HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE SIDE MAINTENANCE REPAIR vs.

Replacement
Introduction
Traditionally, when maintenance is performed on shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the
only options considered when tube defects are found are to plug tubes and, when the
number of plugs became too great, replace the heat exchanger. The decision to replace the
heat exchanger was based on a number of factors. These included the number of tubes
plugged, the number of forced outages due to tube damage (and the cost associated with
replacing lost power and repairing the damaged tubes), the impact that the plugged heat
exchanger is having on the plant (due to lost flow or heat transfer surface area), the rate at
which tube plugging is occurring, the availability of funds to replace the heat exchanger,
and the expected life of the unit (how much longer will the unit operate before
retirement).
From a sampling of industry data, tube failures have been shown to cause between 31%
to 87% (depending on the data source) of the events related to feedwater heaters.. Since
so many of the failures were related to the tubing, the replacement of an entire heat
exchanger due to damage in one area is an expensive as well as a schedule and manpower
intensive option.
The typical means for major heat exchanger repair included complete replacement,
rebundling, and retubing, as described below.
For the replacement option, the entire heat exchanger shell and tube bundle are
replaced with a new unit.
For rebundling, the shell is temporarily removed from the heat exchanger and the old
tube bundle, including, at a minimum, tubes, tube supports, and tubesheet, are removed.
A new tube bundle is inserted and the shell is welded back in place.
For retubing, either the shell (u-tube design) or tube side access cover (straight tubes)
is removed from the heat exchanger and the old tubes are removed from the bundle. New
tubes are then inserted and re-attached to the tubesheet (typically by either mechanical
expansion, welding, or both). In many instances, the existing shell side hardware is used
as-is, although some modifications may be made. Retubing is typically performed on
straight tube heat exchangers, such as condensers and coolers.
Since the 1970s, tube sleeving has been used to allow damaged tubes to remain in
service. The sleeves are installed by various means (roll, explosive, or hydraulic
expansion, explosively welded, or press-fit or epoxied in place) over the defective area of
the tube. Through the use of sleeving, which is a low-cost option to retubing, rebundling,
or replacement, the useful life of a heat exchanger can be economically extended. The
decision to perform sleeving also can be made with short notice as opposed to
replacement (2-6 weeks compared with 18 months), possibly allowing repairs to be
performed the same outage that the damage is noted. Tube expansion also can be
performed to minimize or eliminate leakage within heat exchangers.

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In the tubesheet, tubes can be re-expanded to strengthen the original tube-to-tubesheet

joint, reducing or eliminating leakage and prolonging the life of the heat exchanger.
Expansions also can be made deep within the tube to expand the tube into tube support
plates and end plates.
These expansions can reduce tube-to-plate clearance for vibration control or, at end
plates, to minimize steam flow from the high to low pressure side of the plate.
Repair vs. Replace Factors To Consider
There are numerous factors to consider when deciding whether to repair the tubes in a
heat exchanger or to perform a larger repair scope and rebundle or replace the
component. The following factors should be considered when making the repair vs.
replace decision.
The budget available for repair or replacement needs to be determined. Typically, the
cost of performing a substantial heat exchanger repair (consisting of plug removal, tube
inspection, tube expansion, and sleeving) is less than 10% of the cost of replacing the
unit. Because of the lower cost, the payback time on the repair option is much shorter
than for replacement.
If the heat exchanger is critical to plant operation (either from a safety, efficiency, or
power production standpoint) or is resulting in costly forced outages, it may be possible
to justify a repair to the unit in the near-term and a scheduled replacement when a longer
outage can be planned.
If there are a large number of tube plugs to remove, or if they are difficult to remove
(explosive or welded), then the cost to repair the heat exchanger will increase, and the
scheduled time needed on-site may not fit within the outage window. If it appears that
tube repair may be possible, it may be worthwhile to plug tubes, using removable plugs,
until a certain quantity of tubes are removed from service. At that point the plugs would
be removed and sleeves installed, thereby minimizing the overall maintenance cost.
The location and quantity of the tube defects need to be examined to decide if tube
repair is an option. Tube repair may be appropriate if the damage is limited to a certain
area of the tube, which would allow the use of a short repair sleeve. If the damage is over
a significant portion of the tube, it is possible to install a longer sleeve (up to the full
length of the tube) to ensure that all tube defects are repaired. However, if the u-bend
region of the tube is damaged then tube repair is not possible. Also, it would not be
possible to install a sleeve if a large portion of the tube had damage but there was
inadequate clearance for a long sleeve at the tube end.
One of the more important items to consider when deciding whether a heat exchanger
can be repaired is the condition of the remainder of the heat exchanger. The condition of
the shell side components, such as the impingement plates, tube supports, end plates, and
other structural members, should be in good shape if a long term repair is being planned.
An evaluation also should be made of the shell thickness in areas that are prone to shell
erosion/corrosion. If the tube repair is only a short-term fix, to allow component
operation until a replacement heat exchanger can be installed, the condition of the shell
side is not as critical.
The life expectancy of the power plant needs to be factored into the decision to repair
or replace a heat exchanger. If the only problem with the heat exchanger is in one section
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of the tube, and the expected run time on the unit is relatively short, it would be
advantageous to repair rather than replace the heat exchanger since it will be very
difficult to pay back the cost for replacement over the remaining plant life.
The outage time required to repair a heat exchanger, even when tube and shell side
inspections are performed, is typically much less than for replacement. In addition, very
few, if any, plant modifications need to be made to make the repairs. This allows other
work to be performed in the vicinity of the heat exchanger.
Along with the shorter outage duration, the site support required for repair is much less.
Usually, there are no shell or head modifications required since all work can usually be
performed through the manways and pass partition plates. Less repair equipment is
required, resulting in less space being needed in the area of the heat exchanger for setup
and storage.
In addition, the time required to prepare for tube repair is much less than for replacement
(2-6 weeks compared with 18 months), allowing a decision on repair to be made just
before, or even during, an outage.
At nuclear plants, the added cost for the disposal of radioactively contaminated heat
exchangers must be taken into account. Before disposal, there is the cost of surveying the
heat exchangers for release and, if contamination is found, they must either be
decontaminated or disposed of as radioactive waste. Tube repairs can eliminate these
costs.
If the heat exchanger is being replaced to eliminate detrimental materials in the
cooling system (i.e. copper in the condensate/feedwater system) then tube sleeving will
not be beneficial. The only practical solution would be to retube/rebundle/replace to
change out the tube material.
Heat Exchanger Repair Options
There have always been options available to either repair or replace heat exchanger tubes
in the event that tube leakage or degradation is present. The initial option, after the
problem tubes have been located (either through non-destructive examinations, such as
eddy current testing, visual inspections, or leak tests) is to plug the tube. Depending on
the type of service and operating pressures of the heat exchanger, various types of plugs
are employed. These include tapered fiber and metal pin plugs, rubber compression plugs,
two piece ring and pin plugs, two piece serrated ring and pin plugs (installed with a
hydraulic cylinder), welded plugs, and explosively welded plugs. In addition to the tube
end plug, there also may be a stabilizer rod or cable that is inserted into the tube to
minimize future tube vibration damage.
At the beginning of the life of a heat exchanger, inserting a few plugs into damaged tubes
has little effect on the performance of the heat exchanger. However, if heat exchanger
problems continue, and the number of plugs increases significantly, it is possible that the
heat exchanger will eventually reach a point that it will not handle the full load that is
placed on it. This is due to a combination of loss of heat transfer area and the increased
pressure drop. In addition, as the number of plugged tubes increases, abnormal
temperature conditions (either hot or cold spots) may be set up in the heat exchanger.
These conditions can result in an acceleration of tube damage, creating a faster demise of
the heat exchanger.

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Once the number of plugs reaches a unacceptable level, the heat exchanger will need to
be repaired, replaced, or bypassed. However, bypassing the unit is usually not
recommended, at least for a long time period, since it will result in a loss of efficiency
and heat transfer area.
Also, the heat load from the bypassed heat exchanger will be transferred to another heat
exchanger in the string, resulting in greater than normal operating flow rates and higher
degradation in that heater.
The following sections show the options that can be used to replace or repair the entire
heat exchanger or just the tubes.
Retubing
If the unit has straight tubes, good access, and the remaining components (shell, tube
supports, internal structural pieces) of the heat exchanger are in good shape, the tubes can
be replaced.
The old tubes are removed from the unit and new ones, typically manufactured from an
improved material, are inserted, and then expanded, into place. Insertion of the new tubes
in addition to performing retubing to replace damaged tubes, retubing has been
performed to eliminate detrimental materials (such as copper from condenser tubes) to
minimize damage to other equipment within the plant (nuclear steam generators or fossil
boilers).
Rebundling
Some heat exchangers are designed to be rebundled rather than replaced. For these units
the entire tube bundle, including tubes, tubesheet, and tube supports are replaced.
The original shell and any other internal structural pieces would be reused (although any necessary internal
repairs could be made when the shell was removed). The new tube bundle can be manufactured to ensure
that original design problems with the existing unit are corrected. However, the same basic design must be
maintained since the new bundle must fit within the existing heat exchanger shell. Rebundling costs about
15-25% more than retubing (1).

