Planning for a Tropical City of Excellence: Urban Development Challenges for Singapore in the

21st Century
Author(s): SHIRLENA HUANG
Source: Built Environment (1978-), Vol. 27, No. 2, Pacific-Asian Cities: Challenges and Prospects (
2001), pp. 112-128
Published by: Alexandrine Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23287516
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Planning
City

Urban

for a Tropical
of Excellence:

Development
Challenges
in the 21st Century
for Singapore
SHIRLENA

HUANG

Following a briefsurvey of Singapore's urban history, the paper presents

an overview of Singapore's largely successful planned urban/national development in the last
four decades of the twentieth century and a critical discussion of some key urban planning
challenges facing Singapore as it moves into the global age of the twenty-firstcentury.

. . . has come
a long
Singapore
when
Stamford
Raffles
first
and

shores,

has

transformed

modern

bustling

from the days

on to its
stepped
from a jungle
to a
. . . The key aim of
way

city-state
now is to gear Singapore
planners
a top Asian
business
and financial
the

most

liveable

for National
Tan,

1999,

city.

Bow

(Mah

in the

Development,
pp.

up to become
hub, as well as

10-11)

The key role of urban planning

to global

and

Teo

(see

'kampung

1992, p. 5) is well

city' (Savage,

documented

in advancing

from

transformation

Singapore's

Minister
Tan,
'Foreword'
to

and

Savage,

1985;

1992; Teo,
Ooi, 1989; Savage,
Wong
1992; Chua, 1996; Perry, Kong and Yeoh,
1997; Dale, 1999 as examples of more recent
work). Although 'blessed' with an early start
to urban planning not long after its found
ing in 1819, the effects of the Jackson Plan of

by founder Stamford
Raffles) lasted only for the next eight years.
had become
'a
By the 1920s, Singapore
striking example of a planless modern city ...
undirected by any comprehensive
general
plan' (in the words of a Town Planning
Adviser to the Federated Malay States, cited
in Teo, 1992, p. 167). Piecemeal
efforts to
1822

arrest

(as

the

conceived

problems

of

haphazard

growth (mainly in the area of housing)

112

urban

were

symptomatic
laissez-faire

in general.
city

area

of the colonial
to

approach

government's

urban

management

By the end of World War II, the

suffered

the

whole

gamut

of urban

cities:
problems
characterizing
developing
severe residential overcrowding
(with den
sities among the highest in the world) and
disgraceful housing conditions; dilapidated
buildings; expensive and irregular plots of
land;

an

industrial
into

a small

of parking
1997).

intricate

jumble

and residential
area;

traffic

of

commercial,

land uses packed

congestion;

and

lack

facilities (Perry, Kong and Yeoh,

Today, some five decades later, Singapore

still has the one of the highest overall popu
lation densities in the world at 5,771 persons
per km2 (The Straits Times, 16 September,

2000) but according to Minister for National

Mah Bow Tan, 'many visitors
Development,
to Singapore tell us that the impression they
take away of our city is that it is very clean,
green and efficient. The city is well-planned
and

orderly,

with

touch

of

character

and

some
well-designed
buildings'
(speech
made at the launch of the 'A Unique City in
the Making',
www.ura.gov.sg)
(figure 1).
More than that, according
to the Urban
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

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VOL 27 NO 2

PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

1. The

Figure

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

CHALLENGES

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

modern

of Singapore's
tower over the

skyscrapers
downtown
shophouses

characteristic

Singapore's
architecture.

vernacular

of

(Photo: T C Change)

Redevelopment Authority (URA), Singapore's

national planning authority, in their 1999
publication home.zvork.plax/,Singapore today
not

ranks

only

one

as

of the

richest

nations

in the world, but it also:

boasts

the world's

port
that

airport.
is wired
by
national
corporations
as

well

as

sufficient
provide
Efficient
with
dant

located

their

regional,
. . . Self

here
headquarters,
estates
the country
housing
throughout
the
with
comfortable
homes.
people
global

road

little

tainment

have

and

fuss
outlets

facilities

rail

take them to work

systems
fewer
traffic jams.
Enter
abound
. . . and there are abun
and

for

those

want

who

the

life. (Tan, 1999, p. 136)

sporting

While 'a superb geographical

position,
wise and farsighted leaders and a sensible
diligent people' are attributable reasons for
current

Singapore's

status

as

a city-state

that

'not only works but thrives', 'equally crucial

has
been
the comprehensive
planning
process

that

has

gone

on

the

colonial

throughout

the

years' (Tan, 1999, p. 136). Thus, in as much

as it has been claimed that 'the laissez-faire
style

adopted

by

government

facilitated a free trading system' that was

the lifeblood of colonial Singapore
(Perry,
Kong and Yeoh, 1997, p. 57), it has also often
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

land

and

Singapore

one

[sic]
transhipment
It is a throbbing
financial
hub
information
Multi
technology.

that

argued

urban

(often

planning

to planning for national develop

equated
ment ) has been essential to the survival of
modern
its
Singapore
especially
given
limited

number

and

been

with

city-state

natural

resources.

is often described
no

natural

for its strategic

geographical

natural

It has

harbour.

as a small
save

resources,

location

a current

and

population

of

more
than
four
million
slightly
and
is
located
at the
(www.singstat.gov.sg)
southern tip of Peninsular Malaysia between
latitudes 109'N and 129'N and longitudes
10338'E
and
10425'E.
It comprises
a
main
km
in
island
(42
diamond-shaped
length and 23 km in breadth at the widest
and
some
60 smaller
islands.
points)
has gradually
Reclamation
increased
its
total

land

area

to

660

km2

today

(www.singstat.gov.sg)

and is anticipated

continue

area

until

the

land

reaches

730

to

km2,

an increase

of 25 per cent since 1967 (URA,

Land reclamation
is just one
1991, p. 8).
of
and
the
aspect
proactive
long-term
approach that the government of Singapore
has adopted in terms of ensuring efficient
and optimal development,
utilization and
of
land
since
management
attaining self
in
1959.
deliberate
Indeed,
government
'top

VOL 27 NO 2

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113

CITIES: CHALLENGES

PACIFIC-ASIAN

down'

land-use

characterized

all

allocation

as

well

as

urban

recreational,

and design in Singapore.

is

as

This
urban

because

necessary

'the

of
beginning
official
involvement

continuous

redevelopment,

conservation
accepted

marked

aspects

infrastructural,

industry, commercial,

housing,
etc.

has

planning

of urban

AND PROSPECTS

an

era

on

of
com

prehensive scale' in Singapore and 'laid the

basis for comprehensive
urban planning
which [has come] to be regarded by the
as

authorities

even

relevant,

to the

essential,

planning in Singapore today is not simply

about influencing the spatial development
of the city; it is also 'integrated into a wider
national
as it is closely tied to
policy'

of the country (Teo, 1992, pp.

development
163, 169)'; additionally, it has left its legacy
of a statutory basis of regulatory control

'notions

fluenced

of

national

survival

and

achieve

ment' (Teo, 1992, pp. 170-171).

