR and aerial IR. A dry roof, low winds and
no rain are needed on the night of the survey. A high angle of view and high resolution are
needed to produce usable imagery. Visual photographs are taken and used to make accurate
CAD drawings. By marking up the CAD drawings with the wet areas, surgical repairs are
made, commissioning the building and thereby extending the roofs useful life.

Figure 17. Visual image overlaid with CAD drawing and infrared image showing
moisture laidened insulation in the roof substrate in a low-sloped roof.

Figure 18. Visual image (top) of a roof being recovered and an infrared image
(bottom) showing that the roof being covered is almost completely saturated.

Both visual and infrared images are used to do the analysis by overlaying the AutoCAD
drawing of the roof over the digitized photographs and thermographs. The drawings are
created indicating areas of suspected moisture contamination. The result is a report where
visual, infrared and AutoCAD components (printed and video) are well matched and linedup (see Figure 7).

3. Conclusions
There are many advantages to using infrared thermography in building applications:
The building can be verified built to the specifications of the architect and engineer.
If faults are discovered during IR testing, a high quality graphic report of the faults
can be generated so that repairs can be made in a timely manner.
Confident that what he puts in the specifications will actually be built, there is little
need for the engineers to overdesign the building, to compensate for previously
undetectable faults that are inevitable. This saves the owner from having to pay for
more materials than are needed and simplifies the construction process, saving
valuable time and money on the job.
Since the building can be documented and verified code-compliant, the owner
enjoys the confidence that the building will hold the weight of the roof and
withstand high winds.
A detailed report and follow-up repairs will reduce the owners liability in the event
the building is visited with some trauma like a hurricane or tornado. After a disaster
has occurred, a forensic survey of the building are laid on the ground might reveal
substandard building components or practices and the owner could be held liable for
damage to property and/or loss of life.
General contractors can reduce the costs of inspections, since many components and
systems can be checked without slowing down the building process.
Subcontractors who are not willing or capable of producing buildings without
multiple defects, eventually will not bid on projects where IR has been specified.
When an retrofitting or adding on to an existing building, IR can identify tie-in
components, saving the designer from performing destructive tests and/or trusting
that the as-built drawings will contain accurate information.
Infrared NDT is a challenging field of infrared thermography. There are many different
types and uses of buildings, many different construction techniques, building materials and
configurations. A building NDT infrared thermographer must be familiar with construction,
thermal dynamics and characteristics of any of the different building components. Design
flaws, structural defects, improperly installed insulation and moisture walls and roofs can
be found and corrected.