Replacement
A third and typically widely used option is to replace the entire heat exchanger. Full
replacement allows alternate tube materials, changes in heat transfer area, and structural
changes to be employed, including added clearances in areas where erosion or other
problems may be occurring, to ensure that the current heat exchanger problems do not reoccur in the future. However, the cost associated with a full replacement is the greatest of
the three options, about 5% more than for rebundling (1). In addition, there are no
guarantees that the new heat exchanger design will not have new, unanticipated problems.
Sleeving
An alternate approach to retubing, rebundling, or replacement of a heat exchanger is to
install sleeves over the defective portions of the tubes The sleeve consists of a smaller
diameter piece of tubing that is inserted into the parent tube and positioned over the tube
defects. After insertion, each end of the sleeve is expanded into the parent tube material.
These expansions serve the dual function of structurally anchoring the sleeve into the

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tube and providing a leak limiting path, allowing the sleeve to become the new pressure
boundary for the tube. This means that a sleeved tube can have a 100% through-wall
indication and still remain in-service, since the sleeve is now the new structural and
pressure boundary. The installation of the sleeve into the tube will allow the majority of
the tubes heat transfer area and flow to be maintained.
If heat exchanger repair by sleeving is a possibility then a strategy needs to be used to
prepare for future repair. It may be cost effective to plug a quantity of tubes, per the nondestructive examination results, each outage using a removable plug. When the quantity
of plugged tubes reaches a certain level the plugs can be removed and sleeves installed.
Using this approach will minimize the cost and time during each inspection outage while
allowing the maximum tube repair later in the heat exchangers life.
There are three types of sleeves that are installed into heat exchanger tubes. These are full
length, partial length structural, and partial length barrier sleeves. The three types are
discussed below. Figure 1 shows the sleeve layout.

Figure 2 Heat Exchanger Sleeve Designs

Full Length Sleeve

These sleeves are installed from one end of the tube to the other in straight tubed heat
exchangers. After insertion, the full length of the sleeve is expanded into the parent tube.
This step serves the dual purpose of maintaining heat transfer as high as possible
(typically 75%-90%) while minimizing flow pressure drop through the tube. After the full
length expansion step, the sleeve ends are trimmed flush with the existing tube ends and
the sleeve is roll expanded into the tubesheet.

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The full length sleeve is typically used in a condenser or cooling water heat exchanger
when the tubes have multiple defects along their length. Full length sleeving is an
attractive option when a relatively small percentage of the tubes require repair. Through
sleeving, the majority of the tube heat transfer area can be left in service, resulting in a
heat exchanger that is close to its asdesigned condition.
Full length sleeving is comparable in many ways to retubing in the methods employed to
install the sleeves. However, since removal of the existing tube is not required, and the
typical number of tubes that will be full length sleeved are below the number that would
be retubed, the cost for material and manhours are much less than for retubing, making
sleeving a cost-effective option to return and keep tubes in service.
Partial Length Structural Sleeve

This type of sleeve is used to repair shorter defects in the tube. The sleeve can be
installed anywhere along the straight length of the tube. Various methods are used to
expand the sleeve in place. These include roll expansion (both in the tubesheet and in the
freespan portion of the tube), hydraulic expansion in the freespan portion of the tube, and
full length expansion. These expansion types are discussed below.
If one end of the sleeve is in the tubesheet, a torque-controlled roll expansion will
be made.
This expansion is similar to the original tube-to-tubesheet roll. Freespan roll expansions
are made to either a torque controlled setting or to a diameter controlled hardstop setting.
Usually, freespan roll expansions are only used when the sleeve length is relatively short,
since it can be difficult to insert a roll expander deep into the tube. Both the tubesheet and
freespan roll expansion parameters are set so that they can provide both the structural and
leakage requirements for the sleeve.
For sleeves installed deep within the tube, a hydraulic expansion device is used to
connect the sleeve to the tube. The expander consists of multiple plastic bladders that are
filled with high pressure water. As the water pressure increases, the bladders expanded
against the inside of the sleeve, pushing the sleeve into the tube. The expansion process,
which is computer controlled, continues until either a preset volume of water or a preset
pressure is reached. At this point the sleeve is properly expanded and the bladders are
depressurized.
Hydraulic expansions can be made anywhere along the tube length since the expander is
connected to flexible high pressure tubing and is not restricted by tube end access. The
expansion parameters are qualified to meet the proper structural and leakage
requirements for the sleeve.
Full length expansions are not usually used for structural or leak limiting purposes but
instead are used to improve heat transfer and flow through the sleeve and to close the
annulus between the sleeve and tube. The full length expansion is made by placing a tool,
with seals on each end, into the sleeve. The inside of the sleeve is filled and then
pressurized with water to a preset pressure setting, expanding the sleeve into tight contact
with the tube. After the full length expansion is made, the ends of the sleeve are typically
either roll or hydraulically expanded to form the structural and leak limiting sleeve-totube joint.

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Many times, the partial length structural sleeves are used to repair indications at one
particular area of the tube, such as wear damage at tube support locations, cracking in roll
transitions, or pitting indications at one discreet location along the tube length. Longer
versions of these sleeves also have been used to repair an entire damaged section of a
heat exchanger, such as a desuperheater or drain cooler section of a feedwater heater.
Because of the wide variety of uses, the sleeve length can range from as short as 1 foot to
over 12 feet in length.
Qualification testing is performed on the structural sleeves to ensure that they can
withstand the design temperature and pressure conditions imposed on them. The test
results must show that the sleeve will be the new pressure boundary even with a 100%
through-wall indication in the parent tube. Sleeves of this type, using mechanical
expansions (roll and hydraulic), have reliably been in-service for more than 15 years.

Partial Length Barrier Sleeve

These sleeves, also known as shields, are used at the ends of the tubes to act as a barrier
to tube end erosion. These sleeves are usually very thing, are not designed to act as a
pressure boundary or structural repair, and are installed in areas of high turbulence. The
materials for these sleeves are compatible with the existing tube material and may include
plastic inserts. The sleeves are either roll or hydraulic expanded or pressed or epoxied in
place. If tube end erosion is occurring, or is expected to occur, the use of these tube end
sleeves will protect and prolong the life of the parent tube, although over time tube
erosion may begin to occur at the end of the sleeve. Many heat exchanger tube ends have
been protected with shields, significantly prolonging the life of the tubes.
Items to Consider for Tube Repair
Prior to choosing to perform tube sleeving, the following factors should be considered.
The length, location, and quantity of tube defects that would require sleeving need to
be determined. If the defects are in one or a few short areas then either a single or a
couple of partial length sleeves could be used. However, if the defects are spaced
throughout the length of the tube, then the only option would be a full length sleeve.
The parent tube in the area where the sleeve will be expanded is to be defect free. This
will insure the highest sleeve-to-tube joint integrity. Also, the tube support designations
must be clearly identified to insure that the sleeve is installed at the correct location along
the tube length. This is especially true in areas where there may be skipped baffles and
the tube only touches every other support plate.
The condition of the remainder of the tube away from the sleevable defects needs to
be known. If there are u-bend defects that may require plugging then the tube should not
be sleeved. Sleeving is an option if the remainder of the tube is in good shape.
The space available at the tube end to insert a sleeve and its installation tooling needs
to be known, as shown in Figure 2. If a short, partial length sleeve is being used, the
amount of space required is not as critical, although there can still be access issues around
the tubesheet periphery for hemi-head channel covers and at pass partition plates.
However, if a full length sleeve is required, there will need to be a significant amount of
clearance from the tubesheet, face.