The

next

overview

of the

section

of Singapore's

planned

urban/national

last

decades

four

paper

largely

successful
in

development

of the

an

presents

twentieth

the
It

century.

is followed by a critical discussion of some

urban
key
planning
challenges
facing
Singapore as it moves into the global age of
the twenty-first century: that of managing
continuing growth without compromising
the quality of life and local landscapes
in an
increasingly crowded, affluent and cosmo
politan Singapore of extremely limited land
area,

while

the

meeting

demands

growing

of the citizenry for a more consultative

inclusive style of planning.

and

over

for

Planning

We

want

Singapore

to

Singapore
to be

have

environment,
distinctive
Asian

and

that

future

and

cultural

is

which

to add

pore,
over

with
city
has a wide

wider

comprehensive

for
scope
. . . The key to
and
creative

planning. (URA, 1991, p. 8)

urban
In
to
the
response
appalling
conditions that characterized the central city
in

postwar

ment
more

was

to

comprehensive

environment

adoption
114

Singapore,
forced

and

the

plan
to

colonial
the

accept

to

control

of the first Master

It

zoning.

framework

statutory
use

in

also

of proposed

held

powers
for

(whether

by

zoning,

the

state

compul

or the approval
or
sory land acquisition,
rejection of development proposals on a site
by site basis) and the fact that 80 per cent of
all land in Singapore is state-owned, have
enabled the planning authorities to respond
(or draconianly,
quickly and appropriately

as some would argue) to changing socio

economic
needs (Chua, 1996; Perry, Kong
and Yeoh, 1997) and facilitated the develop
ment of Singapore into a modern metropolis
with aspirations to becoming a world city, if
one

already.

govern
need

for

manage

land

Plan

use.

the
The

in 1958

as

inadequate

a guide

to large-scale

or

long-term public development

(Perry, Kong
and Yeoh, 1997, p. 193), nor was it flexible
the plans for rapid
enough to accommodate
economic

expect
Singaporeans
and
standard
of health

pursuits

the
land

prove

urban

to the existing
commercial

support

a higher
housing,
education
and
facilities

recreational

fine

world-class

qualities
We have
of facilities.
range
infra-structure
to
[sic]
for investors.
opportunities
better

through

general

It was quickly recognized that the Master

Plan (though regularly reviewed)
would

National

in Modern

Development

use
the

land uses in the Master Plan of 1965 and its

versions (with the last being in
subsequent
1998).2 Indeed, in post-independence
Singa

not
Urban

land

and

expansion

the

large-scale

public housing programme that the govern

ment had envisioned
for the 1960s (Tan,
The
1999, p. 145).
blueprint that emerged to
fulfil this need was the Concept Plan of 1971
which 'introduced the idea of simultaneous
island-wide
(with
development
specific
areas

marked

out

for

residential,

industrial

and

other uses)' including the redevelop

ment of the city centre (Teo, 1992, p. 173).
The Concept Plan of 1971 (often referred to
as the Ring Plan) essentially envisaged
the
of a ring of new towns (high
development
density

public

housing

estates

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

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to accom

VOL 27 NO 2

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

the

modate
and

core

masses

redevelopment
tral

water

network

resettled

elsewhere

as

progressed)

catchment

from

urban

around
and

area

the

renewal

city
and

the cen

linked

by

of expressways.

urban develop
Since 1991, Singapore's
ment has been guided
by the Revised
Concept Plan (figure 2). While it builds on
what has been achieved
through the first
Concept Plan, it also provided a point of re
orientation for urban planning in Singapore.
planner put it, while the 1971
and
on
industrialization
pivoted

As one URA

plan
economic

from

the

growth,

touching

everyone,

business

to

1991

on

all

leisure'

was

plan

aspects
with

'for

of life

economic

behind
growth being only the 'powerhouse'
the plan (Keung,
1991). Significantly, the
new plans were called Living the Next Lap
(URA, 1991) and until Concept Plan 2001 is
made public, the Revised Concept Plan will

continue to be the basis on which Singapore

makes the 'quantum leap' (in the words of
S.
then Minister for National Development,
in the 'Foreword'
of URA,
Dhanabalan,
of its urban
1991, p. 3) in the quality
environment and life.
As conceived in the Revised Concept Plan
of 1991, the challenge for urban planning in

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

CHALLENGES

and beyond was and will be a

qualitative one 'as Singapore [strives] to be
the first developed
city on the equatorial
belt, with its own identity distinct from the
great cities of the west' (Tan, 1999, p. 148).
More specifically, the goal is for Singapore
the 1990s

to

become

'tropical

city

of housing,
had

been

2.

The

Plan
Concept
1991. (Source:

and

and

transportation
could

ture

and

commerce;
and

character
bodies

and

grace,
urban

of

city

with

nature,

beauty,
water
weaved

development

1991, p. 6). The Plan

(URA,
together'
outlines the blueprints for achieving this by
Year X in the twenty-first century, generally
thought to be 2030 or 2040, through the
progressive

development

of

new

down

commer
town, a hierarchy of decentralized
a
cial hubs,
corridors,
high-technology
world-class transport system, higher quality
and a wider variety of housing and a host of

Legend
Centre
Regional
Sub-Regional
Centre

of Singapore,
URA,
1991)

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

turn

their attention to policies that would en

con
hance the quality of life, including
siderations of giving the city more character
inter alia, urban
and
identity through,
conservation. This implies 'a city within an
island which balances work and play, cul

Central
Area

Revised

an

excellence',

planners

employment
solved,

()
Figure

of

extension of a vision first conceived in the

early 1980s when the major basic problems

VOL 27 NO 2

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Housing
Q Infrastructure
I
Space/
J
'
' Open
Recreation

HI
C3

Agriculture
Use
Special

115

PACIFIC-ASIAN

leisure

cultural,
well

as

and

recreational

continued

as

facilities,

on

focus

CITIES: CHALLENGES

conservation

to
heightened
prominence
given
emphasizing Singapore's 'islandness'. Micro
planning is accomplished
through 55 de
which are
velopment
guide plans (DGPs)
detailed local plans that translate the broad
vision of the Concept Plan into reality by
on land zoning,
laying down guidelines
and
of
density
height
developments.
success

current

urban

in efficiently accommodating

landscape

land

various

of Singapore's

use

needs

bears

its
to

testimony

Plan

because

of

the

latter's

long

term perspective. According to the URA, the

high degree of success that Singapore has
had not only in solving urban problems but
in pre-empting them can be attributed to five
principles that have driven urban planning
in Singapore since the 1960s: the adoption of
long-term

planning

exemplified

in

and
a

terms
that

'pro-business

'when

development,
adopt

(what

redevelopment

the

approach');

it

comes

all

government

agencies

vision

overrides

shared

to

that

system,

with

all

fact

must
the

development

plans and guidelines made easily available

and with the public encouraged
to provide
feedback
on the planning
and
system;
finally, by being
changing

economic

flexible and responsive

and

social

to

circumstances

(Tan, 1999, pp. 29-35). Indeed, of the factors

cited in the list above, the third must be
highlighted as crucial to the success of urban
planning in Singapore.
The

central

for
planning
authority
is
the
Singapore's
physical
development
(MND)
Ministry of National Development
which
oversees
urban
housing,
public
and
works
development,
parks and
public
116

various

and

co-ordinates

development

and
of

proposals

in

authorities

development

Singapore (including, inter alia, the URA, the

and Development
Board (HDB),
Housing
the Public Works Department
(PWD), and
the National Parks Board (NPARKS))
(Dale,
1999) 'to ensure that the proposals are in line
with national
on urban growth,
policies
and

transportation
and

that

invest

infrastructure

with

conform

they

the

provisions of the master plan and the long

term objectives of the island-wide
Concept
Plan' (Castells, Goh and Kwok, 1990, cited in
Chua, 1996, p. 214). This high degree of the
centralization
of planning
authority has
to
Chua
resulted, according
(1996, p. 215) in
'a planning system with almost no public
participation, in which a small elite group
works in blissful insulation'.
The

fact

that

the

centralized

nature

of

in Singapore
has been able to
the optimal
use of Singapore's

planning
facilitate

development conflicts 'in the overall interest

of the state for the common good' (Revised
Master Plan, Report of Survey, 1985, cited
in Perry, Kong and Yeoh, 1997, p. 191),
has provided
the basis of the People's
Action Party's (PAP) legitimacy to govern
Singapore relatively uncontested since 1959.

interests of individual
(emphasis
agencies'
an
and
added);
open
increasingly
transparent

the

scarce

and

planning

all

(as

URA

the

facilities
on

the

Plans);
Concept
of the private sector in urban

incorporation
renewal

perspectives

the

the

ments

the efficacy of the 1971 Concept Plan (see, for

example, Teo, 1992; Chua, 1996; Tan, 1999)
and, to a more limited extent, the Revised
Concept

recreational
advises

and

The

AND PROSPECTS

resources

The

and

record
long-term
able
to
'deliver
being

the

that
the

the

goods'

resolution

PAP

of

holds

has

of

resulted

in little popular resistance to a centralized

bureaucratic structure (Chua, 1996) by con
that proper planning
vincing Singaporeans
and

control

by

a government

that

works

'for

the common good' holds the key to sus

tainable urbanization and national develop
ment. Clearly, urban planning in Singapore

is at the crux of national development and is

'a technocratic
exercise'
(Teo,
essentially
aimed
at
the
1992, p. 177)
preserving
of
the
state
and
a
critical
hence,
viability
aspect of the government's
political mani
festo. Urban planning in post-independent
Singapore has thus always been essentially
planning for national development.
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V0L27N02

PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

After

40

of 'deliberate

years

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

urbanization'

(to borrow McGee's

(1972) term), Singa
urban planning
record is widely
pore's
regarded as exemplary (even if not perfect).
as

However,

it stands

'in

the

in

ments

themselves

not

planning
framework

(and
set

(URA, 1991, p.
- its achieve

the

need

for

urban

also

continue

to

national goals,

development

to

present
and

pressures

drive

a new
issues,

and demand new and perhaps, visionary,

urban planning solutions.
The question is
whether URA's
set of five principles
that
a
of
centralized
planning
particularly
- that has
system
proved generally success
ful

so

can

far,

to

continue
or

unproblematically

be

achieve

applied

as

results

as

as in the past. First, while

spectacularly
into
have
been
Singaporeans
'spoilt'
the
state
to
deliver
the
expecting
goods that
will support the affluent life-style to which
have

they
also

become

become

accustomed,

more

demanding

in urban/national

voice

while

Second,

urban

have

they

of wanting
issues.

development
development

Singapore have continued to be relentlessly

forward-looking,
increasingly sophisticated
and

of the

accommodating

of a progressively

demands
tion,

the

limited
And,
portive
improve

fundamental

land-use

diverse
affluent

constraint

posed

by

of

need

the

and

further
a

former

phrase

from

urban

redevelopment,

to

'retrofit,

enhance'

replace,
borrow

(to

Minister

of

National

Lim Hng Kiang, cited in Tan,

Development,
1999, p. 26) Singapore's built environment to
of a global
keep up with the demands
are
increasingly wary that
economy, they
even

in

conserved

areas, is resulting in post-modern globalized

of faux
(Project
nostalgia'
'landscapes
20
October, 2000) that fail to retain
Eyeball,
Singapore's distinct identity and character. I
argue

will

that

these

present

three

major

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

contradictory

challenges

trends

to

urban

in

planning

the

first

the

part

Century

Twenty-first

Land for 5.5 million

in planning
the growth
and
has been its scarcity
of
of Singapore
647 sq km, Singapore
is tiny. But
into this space
must be packed
all the elements
of
a modern
and
Bow
safe
Tan,
(Mah
country.
for
National
in
the
Minister
Development,
main

concern

development
At just
land.

'Foreword'

From

to Tan,

1999,

10-11)

pp.

of national
of view
point
limited
land area
development,
Singapore's
has

the

URA

presented

with

the

constant

of finding 'innovative
challenge
ways to
increase Singapore's
of
supply
developable
land' (Skyline, March/April,
1996, p.4). The
demand

comes

from

sources:

multiple

more

for commercial
and in
land is needed
dustrial development, housing, roads, leisure
land
facilities, port and
airport, while
already

allocated
must

for military
be

uses

and
at

maintained

water

status

quo

if not increased
also. While developable
land has been increased primarily through
reclamation

and

the
(such

development

restrictions,

area remains a critical issue.

are sup
third, while Singaporeans
land

for

Challenges

to

popula

and

development

catchment

for

plans

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

of the next millennium.

The

to set the underlying

only

but

realize)
of

and

of one

twilight

era and the dawn of another'

- an
4)
age of globalization

CHALLENGES

and

having

of

removal
as

constraints

removing

more

intensive

height
and

integrated uses), there are limits to both; for

sited near Singapore's
example, buildings
five military and civil airports can go only as
high as 12 storeys because of the air traffic
flight paths, while reclamation presents not
just physical, but cost and political con
siderations as well.
One of the most pressing challenges
indeed, what has been called 'Singapore's
greatest challenge' (The Straits Times, 1 July,
- is the
2000)
anticipated shortfall of 4,000
hectares (ha) of land to accommodate
the
needs of the 5.5 million - from the current
four million - that the state has argued is the
critical mass Singapore must have by 2040 to
sustain

its economic
growth (The
14
Times,
March, 2000; 5 September,

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Straits
2000).