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Figure 2 Required Clearance for Sleeve Installation

Inspection records need to be reviewed to determine if there are any tube inside
diameter (ID) restrictions that would block the sleeve from being inserted to the target
location. The size of the eddy current probe used for the inspection, plus any other
hardware that has been inserted into the tube, can be used to help determine the tube ID
access issues.
The post-sleeving tube inspection requirements need to be considered. Typically, the
ability to inspect the tube beyond a sleeve is not a significant issue. While the presence of
the sleeve reduces the inside diameter of the tube, which will result in the need for a
smaller inspection probe, the probe will remain large enough to detect pluggable tube
indications (usually greater than 40%), however small indications may go undetected. As
part of the post-sleeve inspection, the sleeve and its attachment to the tube should be
examined. There is no need to inspect the section of the parent tube between the sleeve
expansions since this is no longer part of the pressure boundary.
If tube cleaning is to be performed in the heat exchanger, then the type of sleeve to be
installed needs to be evaluated. If on-line cleaning is performed, the sleeve size cannot
restrict the passage of the balls or brushes. For off-line cleaning, the projectiles need to
pass through the sleeve without becoming stuck. Many sleeves that are installed in tubes
that require cleaning are full length expanded to ensure the best results for the cleaning
equipment.
If it appears that tube sleeving is possible, then information will be needed to ensure that
the heat exchanger is properly repaired. The following information is used when planning
for sleeving.
Tube sleeving will need to be coordinated with eddy current inspection and plug
removal.

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 If it is expected that sleeving may be performed, then it is important that the proper
sleeve material be purchased in advance of the job.
The sleeve material needs to be compatible with the heat exchanger parent tubing and
with the water chemistry within the heat exchanger. The galvanic corrosion potential
between the sleeve and tube needs to be determined. Also, effects of crevice corrosion
between the sleeve and tube, in the heat exchanger water chemistry, need to be
considered to determine if sleeving is a viable repair option.
The sleeve dimensions need to fit the heat exchanger operating and design conditions
plus any restrictions within the tube ID. The sleeve outside diameter (OD) is to be
designed to fit into the tube but must be long enough to limit the amount of sleeve
expansion. The sleeve wall thickness needs to be sized for the heat exchanger operating
parameters, including any
ASME Code minimum wall thickness calculations, if needed. The sleeve length must be
long enough to span the expected tube defects but needs to be sized to fit any tube end
clearance restrictions.
Before installing sleeves into heat exchanger tubes, testing needs to be performed to
set the installation parameters. Depending on the type of sleeve being used, these tests
may include setting the rolling torque, hydraulic expansion constants, and full length
expansion pressure.
In addition, depending on the application for the sleeve, there may be a need to do
qualification testing, which would consist of hydrostatic leak and pressure tests and
temperature and pressure cycling. These tests would verify that the expansion parameters
were set correctly for the sleeve application.
If a large quantity of sleeves are being installed, it may be necessary to calculate the
heat transfer and flow loss due to sleeving. These calculations will give a sleeve-to-plug
ratio that can be used to determine the expected improvement in heat exchanger
performance after sleeving is complete (and tubes have been returned to service, if
applicable).
The sleeve may need to be full-length expanded based on the heat exchanger
operating environment. However, the production rates for sleeve installation are lower
when full length expansions are performed. While full length expansion is typically not
needed in
many applications, such as most feedwater heaters, it should be considered for the
following.
if tube ID cleaning needs to routinely be performed
if a long sleeve is being inserted that would severely restrict the tubes heat transfer or
flow
if the tube-to-sleeve crevice needs to be eliminated in a hostile water chemistry
environment
if there are large eddy current probe fill factor restrictions

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Heat Exchanger Tube Expansion Repair

In addition to sleeving, it is possible to expand the tube to improve the heat exchanger
performance. These tube repairs can minimize further tube damage and maximize the
useful life of the heat exchanger. Two methods of tube expansion can be performed. One
is to expand deep within the tube to close off a leak path between the tube and the end
plate. The other is to re-expand the tube into the tubesheet to minimize tube-to-shell side
leakage.
Tube-to-End Plate Expansion
In some heat exchangers, typically feedwater heaters, there are internal plates which
separate one zone of the heat exchanger from another (usually condensing [steam] from
drain cooler [liquid]).
Due to the pressure differential across the plate, and the different temperatures and phases
between the two sections, it is important that leakage not occur through the plate.
However, in some feedwater heaters, the plate design is too thin, resulting in leakage of
steam from the condensing to the drain cooler zones, as shown in Figure 8. When this
occurs there is erosion of the end plate and tube vibration due to the high steam velocities
and the steam condensing to liquid in the drain cooler region. The vibration causes wear
at the tube supports, which can lead to tube failure. The leakage of steam also increases
the drain cooler temperature, resulting in a less efficient heat exchanger.
End Plate Leakage in a Feedwater Heater
Expanding the tube can reduce the gap between the tube and the end plate. The expansion
can be performed using either a roll or hydraulic expander. Once the expander is in
position the tube is expanded until it contacts the end plate. An accurate expansion, which
does not over-expand the tube into the plate (the tube needs to be able to slide in the plate
after expansion so that it does not buckle during heatup/cooldown), needs to be
performed. This can be achieved by using a computer controlled hydraulic expansion that
automatically shuts off the pressurization system when it detects that the tube has
contacted the plate.
After the tubes are expanded into the end plate, the steam flow is minimized or
eliminated, reducing the drain cooler temperatures and increases plant efficiency. Further
tube damage, in the form of tube wear and adjacent tubes impacting on one another, will
be reduced to nearly zero and the vibration operating stresses will be reduced
significantly. The life of the heat exchanger will be increased at a minimal cost as
compared with replacement.
Tube-to-Tubesheet Expansion
In some heat exchanger designs, with a certain combination of materials, leaks develop
between the tube and tubesheet. In many low pressure units, the tube is only expanded
into the tubesheet, with no subsequent weld. Many of the leaks that occur in these units
are the result of a fabrication error and can be corrected by re-expanding the joint to the
correct expansion size.
However, leakage occasionally occurs in high pressure heat exchangers, typically
feedwater heaters, even when the tubes have been welded to the tubesheet. The two prime
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causes of this leakage are in areas where the original tube-to-tubesheet weld has either
cracked or eroded due to flow (in the case of soft materials, such as carbon steel) or
where there is a crack in a tube-totubesheet expansion transition.
For the first case it may be possible to re-expand the tube using a qualified roll
expansion process. The expansion would increase the contact pressure between the tube
and tubesheet, increasing the resistance to flow and decreasing or eliminating leakage.
This process could be performed on existing leaking tubes or preventatively on all tubes
in the tubesheet.
If cracking is occurring at the original tube expansion transition it may be possible to
re-expand the tube deeper in the tubesheet (unless the cracking is occurring very close to
the shell side of the tubesheet). The tube would be expanded using a qualified roll
expansion process, to place the tube into tight contact with the tubesheet. This expansion
would increase the contact pressure between the tube and tubesheet, increasing the
resistance to flow and decreasing or eliminating leakage. This process could be
performed either on existing leaking tubes or preventatively on all tubes in the tubesheet.
Re-expanding tubes that either may be leaking or that could develop leaks in the future
could significantly extend the life of an otherwise good heat exchanger. By re-expanding
the tubes, forced outages can be avoided and damage from the high pressure water
spraying on adjacent tubes and on the shell will be eliminated. The cost to perform tube
re-expansions will be minimal when compared with the cost of replacement heat
exchangers and the cost of forced outages.
Items to Consider for Tube Expansion Repair
The following factors should be considered to determine if tube expansion is possible.
The portion of the tube to be expanded needs to be determined.
If leakage is occurring through the end plate, the expander will need to be long
enough to reach the end plate location. The tube should be expanded using a process,
such as hydraulic expansion, that will not lock the tube into the end plate. This expansion
will not only reduce leakage through the plate but also will minimize future tube
vibration due to the tight fit between the tube and plate.
If leakage is occurring within the tubesheet, due to either weld or tube cracking, a reexpansion process may be used. This process, typically a roll expansion, will reexpand
the tube into the tubesheet to limit or eliminate leakage from the tube to the shell side of
the heat exchanger.
The condition of the remainder of the tube needs to be known. If there are cracks
along the entire tube length then re-expanding the tube alone will not result in an
improvement in heat exchanger performance.
The space available at the tube end to insert the expansion tooling needs to be known.
Usually either a roll or hydraulic expander will be used for this process. Unless a roll
expansion is being performed at the end plate, the usual repair tooling is relatively short,
although there can still be access issues around the tubesheet periphery for hemi-head
channel covers and at pass partition plates.
For tube end plate expansions, the eddy current inspection records need to be
reviewed to determine if there are any tube inside diameter restrictions that would block