117

PACIFIC-ASIAN

CITIES: CHALLENGES

has calculated
that an additional
16,000 ha of land (8,000 ha for housing; 6,000
ha for industries; and 2,000 ha for parks
URA

and

will

open

be

for

spaces)

necessary

standard

of

future

development

to maintain
as

development

'the
at

same

present'

(www.ura.gov.sg).
Significantly, the current
population density of 5,771 persons per km2
is already
than the 5,400 km2
higher
X
in
the Revised Concept
projected for Year
Plan (Tan, 1999, p. 22). Finding land for 5.5
million is thus an important issue not only
because of the obvious problems of finding
enough land to allocate among the different
activities without a decline in the quality of
life but also, as later discussed, because of its
broader
for social cohesion.
implications
This is best exemplified by examining the
debates surrounding
housing (which is a
basic necessity) on the one hand, and leisure
and recreation (arguably less crucial) on the

AND PROSPECTS

HDB

introduced

executive

condominiums

touted as having facilities equal to private

condominiums
but at public housing prices.
a Town Councils Act was
Organizationally,
passed

in

except

for

ment

announced

1988

to

allow

residents

some

in the day-to-day
degree of participation
Rules
running of their estates (Ooi, 1990).
in
on flat alterations
have
becoming
creasingly liberal, with the latest innovation
being the offering of 36 'white' flats which,
the

toilets

and

the

have

kitchen,

no walls partitioning off rooms to allow

residents flexibility in configuring the layout
of their homes
to individual
according
needs (The Straits Times, 4 November, 2000).
Since the Minister for National Develop
population
HDB

the

has

revised

upwardly

in March

estimates

that

announced

the

2000,

the

first

four

In terms of housing, 86 per cent of the

population
today lives in impressive (both
and
owner
otherwise),
visually
mainly

blocks of 40-storey public flats will be ready

in
2004
is
the
(currently,
30-storeys
Business
2
Times, September,
maximum) (The
2000). Not surprisingly, the prime concern
voiced among Singaporeans
has been the
fear
that
will
increased
ratios
plot
characterize
HDB dwelling in the coming

occupied1

years

other
most

the

two

concern

gov.sg)
quality
novative
agement

issues

among

public

that
the

have

general

housing

raised

the

population.

(www.singstat.

that has progressively improved in

over the decades
under an in
and

award-winning
and

programme4

housing
has

so

man

far managed

to keep pace with the growing affluence and

For ex
of Singaporeans.5
sophistication
of
the
older
ample, large-scale
upgrading

estates

constructed in the 1970s and early

1980s - through retrofitting blocks of flats
and individual
units with features such as
and extended living
lifts, open balconies,
and
spaces,
providing new modern office
and

retail

complexes,

bus

interchanges,

and

mass and light rail transit systems at the

estate level - to bring them on par with the
newer ones has taken place since 1991, a
move anticipated
ultimately to benefit 95
cent
of
HDB
residents
(The Straits Times,
per
12 July, 1989).6 Additionally,
since 1995, to
the
of
satisfy
aspirations
upwardly mobile
Singaporeans
118

for condominium

living,7 the

and

result

in

much

of

the

population

in
chickens
ending
up 'cooped
up
flats'
31
skyscraper
(Project Eyeball,
August,
2000) thereby bringing about a decline in the
quality of life for the majority. Taking the
option of infilling existing sites rather than
would
not be able to
building
upwards
the
'chicken
prevent
coop phenomenon'
like

as

because,

one

letter

most

Singapore's

to

one

forum

circulated

widely

lamented,

newspaper

the

now

has

of

page

daily
to

only

'drive to the north of the island and it is no

longer possible to tell where one new town
and

ends

another

undifferentiated'

starts

. . . the

is

landscape

(The Straits Times, 8 July,

2000).
a possible
de
Trepidation
surrounding
cline in the quality of life is not unwarranted
because

despite

early

assurances

ficient land has already

for

housing

modate

5.5

in

the

million

been

long

(The

that

suf

'safeguarded'

term

to

accom

Straits Times, 14

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VOL 27 NO 2

PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

March,

later

brace

[to]

the

2000),

Development

Minister

the

themselves

green

for National

cautioned
for

ensure that they could

smaller

homes'

other

to

recreational

facilities that will keep life here pleasant and

(The Straits Times, 22 Septem
meaningful'
While
sizes
ber, 2000).
shrinking household
Straits
22
a
and
Times,
(The
September, 2000)
(Tan, 2000, p. 134) may
greying population
provide some justification for smaller HDB
and down-grading
flats, down-sizing
go
what

against

characterized

as

Singaporeans'

to upgrade.

pirations
from

market

property

estates

public

and

apartments

then

as

'strong

want

They
to

have

analysts

executive

to move
to

condos,

to landed

. . .

housing

[in 1999, despite the economic crisis], lots of

people actually jumped straight from public
housing to landed because prices were right'
(The Straits Times, 2 September,
2000).
Ultimately, while the state's plan to increase
the proportion of private housing to 25 per
cent (The Straits Times, 14 March, 2000) may
it is
help dampen some of the unhappiness,
that
will
anticipated
private
housing
move
in a similar
direction
generally
towards downsizing
or increased intensity
in development,
while continuing to be the
of

privilege

and

expatriates

of

minority

terms

currently
park

of

has

space

leisure

about
to

service
which

Singaporeans

space,
ha

2,500
the

translates

needs
to

of
park

provision ratio of almost 0.7 ha per 1000

another
2,300 ha of ubiquitous
people;
amenity green space (i.e. greenery along
shade as well as
that provide
roadways
acting as park connectors
open

spaces

to housing

is also

linking parks and

estates

and

transport

maintained

(Tan, 2000, pp.

its
208-209). Befitting
image as a tropical
Garden City (a concept officially launched
in 1968), the island is also dotted with all

nodes)

forms
parks,

of

open

riverine

adventure

parks:
parks,

parks.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

coastal
reservoir

Residents

parks,

enjoy

bourhood

access

easy

to

a hierarchy

parks of 5 to 10 ha, neigh

of

parks

1 to

1.5

and

ha,

precinct

with a range
gardens of 0.2 ha) equipped
of recreational
facilities including jogging
children's
fitness
tracks,
playgrounds,
and

corners,

landscaped

with

gardens

seats

and shelters (Perry, Kong and Yeoh, 1997, p.

215).
The

concern

for

(i.e. public

in

favour

of

country

more

that

open

(i.e.

be

public

spaces)
viable

economically

golf-courses,

tourist

charging

the

will

of the

and

space

fee

clubs,

is

ha

expense

parks

leisure

privatized

future

of 4,000

at the

'accommodated'

space

the

shortfall

anticipated

attractions,

and
private condominium
Straits
Times, 13
(The
housing developments)
Chief
As
even
October, 2000).
Singapore's
of
Executive
Officer and Commissioner
has admitted:
'As
Parks and Recreation
individual space shrinks, public space must
be allotted to allow breathing room for a
or land

within

denied

population
private

gardens.

the opportunity

But

recreational

to own
has

space

accorded
lower priority
traditionally
than revenue generating ones' (Tan, 2000, p.
211). The URA has repeatedly argued for the
need to exploit 'new
and in
[building
formation]

been

and

technology

dose

good

nature

parks

and

of each

HDB

to accommodate

solutions

demands

developed

leisure

also

find

Singapore
of

estate

of

creativity' (The Straits Times, 12 July, 2000) to

Singaporeans.
In

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

CHALLENGES

of parks (town

'Singaporeans

still be able to 'have

and

spaces

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

while

for

cinemas,

theatres

can

the

recreational

space.

shopping

be

moved

increased
However,

centres

and
(or

underground

via virtual space),

enjoyed
technological
solutions are more limited in application
where
are concerned,
es
public
parks
in
terms
of
pecially
conserving Singapore's
natural

heritage not just in terms of green

but
also in preserving flora and fauna
spaces
intrinsic to the island (The Straits Times, 7
January, 2001; 11 & 14 March, 2001).
While technological and creative answers
may ultimately
allocation
into

careful

be found to solve

dilemma,

the

consideration

surfaced repeatedly

planners
one

the land

must
issue

that

take
has

in the public discussion

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119

CITIES: CHALLENGES

PACIFIC-ASIAN

on the subject,

im

viz, that any solutions

should

plemented

not

on

impact

the

quality

of life for the majority of Singaporeans.

While this sounds reasonable
and in keep
ing with the urban planning dictum of 'the
common

up

the

good',

a disturbing

that

may

affect

the

argument

has

discussion

indifference
better-off

of

'the

thrown

to any

common

'loss'

In

residents.

fact,
has

good'

been employed to suggest that this small but

elite group of locals and expatriates should
be willing to make the necessary sacrifice for
the majority. For example, it has been sug
gested that a good way to make up the
shortfall would be for some landed property
40 per
recently estimated as occupying
cent of total residential land in Singapore
but housing
only 6.1 per cent of total
households
1999, p. 94) - to
(Addae-Dapaah,
flats
make way for bigger double-storey
with luxurious penthouses in medium- and
1999;
high- rise housing
(Addae-Dapaah,
Project Eyeball, 31 August, 2000). Similarly,
it has also been argued that golf clubs and
clubs

country

built

near reservoirs
the

present

open
rather

parks
than

should

areas

or

which

the

even

can

masses
to

catering

into

converted

the

planners

belong

to

privileged

this

heartlanders
cease to identify with each
other, our society will fall apart' (The Straits
the
Times, 1 August, 2000). Aggravating
potential of a social divide is an emerging
sense of xenophobia reflected in the public's
concern that, with Singapore's
population
growth rate having fallen below replace
ment

and

levels

to

expected

that

stay

way,

much of the population

increase will come
mainly from 'foreign talent' that the state
argues

is

cations

for urban

to maintain

necessary

Singapore's

competitive edge in a global economy. An

influx of foreigners has important impli
not

of

their

the city, but because

have

been

into

investment

and

the needs

of global

areas

as

tourists,

now

the

in

land

globalized
leisure

to

well

talent

vernacular

are

presence

and

commerce

Previously

development

many areas of the city

transformed

of

scapes

and
sheer

planning

because

only

as

attract
for

cater

in Singapore.
these

landscapes,
of

playgrounds

only

small segment of the city's local and 'global'

-

residents

those

these

seen

as

enjoying

Is
the
lifestyle.
average
heartlander being alienated by

cosmopolitan
Singaporean
landscapes?

enjoy,

minority; there is even an implication

because

at

either be capped

number,

just

catchment

around

AND PROSPECTS

that

group,

for the elite few - are growing

'playgrounds
ever bigger [since] the people who plan the
'optimal population density' will find quiet,
corners for them
cozy [sic] and spacious

A City of Distinction and Identity

A world-class

a well
city must go beyond
being
works
in the tropics.
The measure
than the physical
city lies deeper
of a beautiful,
efficient
city. It touches

built

city that
of a world-class
attributes
on

the

should

soul-life

of

the city. A world-class

contribute
to the well-being

therefore

city
of

selves, while the rest have to manage in the

ever increasing crowds' (Project Eyeball, 31
August, 2000; The Straits Times, 16 Sept
ember, 2000 and 24 November, 2000).

its residents.

Hence, the challenge for urban planning

here is not simply physical but political that of managing
the aspirations
of what
Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong has called

Arising from the above discussion, a second

challenge
brought about by the need to

the

ensure

'HDB

heartlanders'

versus

those

of

the

cosmopolitan
Singaporeans8 without alienat
social
ing either group, thereby causing
disunity along class lines. In the words of
the Prime Minister: 'If cosmopolitans
and
120

It should

its
belonging
among
Lim, then URA
Chairman,

amount

Skyline,

that

space

is

Singapore's

the

question
urban

Cheng

March/April,

demands

multiple
of

of pride

(Khoo

people.

1996, p .4)

accommodate

a sense

promote

of

on

a finite

of

how

landscape,

to
in

its drive to become a global city, is able to

retain a unique sense of local flavour with
which
can identify. Many
Singaporeans
contemporary

cities

have

at

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least

three

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PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

-

images

'entrepreneurial

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

at

aimed

images'

'residential
attracting investments;
images'
aimed at retaining residents and promoting
a

sense

of

directed
Voogd,
the

civic

and

pride;

'tourist

images'

at foreign visitors (Ashworth and

1990). Singapore is no different, and

urban

has

landscape

played

a vital

role

in promoting each of these images over the

last four decades.
Beginning in the 1960s when the urban
was

landscape

modernist

redrawn

'dramatically

along

CHALLENGES

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

and Heng, 1995; Teo and Huang, 1995; Yeoh

and Kong, 1994), conservation
of urban
has been practised since
heritage landscapes
the mid-1980s 'to retain Singapore's
distinct
identity and character' (Perry, Kong and
Yeoh, 1997, p. 254) in the built environment
as

a means

of providing

records

residents9

with

visual

of Singapore's
unique past (figure
3). By the late 1980s, heritage conservation
of the built environment had also become
connected

'intimately

with

redevelopment

discipline
Singapore

lines informed
by efficiency,
and rationality of land use' so that
could take 'pride of place
in

strategies' (Perry, Kong and Yeoh, 1997, p.

to rejuvenate
257) designed
Singapore's
tourist industry
to tourist
by catering

becoming

an

demands

modern

integrated

city

centre'

(Yeoh and Kong, 1994, p. 20) to the planning

for a New Downtown
in the 1991 Revised
Concept Plan 'to help shape a stimulating
environment

for

international

business

activities' (URA, 1991, p. 20), urban renewal

and redevelopment
of the city through the
different decades has continually supported
of be
Singapore's
entrepreneurial goals
an
international
financial
hub
(1960s
coming
onwards), a centre for regional operational
of

headquarters

multinational

corporations

and most recently, a

(late 1980s onwards),
in the tropics (1990s
of
excellence
global city
while
the
onwards). And,
degree of success
of the efforts has been questioned
(see, for
example,

Figure

and

Kong

3.

conserving
sites such

Yeoh,

1994;

Huang,

Teo

urban

vision

for

The

uniqueness.
to

landscape

need

support

for

the

Singapore's

of embodying
the essence of 'New
and becoming
a Tourism
Asia-Singapore'
of the world in the twenty-first
Capital
century

for

both

business

and

recreational

tourists (as explicated in Tourism 21, STB's

of tourism in
blueprint for the development
for
the
Singapore
twenty-first century) is not
confined

solely

to

conservation

but also includes a wide

sites such as Singapore's
district;
offshore

trails
islands;

in

landscapes

of other
premier retail

variety

the

nature

and

even

reserve;
HDB

the
estates

has also
(STB, 1996, pp. 30-31). Singapore
declared its aim of becoming a 'Renaissance
City of Asia' excelling as a centre for culture

The

in
challenge
urban heritage
as Boat Quay

River,
along the Singapore
is to ensure
that they remain
landscapes
locals
can
(Photo:

with

which

identify.