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the expander from being inserted to the end plate location. The size of the eddy current
probe used for the inspection, plus any other hardware that has been inserted into the
tube, can be used to help determine the tube ID access issues. The potential for any tube
end restrictions, that might limit tooling insertion into the tube, also need to be known so
that tooling can be prepared to eliminate the restriction.
If it appears that tube expansion is possible, then information will be needed to ensure
that the heat exchanger is properly repaired. The following information is used when
planning for tube expansion.
Tube expansion will need to be coordinated with eddy current inspection and plug
removal.
The tube expander design (diameter and length) needs to be based on the
requirements for the expansion. Before performing tube expansions into heat exchanger
tubes, testing needs to be performed to set the tooling operating parameters. Depending
on the type of expansion, these tests may include setting the rolling torque for tubesheet
re-expansions or setting the hydraulic expansion constants for end plate expansions. In
addition, for the tube-intotubesheet re-expansion process, qualification testing should be
performed. This would consist of hydrostatic leak and pressure tests and temperature and
pressure cycling. These tests would verify that the expansion parameters were set
correctly for the tube reexpansions.
Conclusions
The costs associated with heat exchanger replacement can be significant. These costs
include the new heat exchanger or tube bundle, the manpower required to remove the old
and install the new heat exchanger components, plant modifications to allow for the
removal of the heat exchanger, and the amount of outage time associated with
replacement. In addition, the replacement of aheat exchanger can adversely affect other
work going on in the their vicinity. Because of the cost and time involved, and if the
damage is confined to only the tubing (which is typically the case), repair of the heat
exchanger, through either sleeving or tube expansion, should be considered. If the tube
damage is confined to one general area, there is a good possibility that the expense of a
replacement can be avoided. In addition, the time required to prepare for tube repair is
much less than for replacement (2-6 weeks compared with 18 months), allowing a
decision on repair to be made just before, or even into, an outage.
By removing plugs and installing sleeves, it is possible to return lost heat transfer area to
service.
Tubes that would be likely to fail in the near term also can be repaired. This will improve
the performance and reliability of the heat exchanger. The cost to perform the repairs is
also much less than for replacement (usually less than 1/10th the cost). Sleeving has been
shown to be a proven tube repair technique, having been performed since the 1970s.
During this time, tube repairs have economically extended the useful life of heat
exchangers worldwide.
As the number of plugged tubes approaches the upper limits or if damage is consistently
occurring in one area of a heat exchanger, tube repair, through both sleeving and tube

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expansions, should be considered to minimize future damage and extend the life of the
heat exchanger.
The following table shows the various heat exchanger repair options and the factors to be
considered when choosing each of the options. Note that the table contains selected
criteria for evaluating component repair versus replacement options. A final decision to
implement a particular option should be made on a case by case basis with proper weight
given to all factors.
The information listed in this table is for relative comparison purposes only.

HEAT EXCHANGERS
Installation, Operation, Inspection and Maintenance Instruction
INSTALLATION:

5/13

1.

Provide sufficient clearance at the channel or bonnet end of the unit to permit
removal of tube bundles from shells. On the floating head end, a space of 3 or 4 feet
should be provided to permit the removal of the floating head.

2.

Foundations must be adequate so that exchangers will not settle and cause piping
strains. Foundation bolts should be set to allow for setting inaccuracies. In concrete
footings, pipe sleeves at least one size larger than the bolt diameter slipped over the bolt
and cast in place are best for this purpose, as they allow the bolt center to be adjusted
after the foundation has set.

3.

Provide valves and by-passes in the piping system so that both the shell and tube
bundle may be by-passed to permit cutting out the unit for inspection or repairs.

4.

Provide convenient means for frequent cleaning of the unit as suggested under
"Maintenance."

5.

Provide thermometer wells and pressure gage connections in all piping to and
from the unit, as near the unit as possible.

6.

Provide necessary air vent cocks so that the unit can be purged to prevent or
relieve vapor or gas binding of either the tube bundle or the shell.

7.

Loosen foundation bolts at one end of the unit to allow free expansion of shell.
Oval holes in foundation brackets are provided for this purpose.

8.

Set exchangers level and square so that pipe connections may be made without
forcing.

9.

Inspect all openings in the heat exchanger for foreign material. Remove all
wooden plugs and shipping pads just before installing. Do not expose units to the
elements with pads or other covers removed from nozzles or other openings since rain
water may enter the unit and cause sever damage due to freezing and/or corrosion.

10.

Be sure entire system is clean before starting operation to prevent plugging of

tubes or shell side passages with sand or refuse. The use of strainers or settling tanks in
pipelines leading to the heat exchanger is recommended.

11.

Drain connections should not be piped to a common closed manifold.

12. To guard against pulsation of the fluids caused by reciprocating pumps,
compressors or other equipment a surge drum should be installed.

5/14

OPERATION:
A heat exchanger is a pressure vessel designed for operation at certain specific limits
of pressure and temperature, and the system must be safeguarded with safety valves
and controls so that these design conditions are not exceeded and that all operating
personnel are alerted.
1.

When placing a unit in operation, open the vent connections and start to
circulate the cold medium only. Be sure that the passages in the exchanger are entirely
filled with the cold fluid before closing the vents. The hot medium should then be
introduced gradually until all passages are filled with liquid. Then, close vents and
slowly bring the unit up to temperature.

2.

Start operation gradually. Do not admit hot fluid to the unit suddenly when it
is empty or cold. Do not shock unit with cold fluid when it is hot.

3.

In shutting down, flow of hot medium should be shut off first. If it is

necessary to stop circulation of cooling medium, the circulation of hot medium should
also be stopped by by-passing or otherwise.

4.

Do not operate equipment under conditions in excess of those specified on

nameplate.

5.

In all installations, there should be no pulsation of fluids since this causes

vibration and strain with resulting leaks.

6.

All gasketed joints should be rechecked for tightness after the unit has been
heated to prevent leaks and blowing out gaskets.

7.

Units with packing rings may require adjustment from time to time to
eliminate slight leakage. As joint containing packing rings requires only a small amount
of bolting pressure to seal tight.
Many heat exchangers handle fluids which are irritating or dangerous to the
human system and could cause problems if bolted and packed joints are not
maintained in a leak tight condition both at operating pressures and temperatures,
and also at no flow, ambient conditions.
If fluid are not irritating or dangerous a leak will at least cause a slippery situation
on the floor below.
Since one fluid in the exchanger is at a higher temperature, any leaks might cause
burns.
If leakage should appear at the packed end joint after the cooler is placed in
operation, the bolting should be pulled up only enough to stop it. This can be

5/15

accomplished by taking a one-half turn on each successive bolt starting at one point
and continuing around the cooler until all leakage has been eliminated. Do not
tighten this joint any more than is required to stop the initial leakage.
When the packing has been repeatedly tightened to the point where there is almost
a metal to metal contact between the bonnet (or channel) and the shell flanges, the
two packing rings should be replaced.
8.
Be sure that all parts of the system are clean and in proper operating condition.
An exchanger cannot perform properly unless all connected equipment is functioning
properly, yet, the exchanger is frequently blamed for non performance when the actual
trouble is elsewhere in the system.
Observe the following precautions to obtain maximum performance:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

Exchanger must be full of fluid in both shell and tube sides.

Provide periodic venting if air tends to accumulate in system.
Maintain rated flow of both mediums.
Avoid excessive flow of cooling water in exchangers used as coolers. It is a
frequent cause of tube failure through erosion, and may decrease cooling efficiency,
especially with heavy oils.
(E)
Inspect exchanger periodically and clean thoroughly when necessary, especially
inside tubes.
MAINTENANCE:
1.

Provide convenient means for frequent cleaning of heat exchangers as suggested

below:

(A)

Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate through tubes or shell at a good
velocity will usually effectively remove sludge or similar soft deposits.

(B)

Soft salt deposits may be washed out by circulating hot fresh water.

(C)

Some commercial cleaning compounds such as Oakite or Dowell may be

effective in removing more stubborn deposits. Use in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions.

(D)

If none of the above described methods are effective for the removal of hard
scale or coke a mechanical means may be used.
When the heat exchanger is cleaned, it is important the full characteristics of the
fouling material and the cleaning agent be known and care exercised in handling
them according to instructions.

2.

Frequently and at regular intervals, observe interior and exterior condition of all
tubes and keep them clean. Neglect in keeping all tubes clean may result in complete

5/16

stoppage of flow through some tubes, with consequent overheating of these tubes as
compared to surrounding tubes, resulting in severe expansion strains and leaking tube-totube-sheet joints.
When shutting down for repairs it is imperative that all fluids be drained from the
heat exchanger and that no bolting be loosened until the pressures are down to
atmospheric and the temperature of the parts are down to ambient.
3.