Impact

Postcards)

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121

PACIFIC-ASIAN

CITIES: CHALLENGES

and the arts in the region (The Straits Times,

25 April, 1997), supported by the adaptive
reuse of several
historical
as
buildings
and

museums

the

development

of

Theatres

'Esplanade

for cultural

Bay'

construction

mega
the

by

the

that

recognition

demands

business

in

the

of being

and

the

tourism,

rush

city for

global
urban

to meet

landscape

is being transformed to one with which few

local Singaporeans
can identify. I would
that
this
dualistic
thrust
has
argue
contributed

to

URA

STB

and

an

in

inconsistency
have

the

sometimes

way

carried

to be a
through their plans for Singapore
or as
(URA)
'tropical city of excellence'
'New Asia-Singapore'
(STB), resulting in a
sense of identity at times
schizophrenic
and

Singaporean,
In

European.

the

an

directed

recently

at

other

words

times

more

of a journalist

who

plea

impassioned

to the

URA not to 'turn Singapore into Little Italy'

(The Straits Times, 2 September, 2000) and
worth quoting at length for the vivid images
it evokes:
. . . Singapore,
should
look
like
of
Singapore
- and not
a uniquely
course,
tropical
Singapore
some
imitation
of a pseudo-temperate
poor
enclave.
After all, we have
our own
European
and heritage
with roots in the four great
history
ethnic

our
cultures,
our
natural

In reacting to the launch of the URA

exhibition on A Unique City in the Making
some

showcasing

character

inimitable

and

to the

plans

to

ment

from

URA's

ideas10

that

landscapes

city's

cautioned

of

on

how

a
re-invent
itself into
with
'distinctive
and
city'

can

Singapore
'landmark
memorable'

performances.

While all the strategic thrusts raise the

need for local identity to be retained, there is
general

AND PROSPECTS

will

the URA

against
into

degenerate

contribute

local

flavour',

'unique

architects

the

allowing
'a

theme

park

approach . . . something that tourists would

like to see or which can appear on Singapore
(The Straits Times, 22 September,
postcards'
2000). In this respect, the following state
a member

summarizes

the

of the

greatest

public

succinctly
to

challenge

the

authorities
in planning
for Singapore
to
have a unique identity: 'Let's be New Asia
and

New

but

Economy,

retain

an

Old

Heart'

(Project Eyeball, 20 October, 2000).

Incorporating the Public in Planning
to the S21 [Singapore
21 (Government
According
of Singapore,
1999)]
survey,
many of you want
be actively
involved
and
to have
your
say

to
in

national

and
issues.
This
is
not
policies
as
are
better
surprising,
Singaporeans
today
better
informed
and
more
travelled.
educated,
This
is also
an encouraging
because
for
sign
to be proud
to call Singapore
home,
Singaporeans

a sense
of ownership,
of having
you must have
made
a contribution.
Bow
of
Tan, Minister
(Mah
National
at the
launch
of the
Development,
Public
2001,

Consultation
26 August,

Phase
2000;

of

the

Concept

Plan

www.ura.gov.sg)

and
of
charms,
beauty
array
colours
... So why, oh, why are some
indigenous
and developers
of our urban
architects
planners,
to transform
into
conspiring
Sunny
Singapore
. . . We have
been
thrust
Spaghetti
Singapore?

It is generally taken for a fact that policy

decision making in Singapore is essentially a
closed
restricted largely to state
process

with

ever,

a Renaissance
being
City
of Italy in
shades
of the artistic grandeur
evoking
the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries.
The Singapore
River Promenade
as the Venice
of
is being
touted
the

the

East

vision

with

of

appearance
during
about
a
lending
waterfront
housing
low-rise
canals,
can say Mamma
unwrapped
Lazarus
and
of Capri,
122

in

actually

gondolas

promotions.
Venetian

houses
Mia,
May

projects
and

Developers
flavour
to
with
all.

And

a $280-million
to

making

transform

an

gush
their

meandering
before
you
was
project
St John's,

islands
into an Asian
version
Renget
a resort off the west coast of Italy.

actors (Ooi et al., 1999). More recently, how

as

the

quote

above

there

suggests,

have been signs that this may be changing.

As should have become apparent from the
preceding discussion in this paper, there has
been,

on

the

one

hand,

vocal

increasing

criticism of government

policy via letters to

the

internet

and

local

press"

and

in

chatrooms,

the emergence of single-issue

interest
focused
on
various
issues,
groups
including
urban

conservation

and

heritage

issues.

the other hand, the state is seemingly

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

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On

taking

VOL 27 NO 2

PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

role

proactive

couraging

in

public
in

the

as

from

all

en

in shaping
more

exemplified

consultation

Singaporeans

and

engendering

participation

future,

Singapore's
generally

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

of

'some

walks

of

6,000
life'

of Singapore, 1999) in drawing

up Singapore 21, the national blueprint for
the twenty-first century which 'seeks to
articulate a vision that Singaporeans
can
(Government

reach

out

for

and

. . . for

together

the

year

2000

of Singapore,
(Government
beyond'
the
1999, p. 8). Additionally,
government
launched
a much anticipated
'Speaker's
Corner',

located
may

air

m2

6,000

in Hong
their

free

speech

venue

Lim Park where the public

views

on

issues

of concern

and

in

discussions
with others (The
engage
Straits Times, 11 & 31 August, 2000).12
From the perspective of urban planning,
the

URA

formed

two

focus

groups

com

prising members of the public for its 2001

Concept Plan review (The Straits Times, 27
August, 2000) and held a public forum in
December
a public ex
2000; additionally,
hibition of the draft Concept Plan - incor
- is
porating some degree of public feedback
also envisioned
for early 2001 (The Straits
to
Times, 1 September,
2000). According
URA's
chief executive
officer and chief
planner, 'public feedback would help [URA]
find
so

out
that

what
the

Singaporeans

planners

could

treasure

most,

apportion

land

The URA
is also actively
accordingly'.
feedback
soliciting public
(through multiple
channels
e-mail, ordinary mail
including
and faxes) on its latest proposal
to make
urban
a
more
dis
Singapore's
landscape
tinctive one through its Unique City in the
Making exhibition. Whether these are just
simply exercises to be dismissed if found too
- as in
clumsy
past attempts to incorporate
input from private initiatives and the public
- or whether
(see Chua, 1996)
they translate
into a sincere effort to incorporate the public
in planning decisions
is a key issue that
and presents
requires closer investigation,
the third challenge
in
to urban planning
twenty-first century Singapore.
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

CHALLENGES

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Looking more closely at the composition

of the focus group members (information
on the URA website), it is
freely available
obvious

that

professionals,
of the

the

members

leaders,
are

drawn

In addition,

male

from

are

developers,

academics.

members

and

speaking

of

and

businessmen
most

most
grassroots

and

'a

English

narrow

social

and

economic
(The Business
background'
Times, 29 August, 2000). Besides being less
than representative of the general Singapore

it must be asked how different

populace,
this is from the past process of holding
and exhibitions at which
public dialogues
informed
members
of the public
mainly
were

invited

velopment

to

comment

plans.13

this, the Head

partment

on

When

urban

questioned

of URA's

Urban

de

Design

communication,

(personal

de
about

September

2000) countered that first, the URA did not

really have control of the composition of the
it had approached
groups because
major
organizations
volunteer

come

grassroots
for

purpose

of the

with

up

informed

third,

creative

members

even

members

was

if

statutory
to

organizations)

members
the

second,

bodies,

(government
and

boards,

the

focus

focus

solutions

of

the

society

groups;
and

were

hence
needed;

of

composition

skewed

is to

groups

towards

the

the

more

elite members of society, there is still the

odd
taxi-driver
in
the group
(closer
investigation

leader);
have

reveals

him

to be

and finally, members

a variety

of other

sources

a grassroots

of the public
by

which

to

provide feedback to the URA.