Do not attempt to clean tubes by blowing steam through individual tubes. This
overheats the tube and results in severe expansion strains and leaking tube-to-tube-sheet
joints.

4.

Do not blow out heat exchanger with air when fluids normally handled are of an
inflammable nature.

5.

Do not open heads until all pressure is off equipment and the unit is drained.

6.

Do not handle tube bundles with hooks or other tools which might damage tubes.
Bundles should be moved about on cradles or skids.

7.

Do not tighten bolts until gasket is positioned properly. This precaution will
eliminate one cause for taking down units because of leaks.
Since many of the removable components of the heat exchanger, particularly in the
larger sizes are too heavy for men to handle care must be used to take this weight
with proper rigging to avoid injury.

When a heat exchanger is dismantled for any cause, it is recommended that new
gaskets be used in re-assemble. This will tend to lessen the possibility of future leaks
because composition gaskets become brittle and dry out, they do not provide an
effective seal when reused. Metal or metal jacketed gaskets when compressed
initially tend to match their gasket contact surfaces. In doing so, the are work
hardened to the point that their reuse provides an imperfect seal and possible damage
to the gasket contact surfaces of the heat exchanger.
8.
To tighten a loose tube joint, use a suitable roller type tube expander. Do not roll
tubes that are not leaking as it needlessly thins the tube wall.
9.

Exchangers subject to fouling or scaling should be cleaned periodically. A light

sludge or scale coating on the tube greatly reduces effectiveness. A marked increase in
pressure drop and/or reduction in performance usually indicates cleaning is necessary, if
the unit has been checked for air or vapor binding and this has been found not to be the
cause. Since the difficulty of cleaning increases rapidly as the scale thickens or deposit
increases, the intervals between cleanings should not be excessive.

5/17

10.

To clean or inspect inside of tubes, remove channel covers (or bonnets). Do not
remove channels.

11. To locate leaking joints between tube and tube sheet or a split tube, proceed as
follows:
Channel Type
(a) Remove channel covers
(b) Apply hydraulic pressure in shell
Bonnet Type
(a) Remove bonnets
(b) Bolt test rings in place with gaskets and packing
(c) Apply hydraulic pressure in shell
Use only cold water for hydrostatic test. The point where the water escapes
indicates the defective tube or joint.
11.
when removing tube bundles from exchangers for inspection or cleaning, care
should be exercised to avoid damage by improper handling. Although tube bundles are
often of great weight, the tubes are small and of relatively thin metal. The dead weight of
the bundle, therefore, should never be supported on individual tubes, but should rest on
those parts that are designed to carry it i.e., the tube sheets, support plates or wood
blocks, cut to fit the periphery of the bundle. In withdrawing tube bundles, it is
recommended that rods or steel cables be passed through two or more of the tubes and the
load taken on the floating tube sheet. Rods should be threaded and provided with nuts
and should pass through a bearing plate at either end of the bundle. A soft wood filler
board should be inserted between bearing plates and tube sheets, in order to prevent
damage to tube ends. A forged steel eye bolt which may be screwed into either plate is
used for pulling and lifting.
12.

When steel cables are used for lifting, the cable is threaded through one tube
and returned through another. Loops are formed in the ends of the cable by use of
thimbles and wire rope clips. A wood spreader block is inserted between the cable and
the floating tube sheet to prevent crushing on tube end.
If the tube bundle has been in service for a considerable length of time without
being removed it may be necessary to use a hydraulic jack on the floating tube sheet
to get it started. A good sized steel bearing plate should be inserted between jack and
tube sheet and the tube ends protected by means of a filler board.
Tube bundles may be raised horizontally by means of slings. Baffles can be easily
bent & damaged by dragging a bundle over a rough surface. Diameter of baffles is
practically the same as the inside of the shell and a close fit must be maintained for
the apparatus to function properly. Any damage to baffles should, therefore, be
carefully avoided.
In cleaning a tube bundle, tubes should not be hammered on with any metallic
tool. In case it is necessary to use scrapers, care should be exercised to see that the
scraper is not sharp enough to cut the metal of the tubes.

5/18

The following are safe loads for rods and eye bolts:
RODS
_____________________________________________________
Size Tubes
Size Rods
Safe Load per Rod
5/8"
.......
3/8" . . . . . . . . 1000 lbs
3/4"
.......
1/2" . . . . . . . . 2000 lbs
1" . . . . . . .
5/8"
. . . . . . . . . 3000 lbs
EYE BOLTS
_____________________________________________________
Size
Safe Load
3/4"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4000 lbs
1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6000 lbs
1-1/4"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10000 lbs
1-1/2"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15000 lbs

Cleaning of plate heat exchanger

It is not usually necessary to open the heat exchanger for cleaning until there is a decrease in
thermal transfer or an increase in pressure drop. If cleaning is indicated, it may be done either
manually (by opening the unit) or it may be cleaned-in-place (CIP).

Manual cleaning:
Open the heat exchanger according to the dismantling instructions.
Pull the plates apart from each other. Leave the plates in the frame if possible. If the plates are
removed from the frame, mark them with numbers so you will be able to replace them easily.
Use a soft brush and a recommended cleaning agent.
A high-pressure washer may be used if care is taken not to loosen the gaskets.
Do not use wire brushes or any other abrasive material on the plates.
Rinse the cleaning agent from the plate with fresh water immediately after cleaning.

Fouling
Organics
Fats/Oils
Calcium buildup

Cleaning Agent
Alkaline detergent (2% caustic soda @ 128F.)
Kerosene
10% nitric acid or 2% sodium trimetaphosphate

Cleaning-in-Place:
CIP is recommended when corrosive or hazardous liquids are being processed.
Drain both sides of the PHE.
Backflush both sides with warm water until the water flows clear. The flow rate should be at
least 1.5 times the normal rate.
If steam is used for cleaning, be certain that its temperature does not exceed the limitations of
the gasket material (NBR/230F. EPDM/302F.).
A mild detergent or weak acid may be used. Be sure to flush with water when done.

5/19

Tube Inspection
Heat exchangers, boilers and condensers are used in all fields of energy supply, such as
the oil, gas and petrochemical industries.
Failure of the tubing within these heat exchangers, will result in the undesirable discharge
and mixture of the contained media.
Consequences of defective heat exchanger tubing
Loss of investment due to damage of high value plant components.
Loss of profit due to interuption or complete breakdown of plant production.
Increased reject rate due to a mixture of media.
Environmental pollution.
Loss of image.
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing has gained significant acceptance in petrochemical plants over the
last 10 years. This is primarily due to the introduction of affordable eddy current
instruments that have made eddy current testing cost effective in the petrochemical
industry. The eddy current technology used in petrochemical plant heat exchanger tests is
primarily a scaled down version of eddy current testing for steam generator tubing but at
a significantly lower cost.
There are two major types of eddy current tests performed in petrochemical plants. These
can be broadly categorized as surface testing and tubing testing. Surface testing
techniques use portable and battery powered eddy current systems. The major
applications are the detection of surface cracks, clad overlay measurement and wear
measurements. Tube testing is done with multifrequency eddy current equipment and is
used for testing heat exchanger tubes.
The eddy current method is based on the principle of measuring changes in the
impedance of an electromagnetic coil as it is scanned over a surface of conductive
material (Cecco, 1992). The test is performed by an electromagnetic coil that is placed
over a conductive material (Figure 1). A alternating current in the coil produces a
magnetic field that is induced in the material. To counter the coils primary magnetic
field, eddy currents are produced in the material. Eddy currents produce a secondary
magnetic field HB to oppose the coils primary magnetic field HB. When the coil is
scanned over a discontinuity, the secondary magnetic field is distorted, thereby changing
the loading on the coil. Changes in coil loading directly affect the coil impedance. These
changes in coil impedance may be related to the discontinuity.

5/20

Discontinuity detection is limited to the penetration depth of eddy currents. Penetration

depth is inversely proportional to the square root of conductivity, frequency and
permeability. For most applications, the penetration depth in nonferromagnetic material is
limited to approximately 5 mm (0.2 in.). In the case of ferromagnetic materials, such as
carbon steel, the penetration depth is extremely shallow because of high permeability.
Testing of ferromagnetic material is therefore limited to surface discontinuities only.
There are three basic eddy current test techniques for testing tubes. Selection of the
techniques depends on the tube material.
Figure 1-a

Conventional eddy current testing is applied when testing nonferromagnetic heat

exchanger tubes (ASME, 2001). The test is performed with a bobbin coil that produces an
electromagnetic field in the tube. When the probe is pulled across a discontinuity, the
electromagnetic field is distorted. This distortion in magnetic field changes the coil
impedance that is related to the discontinuity. The eddy current testing method detects
pits, wall loss and cracks.

Figure 1-b
Full saturation eddy current testing is applied in the testing of partially ferromagnetic and
thin ferromagnetic heat exchanger tubes. The bobbin probes include a strong magnet that

5/21

saturates the material magnetically. Once magnetic saturation occurs, testing is done in a
manner similar to conventional eddy current testing.
Remote field eddy current testing is applied in the testing of ferromagnetic heat
exchanger tubes such as those made of carbon steel. The test is tube. Remote field eddy
current testing is limited to detection of large discontinuities and wall loss.
Surface eddy current testing is used for the detection of surface cracks in both
nonferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. The method is very sensitive in detecting
tight cracks. Calibration is performed on electrical discharge machined notches as shown
in Figure 2. In addition to detection, the method can accurately measure crack depth in
nonferromagnetic materials. These materials include stainless steels and high temperature
nickel chromium alloys. When sizing cracks, the eddy current test frequency is selected
so that the depth of penetration is greater than the expected crack depth. Some common
probes used for surface eddy current testing are spot probes, X-point probes and pencil
probes.

Figure 2-a

Figure 2-b
Both surface eddy current testing and liquid penetrant testing are surface test techniques
used for the detection of surface breaking cracks. Eddy current testing has advantages
over liquid penetrant testing in certain applications: eddy current testing is significantly
more sensitive than liquid penetrant testing in the detection of tight cracks (for example,

5/22

stress corrosion cracks in stainless steels) eddy current testing can measure crack depth
in nonferromagnetic materials, whereas liquid penetrant testing does not have this
capability eddy current testing can test through paint coatings for testing in small areas,
eddy current testing is much faster; liquid penetrant testing is slow because of the long
dwell times.
The testing of heat exchangers is the number one application of eddy current testing in
petrochemical plants. Heat exchangers include condensers, general petrochemical plant
exchangers, feedwater heaters, air coolers and lube oil coolers. Both conventional and
remote field eddy current testing are used. Conventional eddy current testing is used for
testing nonferromagnetic tubing, such as stainless steel, copper nickel alloys and
titanium. Remote field eddy current testing is applicable for testing ferromagnetic tubing,
such as carbon steel and nickel. Conventional eddy current testing is a fast, reliable and
accurate method for detecting discontinuities in tubing. Tests can be done at pulling
speeds of up to 1.8 m/s (6 ft/s). Remote field eddy current testing is limited to the
detection of larger discontinuities and test speed is limited to approximately 0.3 m/s (1
ft/s). A specialized version of conventional eddy current testing is full saturation. This
technique is applicable for thin ferromagnetic tubes such as SA-268 steel in condenser
tubes and partially ferromagnetic tubing materials such as nickel copper alloy, SA-789
steel and SA-790.
A heat exchanger test report is compiled by making a tube map and superimposing the
eddy current test results for each tube. The colors represent the discontinuity depth range.
Figure 3 shows an example of the tubesheet map report.
A unique problem in heat exchangers can be leaks in the tubesheet roll. This can occur
when overrolling of the tubes under the tubesheet causes circumferential cracking. In
addition, there can be circumferential cracks just behind the tubesheet. Such cracks can
easily be missed by bobbin probes and require a special technique. Cracks under the
tubesheet are detected using surface probes. These probes can be simple handheld surface
probes or motorized probes similar to the ones used for bolt hole testing in the aircraft
industry.
Ultrasonic IRIS Examination
For examination of tubes of all types of materials the ultrasonic technique is applied.
For examination of the tube wall the IRIS (Internal Rotary Inspection System) probes are
used. These probes utilise the ultrasonic puls-echo technique. The ultrasonic transducer is
rotated inside the tube and due to the frequency of the transducer and the rotation speed
the entire circumference of the tube wall will be examined. When the probe is pulled
through the tube a measurement of the wall thickness is performed.
The result of the examination is presented visually showing the unfolded tube wall. The
wall thickness can be measured in any point of the tube circumference and at any position
of the tube length. Defects will be displayed as they occur on the actual tube in size,
propagation and location on the tube wall, i.e. internal or external.
The technique can be applied on straight tubes with internal diameters from 8 mm to 90
mm. For the larger tube diameters slight bends can be inspected as well.

5/23

Figure 3

Ultrasonic P-Scan Examination

For examination of the tube-to-tubesheet welds a special scanner based on our ultrasonic
equipment, the P-scan system has been developed.
The scanner is inserted into the tube and the tube-to-tube sheet welds are examined from
the inside.
The technique provides information of the welding-in height and detects lack of fusion as
well as pores and inclusions. For all detected defects the length and position can be
determined.
Inspection of boiler tubes
When inspecting the exterior of boiler tubes, look for signs of warping, bulging, sagging,
cracking, pitting, scaling, acid corrosion, and other damage. All tube sheets should be
inspected for signs of leakage, especially the superheater tube sheet.
Inspection of boilers sometimes shows an unexpected condition in which adjacent boiler
tubes are warped in such a way that they touch each other. When this condition exists, the
tubes are said to be married. Tube marriages can result either from overheating of the
tubes or from stresses developed in the tubes during installation. For the latter reason,
newly erected boilers and boilers that have been retubed should always be inspected for
tube alignment after the initial period of steaming.
When inspection reveals one or more tube marriages, the decision as to whether or not
the married tubes should be renewed should be based on the following considerations:

5/24

1.
If the tube marriage occurs in screen tubes 1 inches or larger, or if the furnace
side wall or rear wall tubes are bowed, tube replacement is usually required.
2.

If 1-inch or 1 -inch tubes in the main bank of generating tubes are married,
replacement is usually not required if the tube joints are tight under hydrostatic test.

3.

Inspect the external surfaces of the tubes. If they show blistering or other signs of
overheating, the tubes should be renewed.

4.

Inspect the watersides. Where tube marriages exists, a poor waterside condition may
indicate hard scale or oil within the affected tubes. If hard scale or oil does exist, the
married tubes should be replaced, and all appropriate steps should be taken to
remove the scale or oil from the rest of the boiler. If the condition of the tubes is
uncertain, or if a large number of tube marriages have occurred, remove one or more
sample tubes, split them, and examine them carefully.

5.

Tube marriages may cause gas laning, and gas laning, in turn, may cause local
overheating of the inner casing, the bottom part of the economizer, and other parts.
Inspect the boiler carefully for signs of local overheating that might have been
caused by gas laning resulting from the tube marriages. If the local overheating from
this cause is found, renew the married tubes.

6.

On single-furnace boilers, a lane more than 1 inches wide may allow overheating
of the superheater and of the superheater supports. If a large lane (1 tubes wide or
wider) exists near the superheater outlet header end of the boiler, the married tubes
that caused such a large lane should be renewed.
To identify the cause of the tube failure by visual inspection, you will need to know
something about the various ways in which tubes rupture, warp, blister, and otherwise
show damage. Tube failures must be reported, and they must be reported in standard
terminology. The following sections of this chapter deal with the inspection techniques
required for determining the causes of tube failure and with the various ways in which
boiler tube damage is classified and identified.
The inspection techniques required for determining the cause of tube failure must
naturally vary according to the nature of the problem. For example, a rupture in a fire row
tube can usually be described adequately on the basis of simple visual observation, but
the cause of damage to a tube that is deep in the tube bank cannot usually be determined
without removing the intervening tubes. When a blistered tube suggests a waterside
deposit, the nature and extent of the deposit can be determined only by removing and
splitting the tube so that the waterside can be examined.
Relatively simple equipment is required for the field inspection of damaged or fouled
pressure parts. Equipment for this purpose should include the following: (1) devices for
measuring tube diameters, depth of pits, and thickness of deposits; (2) instruments for
separating deposits and corrosion products-a sharp knife, a chisel, a steel scribe, or a vise
to crack deposits loose from the tube samples; (3) an approved type of portable light; (4)
a supply of clean bottles for collecting samples of deposits; and (5) a mirror for viewing
relatively inaccessible places.