Also, as one journalist has noted: 'Going
by the previous standard where decisions of
are handed
to the
physical
planning
as
the
consultative
population
fait accompli,

style proposed
by the Urban Redevelop
ment Authority [for the Concept Plan] ... is
a big step forward . . . But it is way too
limited' because
the basic parameters
for
discussion
of the issue
as
the
(such
population target of 5.5 million and the land
shortfall of 4000 ha) have been set by the
(The Business Times, 29 August,
planners

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123

PACIFIC-ASIAN

So

2000).
and

declaring

that it is

department,

long-term

planning'

Lim,

far, beyond

'an

simply

estimate

neither

for

number'

'magic

nor

target

population (The Straits Times, 22 September,

2000), the authorities have not explained
their basis for assuming that 5.5 million is
the

necessary

to

figure

ensure

vibrant,

that can maintain its

dynamic Singapore
competitive edge in a global economy; nor
has it specifically explained how it arrived
at a shortfall of 4,000 ha.
How has the public responded
to the
URA's efforts to solicit input? According to
a project

architect

tion

communication,

(personal

an

receives

currently

the organiza

at the URA,

2000)

September

average

items of feedback on the Concept

and
this is considered
week,
over

improvement
URA's

'efforts

to

the

She

past.

increase

of

20

Plan each
a great
that

feels
awareness

public

Plan.
of

level

she

However,

and

could

response

admits

that

the
be

should

higher and more effort needs to be put into

convincing the public that they will not be
on

'placed
provide

some

feedback.

negative

Unique City exhibition

than

lower

list'

black

anticipated.

should

Feedback

Given

the

they
the

for

has also been

much

occasions

(e.g. Eu Court, Chijmes, and more recently,

the National Library) in the last two decades
or

so

when

passioned,
have been

even

well-ventilated,

im

of the public appear to

ignored, the public also needs
that the state will listen to

voices

convincing
feedback - although URA readily admits
that 'we disregard the emotional feedback,
viable . . . Such
as it is not economically
feedback
does
not suit the long-term
of Singapore
and is therefore
planning
and
at
the
end
of the day, URA
disregarded'
still

needs

to

make

the

call
judgement
Head of URA's

communication,
(personal
Control,
Development
Policy
124

and

Information

Use

of
and

State

the

. . . after a matter

has

for
has

Arts,
been

As

David

Defence

and

2000).

September

Minister

noted:

it is the
fully debated,
a decision,
to make
. . reflects a
dissent.

Government's

responsibility
on . . . (M)anaging
that is alive to the ideals

and

move

and
of the vision
society
to find responses
to challenges
working
together
that are workable
and supported
and constraints
of Singaporeans.
(The Straits Times,
by a majority
31 August,

2000)

The planning
authorities have demon
strated that they are willing actively to solicit
in the
and participation
public feedback
time
tell
far
can
how
planning process. Only
will
move
from
their
they
ultimately
away
previously
to

allow

basic

use

to

the

speak

up.
the

current

about
to

development
URA
of

be

not

but also

made

the public

It must

stance

opinion,

for

challenge

feedback,

While

and

However,

meet

public

public

assumptions

allocation

questioned.
to

centralized

top-down

only to incorporate
land

and participation have paid off'. This would

400
so, given that approximately
appear
members of the public attended the public
forum held in December 2000 to discuss the
the
focus
groups'
proposals
regarding
Concept

AND PROSPECTS

CITIES: CHALLENGES

be

successfully
incorporating

must be willing

a two-way

review

of

the

process.
Concept

Plan is a test case of the degree to which the

will give public
URA
feedback
serious
noted
consideration
one
(as
by
journalist,
'many wait with bated breath for the final
draft
to see

of the
the

Plan,

Concept
impact

of the

due

late

consultation

in its formulation'

next

year,

process

(The Straits Times, 27

December,
2000)), the planning authorities
must accept that, in future, 'the civil-society
front will be active' (The Straits Times, 29
December,
2000) with more Singaporeans
a voice and a role in the urban
demanding
planning

process.

Conclusion
While

there

cities

in the

of well-planned
many
examples
there is no well
temperate
regions,
in the
that
developed
city
tropics
Singapore
could
and so we had to come
emulate,
up with
novel
solutions
to Singapore's
hot and
peculiar
sometimes
of

National

are

wet

climate.

Development

(S.

Dhanabalan,
(1987-1992),

Minister
cited

in

Tan, 1999, p. 151)

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VOL 27 NO 2

PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

It

is

true

proactive
vision

and

worked

that

backed
of

of the

by

innovation
for

successfully

urban

In anticipation

Singapore.

twenty-first

macro-level

holistic

centralized,

approach
a spirit

in

planning

there

exists

at the

'21'

of

gamut

the Concept

and

long-range
has
so far

of the challenges

century,
whole

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

plans

Plan and outlining

supporting
the broad
for key
long-term
strategies
sectors of the economy. Beyond Singapore 21
(the national level blueprint), there are, inter
alia, Tourism 21, Manpower 21, and Con
struction 21; there is also IT2000 (defining
future as an Intelligent Island;
Singapore's
see Mahizhnan,
1999) and a White Paper on
a

developing

world-class

land

transport

system in Singapore (The Business Times, 29

June, 2000). At the micro-level, there are
many

as

examples

recent

well.

One

opening

is

example

of a system

the

of underground

linked malls in
Southeast Asia's
air-conditioned
about 5,570 m2

15

cent

per

of

floor

gross

'white' uses as independent

venture

and

fitness

such

banks, offices of

patent

and

lawyers,

recreational

in

centres

of the rapid shift of the service

anticipation
and

and

capitalists

even

for

space

sectors

manufacturing

towards

more

activities (Skyline, July/

knowledge-based
URA
is also moving towards
2000).
August,
a

relaxation

greater

of

to

rules

allow

more

ground

for

space

communal

facilities or landscaping'
to help 'Singapore
to become
a truly unique
city' (Skyline,
May/June, 2000, p. 10).
it is important

However,

vital

to note

that

one

for Singapore's
reason
impressive
record to date has been that, being a city
state,

has

Singapore

problems

of

international

been

unencumbered

uncontrolled

migration

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

rural-urban

to

by
or

and hence has been

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

with

estimate,

reasonable

accuracy,

the

base
for
population
being
planned
(Chua, 1996; Perry, Kong and Yeoh, 1997).
Since throwing open its doors to bring in
foreign

talent,

because,

as

'the

influx

large

of foreigners

. . led to faster-than-expected growth' which

has had far-reaching implications for urban
and development
in Singapore.
planning
The influx of foreigners is unlikely to stop
Senior

Minister

Lee

Kuan

Yew

has put it: 'Now in a globalized

economy,
we are in competition against other cities in
the

First

World.