5/25

Many of these items of equipment can be improvised if necessary. For example, a simple
gauge for measuring the depth of waterside pits may be made by pushing a straight pin or
a paper clip through a 3-by 5-inch card so that the point of the pin or clip projects beyond
the card, at right angles to the card. A section of string can be wrapped around a deformed
tube and then laid along a ruler to obtain a measure of tube enlargement or tube thinning.
Of course, special tools such as calipers, depth gauges, and scale thickness indicators give
more accurate results and should be used if they are available; but the improvised tools, if
used with care, can also give good results.
The classification of boiler tube damage is considered here under four major
classifications: (1) fireside cavities and scars, (2) waterside cavities and scars, (3) tube
deformities and fractures, and (4) tube deposits.
FIRESIDE CAVITIES AND SCARS
on the tube firesides often indicate the reasons for tube failure. The term circumferential
groove is used to describe the metal loss that occurs in bands or stripes around the
circumference of a tube. Fireside grooving of this type often occurs at the header ends of
horizontal tubes such as superheater tubes. The most common cause of this damage is
leakage from tube seats higher in the tube bank. The grooving occurs as the water runs
down the header and onto the tube ends, or as it drips directly onto the tubes. This kind
damage is greater on the top of the tube than on the underside, but the groove may extend
the entire circumference.
Fireside circumferential grooving may also occur on vertical generating tubes as a result
of thin, damp deposits of soot on horizontal drums or headers. In fact, this kind of
grooving can occur in any part of the boiler where leakage provides a sufficient supply of
water. Large quantities of water trapped between the water drum and the boiler casing-as,
for example, from a serious economizer leak-can produce general fireside grooving
around the bottom of the rear generating tubes. An example of this general fireside
circumferential grooving is shown in figure 4.
CRATERS are deep, irregular, straight-walled cavities in the tube metal. WATER
TRACKS are closely related to craters; the tracks consist of wandering, straight-walled,
canyon-like cavities in the tube metal. Both cratering and water track-ing occur almost
exclusively at the header ends of water wall tubes and division wall tubes that are
surrounded by refractory; they are caused by water becoming trapped between the tube
metal and the surrounding refractory. Water washing of boiler firesides, without proper
drying out, is a frequent cause of cratering and water tracking; of however, any leak
higher in the boiler can also cause this type of damage. The size of the leak around and
the angle of the tube upon which the water leaks determine, to a large extent, whether the
resulting damage will be circumferential grooving, cratering, or water tracking. Both
cratering and water tracking are shown in figure 5

5/26

Figure 4-General fireside circumferential grooving.

GENERAL FIRESIDE THINNING consists of a uniform loss of metal over a
relatively large area on the outside of the tube. Soot corrosion is by far the most common
cause of general fireside thinning. The parts that are particularly subject to this kind of
damage are superheater tube ends between the headers and the seal plates, water drum
ends of generating tubes, and return bends in economizer tubes.
A rather unusual type of general fireside metal loss sometimes results from the
combination of extremely high tube temperatures and the burn-ing of fuel oil that
contains vanadium compounds. The vanadium compounds carried in the flame can cause
rapid oxidation of metal at high temperatures. This type of damage is unusual in watercooled parts of the boiler, since critical temperatures are not usually attained.

Figure 5 Fireside catering and water tracking.

5/27

Codes and standards:

Standards are becoming an increasing part of the life of every engineer concerned with
heat exchanges or fired heaters. We therefore felt it useful provide information on
standards in the context of how it affects his Members. This is a changing area and the
following articles will be updated from time to time.
International Standards
European Standards
TEMA Standards
ALPEMA Standards
International Standards
The Institute of Petroleum (IP) co-ordinates the UK effort on the development of
International Standards for the petroleum and natural gas industries on behalf of BSI.
There are several standards covering process heat transfer equipment, offshore
exploration, production and pipelines mostly based on existing API standards. In the
process heat transfer area, the UK has taken the lead in standards development with Colin
Weil and Bob Berryman of the hts acting as project leaders for 4 out of the 5 documents.
Two have recently been published and three more will follow over the next year or so.
The current standards in this area are
ISO 13706 - Air Cooled Heat Exchangers (API 661) - published April 2000
ISO 15547 - Plate Heat Exchangers (API 662) - published April 2000
ISO 13704 - Calculation of Heater Tube Thickness for Fired Heaters (API 530) - draft
stage completed - publication expected Spring 2001
ISO 13705 - Fired Heaters for General Refinery Service (API560) - draft stage
completed - publication expected Summer 2001
ISO 16812 - Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers (API 660) - draft circulated publication expected Summer 2001
The IP encourages participation across the industry in the development of the standards
through a network system. If you would like to comment on any standards up to the final
draft stage please contact Sjoerd Schuyleman at the IP (tel: 020 7467 7132).
The IP website address is: www.petroleum.co.uk. A link to ISO TC67 for more general
information on developing international standards is: www.api.org/iso/tc67
A list of other standards currently under development will appear soon.

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European Legislation and Standards

The Pressure Equipment Directive, 97/23/EC, sets out the Essential Safety Requirements
which must be met before pressure equipment or assemblies may be placed on the market
or put into service anywhere in the EU. The European Parliament and the Council of
Ministers approved the
PED in May 1997, and the Directive has now been transposed into UK national
legislation by the Pressure Equipment Regulations 1999, SI No. 2001. These Regulations
came into force on 29 November 1999. There is a transitional period up to and including
29 May 2002 during which time the regulations are optional, but after that date the
Regulations will become mandatory.
The Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Container Regulations 1989, have been
revoked and are replaced by the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000 (SI
2000/128), which apply to the design and construction of pressure equipment not covered
by the Pressure Equipment Regulations, and also to the use and ongoing integrity of
pressure systems.
The PED was published in the Official Journal of the European Communities (No. L181
of 9 July 1997 ISBN 011 916 0927). Copies of the Official Journal, the Pressure
Equipment Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/2001) and the Pressure Systems Safety
Regulations 2000 (SI 2000/128) are available from The Stationery Office Ltd, 51 Nine
Elms Lane, London SW8 5DR (Tel: 020 7873 9090, Fax: 020 7873 8463). The text of the
PED may also be downloaded from the European
Commission PED website at ped.eurodyn.com (NOTE there is no "www" in this website
address).
The DTI have produced a free guidance booklet (URN 99/1147) for the UK Regulations,
and this is available from the DTI order line on 0870 1502 500. The DTI Standards and
Technical
Regulations Directorate website address is www.dti.gov.uk/strd
The European Commission has given The European Committee for Standardisation
(CEN) a mandate to produce harmonised standards to support the Directive. There are
three types of harmonised standard: product standards (eg pressure vessels, boilers,
piping, etc), supporting standards and material standards. The draft CEN Standard for
Unfired Pressure Vessels, prEN 13445, was circulated in 1999 as a Draft for Public
Comment. The comments are now being reviewed by the various CEN committees
responsible for the standard. Copies of the draft standard may be obtained from BSI, 389
Chiswick High Road, London, W4 4AL. Tel: 020 8996 9000,
Fax: 020 8996 7400, website www.bsi-global.com
Some other website addresses for European and other international standards
organisations are given below:
CEN www.cenorm.be

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DIN www.din.de
ANSI www.ansi.org
ASME www.asme.org
ASTM www.astm.org
TEMA Standards
The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers' Association (TEMA) produce the most widely
known standard in the heat transfer business, which is on shell-and-tube heat exchangers.
They currently update the standards every 10 years with "TEMA 98" having been
published slightly late, in 1999.
This latest version includes the following main additions and changes
Design of floating head split rings
Design of double tubesheets
Modifications to the design of flexible shell elements (expansion joints)
Two-phase flow added to vibration section
Information on the design of supports, lifting lugs and the reaction on foundations
ALPEMA Standards
The Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger Manufacturers' Association,
ALPEMA, recently announced the publication of the second edition of their popular
Standards. Copies can be obtained from ALPEMA Members or direct from the
Association General Secretary, Dave Butterworth. An innovation is that the document is
also available as an Adobe Acrobat (pdf) file which makes full use of hypertext links.
This version may be downloaded from the ALPEMA web site standards page.
The Standards support the main objective of the ALPEMA which is to promote the safe
use and quality of brazed aluminum heat exchangers. Topics addressed in the Standards
include materials of construction, design, manufacture, mechanical standards,
installation, operation, contractual information and good practice.

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Case Study
Analyze heat- exchanger performance by the LMTD and -NTU
methods.
Background
A heat exchanger is a device in which energy is transferred from one fluid to another
across a solid surface. Exchanger analysis and design therefore involve both convection
and conduction. Radiative transfer between the exchanger and the environment can
usually be neglected unless the exchanger is uninsulated and its external surfaces are very
hot.
Two important problems in heat exchanger analysis are (1) rating existing heat
exchangers and (ii) sizing heat exchangers for a particular application. Rating involves
determination of the rate of heat transfer, the change in temperature of the two fluids, and
the pressure drop across the heat exchanger. Sizing involves selection of a specific heat
exchanger from those currently available or determining the dimensions for the design of
a new heat exchanger, given the required rate of heat transfer and allowable pressure
drop. The LMTD method can be readily used when the inlet and outlet temperatures of
both the hot and cold fluids are known. When the outlet temperatures are not known, the
LMTD can only be used in an iterative scheme. In this case the -NTU method can be
used to simplify the analysis.

Energy Considerations
The first Law of Thermodynamics, in rate form, applied to a control volume (CV), can be
expressed as

(1)
where stands for mass-flow rate (e.g., 1bm/min or kg/min) crossing the CV boundaries, h
is specific enthalpy (energy/mass), surris the rate of heat transfer from the CV to its
surroundings, and st is the rate of change of energy stored in the CV. This simplified form
of the First Law assumes no work- producing processes, no energy generation inside the
CV, and negligible kinetic and potential energy in the fluid streams entering and leaving
the CV. In steady state operation the energy residing in the CV is constant, meaning that
st=0. If, furthermore, the boundary of the CV is adiabatic (i.e., perfectly insulated), then
surr =0. Under these circumstances Eq. (1) reduces to a simple balance of enthalpy inflow
and enthalpy outflow:

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(2)
Applied to a heat exchanger with two streams passing through it, Eq. (2) can be
rearranged to give
mh(hh,i- hh,o ) = mc (hc,o - hc,i)

(3)

where the subscripts h and c indicate the hot and cold fluids, respectively, and i and o
indicate inlet and outlet conditions. In words, Eq. (3) says that the rate of energy loss by
the hot fluid (left-hand side) equals the rate of energy gain by the cold fluid.
Remember: This rate balance holds only if the heat-exchanger envelope is adiabatic and
the exchanger has reached a steady state.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass
and one tube pass. The cross-counterflow mode of operation is indicated.

Figure 1. Shell-and-tube-heat exchanger with one shell pass and one tube pass; cross
counterflow operation.
Inside the heat exchanger the hot and cold fluid temperature distributions would have the
form sketched in Fig. 2(a).

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Figure 2. (a) Temperature distributions in a counterflow heat exchanger.

Figure 2. (b) Energy balance in a differential length element.

The points 1 and 2 on the x axis represent the two ends of the heat exchanger. Provided
there is no energy loss to the environment and that the exchanger has reached steady
state, then dq, the rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid, is exactly equal to the rate of
heat transfer to the cold fluid in a differential length dx of the exchanger surface. For the
special case of fluids that are not changing phase and have constant specific heats

dq = - mh Cp,h dTh = -Ch dTh

dq = mc Cp,c dTc = Cc dTc

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(4)
(5)

where Ch and C care called the hot and cold fluid heat-capacity rates, respectively.
Integration of Eqs (4) and (5) along the heat exchanger (from 1 to 2) gives
q = Ch (Th,i - Th,o)

(6)

q = Cc (Tc,o - Tc,i)

(7)

and

1. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method

The differential heat-transfer rate dq across the surface area element dA can also be
expressed as
dq = UTdA,
(8)
where is the local temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids and U is the
overall coefficient of heat transfer at dA. Both U andT vary with position inside the heat
exchanger (i.e., x), but by combining Eqs (4) and (5) with Eq. (8) it is possible for a
single pass exchanger to integrate over the exchanger contact surface from inlet to out.
The result of the integration is
q = AUm Tln,

(9)

where q is the total heat-transfer rate (BTU/min), A is the total internal contact area (ft2),
Um is the mean overall coefficient of heat transfer (BTU/min ft2 F), defined as

(10)
and is the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD), given by

(11)
As shown in Fig. 2(a),T1 = T h,i-Tc,o and T2 = Th,o-T c,i for the counterflow, single pass
case. Equation (9) is also applied
to more complicated heat-exchanger designs with multipass and cross- flow arrangements
with a correction factor applied to

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the LMTD. See Ozisik (1). As mentioned above, if both inlet and outlet temperatures are
specified the LMTD can be
calculated from Eq. (11) and q from either Eq. (6) or Eq. (7). Then the product is given
explicitly by Eq. (9). Further
specification of then "sizes" the heat exchanger, i.e., determines A and the dimensions of
the internal flow passages.
2. -NTU Method
In cases where only the inlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids are known, the
LMTD cannot be calculated beforehand and application of the LMTD method requires an
iterative approach. The recommended approach is the effectiveness or -NTU method.
The heat-exchanger effectiveness, is defined by
= q/qmax,
(12)
where q is the actual rate of heat transfer from the hot to cold fluid, and qmax represents
the maximum possible rate of heat transfer, which is given by the relation
qmax = Cmin (Th,i - Tc,i)
(13)
where Cmin is the smaller of the two heat capacity rates (see above, Eqs (4) and (5). Thus,
the actual heat transfer rate can be
expressed as
q = Cmin (Th,i - Tc,i)
(14)
and calculated, given the heat-exchanger effectiveness , the mass-flow rates and specific
heats of the two fluids and the inlet temperatures.
The value of depends on the heat-exchanger geometry and flow pattern (parallel flow,
counterflow, cross flow, etc.). Theoretical relations for and graphical characteristics are
given by Ozisik (1) and Incropera & DeWitt (2) for a limited selection of heat-exchanger
types. For a single pass counterflow exchanger like the one used in this exercise

(15)
where C = Cmin / Cmax and N= Um A / Cmin. The dimensionless factor is known as the
number of transfer units . It is an indicator of the actual heat-transfer area or physical size
of the exchanger. An experimental determination of effectiveness is found by

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(16)
Apparatus
Figure A1 in the Appendix is a schematic diagram of the two flow loops which exchange
energy through the heat exchanger. Hot water circulates through the exchanger shell
while a chilled solution of propylene glycol (PG) in water (approximately 30% PG by
weight) circulates through the tubes. The chilled water flow is driven by a constant speed
centrifugal pump while the hot water flow comes from the building water supply. Both
flows are controlled manually with valves. Mass flow rates are indicated by in-line
rotameter-type flow meters. Calibration curves for the two flow meters are appended.
Four thermocouples mounted close to the four ports of the heat exchanger and connected
to a digital readout indicate Th,i , Th,o, Tc,i , and Tc,o.
The principal geometrical characteristics of the heat exchanger are as follows:
Shell diameter (outer) 3.63 in. Shell length 27-1/4 in. Tube O.D. 0.250 in. Shell volume
0.70 gal. Tube volume(internal) 0.40 gal. Tube surface area 11.1 ft2 No. of tubes 76
Length of tubes 26-11/16 in.

Procedure
1. Locate the calibration data plot and equation for the water flow meter in the lab write
up.
2. Locate the calibration data plot and equation for the propylene glycol flow meter. Since
this calibration was performed using water as the working fluid you must correct the
equation for use with propylene glycol using the following relationship:
m pg=mH2o (S.G.PG)1/2
The specific gravity (S.G.) of the propylene glycol is found on the graphics provided in
the write- up for a 30% solution
3. Determine the flow meter readings for the sixteen experiments possible in the
following array, choosing the water flow as the "minimum" fluid:

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Table 1. Nominal Values of Fluid Heat Capacities for the Propylene Glycol Loop.
C
1.00
0.75
0.5
0.25

(mCp)max [Btu/minF]
5
10
5
10
7
15
15
30

20
30
30
45

40
60
60
65

C is the ratio of the heat capacities of the two fluid streams which is defined by:

(17)
From the first row (5, 10, 20, 40) you can determine the water flow meter readings as
well as the propylene glycol flow meter readings, i.e., C = 1.0. From the "C" ratio,
determine the other propylene glycol flow meter readings for the sixteen experiments
using the values of Cp from the graph provided in the write-up.
4. Execution of the experiment

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a) Set the H2O flow meter at the lowest reading in the array and then monitor the
difference between the inlet and outlet temperatures for both water and propylene glycol
(C = 1.0) until a steady state is established (usually in a few minutes).
b) Measure and record the inlet, outlet and temperature difference for both the water and
propylene glycol flows.
c) Change the propylene glycol flow to give C = .75, then .5 and .25, each time repeating
a) and b) above.
d) Sequence through the second, third and fourth columns of the experimental array.
5. Lab report.
a) Organize your lab data and calculated values in a neat spreadsheet array. Use only the
English system of units.
b) Plot the heat transfer to the propylene glycol vs. the log-mean-temperature difference.
c) On one plot, plot the effectiveness, , versus NTU and curve fit the data where C is a
constant by making a plot similar to Fig. 11.15 of Incropera & DeWitt using eq. (15).
Remember from your data is determined from the four measured temperatures using eq.
(16) and not from equation (15).

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