cosmopolitan
comes

we

that

in business,
and

vibrancy

have

to become

attracts

and

secure

a
wel

or in the

academia,

will

arts. They

performing
pore's

Hence
city

talent

add
our

to Singa
in

place

(The
global network of cities of excellence'
Business Times, 16 February, 2000). Thus, one
the

fundamental

planning

has

planners

must

viously
whose

constants
now

much

is

more

viously

than

higher

or

less

to
pre

in an island
without

fixed,

of life. Another

constant

accepted

and

at how

look

population

affecting the quality

urban

removed

a serious

imagined
area

behind

been

take

accommodate

that

has

pre
been

slowly changing is the willingness of Singa

poreans
quietly to accept the hegemonic
plans

of the

what

makes

planning
way

the

hesion

city,

or

and

solutions

important

urban

move

for

The

forward

to these challenges

implications

social

will
co

identity. To ensure that Singa

can
pore
capitalize on new opportunities for
and
sustained urban development in
growth
the

and

whom

disadvantages.

authorities

planning

to provide

clear

want a say in deciding

the

up

benefits

It is

authorities.

planning

that they increasingly

have

architects 'more flexibility in their building

designs' and developers more 'scope to free
up

able

of

the city centre, touted as

longest underground
fully
mall
shopping
covering
to facilitate shopping
in
climate
Singapore's
tropical
(Skyline, July/
August, 2000). Another is the relaxation of
guidelines in business parks to allow up to

CHALLENGES

global

century,

economy

Singapore's

of

urban

the

twenty-first

planners

must

display, more than ever, the nimbleness and

as well as a new degree of
dynamism

openness

and

transparency

necessary

to

meet effectively these and other challenges

that will come along with increasing speed
and intensity in an age of globalization.

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125

PACIFIC-ASIAN

CITIES: CHALLENGES

NOTES

AND PROSPECTS

eliminated

'effectively
and

ning

non-city.
on to be

plan
city and
from then

was

unified

entity

Master

Plan

the

all
guide
10 years.

development
It is the
the
through
outlined
(as

prepared
approach
Plan
of

by a

gazetted
land-use

development
guide
plan
in the Revised
Concept
is more
and
systematic

which

1991)

(URA,

comprehensive

3. At 90 per cent (www.singstat.gov.sg),

the rate
- for both
of home
and private
ownership
public
- is
in the world.
the highest
housing
among

from

Management

the

housing
authority,
received
Board,
in Development

Asian

Institute

of

for substantially
the
improving
Management
of life of people
its innovative,
quality
through
sustainable
and
effective
management
(Perry,
and

Kong
5.

The

Yeoh,

1997,

continued

of state-subsidized
provision
the high level of affluence
be
as
another
may
interpreted
of political
by the current
legitimization

public
housing
in Singapore
means

In

announced
estates
S$4,000

2000).
7. The

early

March

2000,
include

to

plan

socio-economic
often

cash,

car,

(although
as a sixth C).

perceived
introduced
the
1999

National

mopolitans'
in banking,
science

the

aspirations

are

8. As

and

comfortably
landers'
are

126

above).

career

club'

make

argued

their

are

popularly
condominium,
some

of the typical
summarized
as
credit
add

would

card,

'country

first
Minister
who
by the Prime
at his
term into popular
usage
while
'cos
Day
Rally
speech,
international

information
technology,

in outlook,

technology,
and
able
in

the

skilled

engineering,
to navigate

anywhere
in interest
parochial
within
the country,
living

and

play

10.

strategies
identities
for
specific
to help residents
develop
in

social

concepts

and

estates

implemented
individual
HDB
a greater
sense
and
Huang,

(Teo

the URA
on A
exhibition
specifically,
aims at coming
City hi the Making
up with
landmark
that
'leave
'extraordinary'
buildings
More

lasting
'where

impressions';

create

'a

place;

and

people
and
character

enjoyed
11.

points
[to infuse

mingle
life';
gateways
and
of entry'

sense

in public

focal

Singapore]
into
the

greater
corridors
and

to identify view
that views
of

natural

to

city
sense
look

of
out

and

built

in Singapore
can be protected
in the long term (www.ura.gov.sg).

and

Until

few

the

spaces
with

the main
source
of
years
ago,
via the press
would
have
been
of the
'Forum
different
Page'

public
letters

ventilation

language

in Singapore.
For
newspapers
this
would
have
been
The
speakers,
Times.
In the last two years,
a
however,

to

the
daily

English
Straits
few

new
English
and
Streats)
Today
for
a
different

Eyeball;
newspapers
(Project
have
each
emerged,
catering
market
More
segment.
sig

all the major

have
inter
nificantly,
newspapers
active
chatrooms
that have become
sites
popular
for discussing
the news
(unlike
anonymously
where
details
must
papers
personal
accompany
- all
the letters if they are to be published)
topics
of national
interest.
Like
of the Internet,
much
at these sites is primarily
in English.
discussion
The

got off to a promising

on 1 September
2000
2 & 3 September,
and
Tunes,
2000)
(The Straits
was promptly
hailed
a 'success'
{The Straits Times,
5 September,
and
even
made
headlines
2000)
Speaker's
it was
when

start

worldwide

Corner

launched

Straits
24
(The
Times,
September,
a couple
of months,
the
however,
whether
the idea had 'run
questioning

Within

2000).

press was
out of steam'

11 November,
Times,
(The Straits
as only a handful
of speakers
and listeners
2000)
turned
be noted
that
up daily at the site. It should
are
allowed
to
at
only
Singaporeans
speak
and
first register
Corner,
Speaker's
they must
with
while
the
neighbourhood
police
post;
have
requests
allow
sound
not

Straits
activists
a

their

and

Unique

still

'heart
world,
and orientation,

design
were

1996).

12.

government

private
housing
in 'the upgrading
at a budget
of
loop'
14 March,
Times,
(The Straits
per home

Singaporean
the five C's:
and

despite

(as

government
6.

p. 228).

new

time,

values

2001).

planning

so
points
environment

1998).

4. In 1995, Singapore's
public
the Housing
and
Development
the Asia
Award
Management

same

of community

on 22 January
that will
plan
in Singapore
for the next
first Master
Plan
that
is

1998,

approved

the

estates

government'.

is

1999,

the island

as a single,

governed

single-tier
2. The

distinction,
between
terms,

At

physical
to create

in

the

management
It meant
that

9.

core

(Yeoh

stability'
1. According
to Chua
(1996, p. 208), 'the abolition
of the City Council
and its elected
in 1959,
mayor'
as the first act of the elected
self-government,

in maintaining
and Chang,

role

major

been
Times

made

reported

were

of unlawful

been

for

amplification
allowed.
On
being

assembly

the

to

authorities

devices,

these

have

7 February
The
2001,
two
civil
society

that

investigated
at Speaker's

over

allegations
Corner.

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VOL 27 NO 2

PLANNING FOR A TROPICAL CITY OF EXCELLENCE:

13.

That

such

statutory

exhibitions

earnestly
feedback

if it had

are

actually

part
on

raises

requirement
URA
would

questions
have
solicited

not been

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

CHALLENGES

FOR SINGAPORE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

of a

in South-East

Asia

how

and

(eds.)

public

legislated.

C.P.

Lo,

in

Cities:

Readings

Oxford

University

G.L.
Ooi,
(1990)
Self-determination
Occasional

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