Shiva

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shiva (/iv/; Sanskrit: iva, meaning "The Auspicious

One"; Tamil: ivan, meaning "The Red One"), also known as
Mahadeva ("Great God"), is one of the three deities of
Hinduism. Shiva is distinct from Vishnu and Brahman yet
one with them. He is "Anant" [Who is neither found born nor
found dead]. He is the supreme god within Shaivism, one of
the three most influential denominations in contemporary
Hinduism.[2][3] He is one of the five primary forms of God in
the Smarta Tradition,[2] and "the Destroyer" or "the
Transformer".[4]
At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as limitless,
transcendent, unchanging and formless.[5][6][7][8][9] Shiva
also has many benevolent and fearsome forms.[10] In
benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who
lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash,[4] as well as a
householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha
and Kartikeya, and in fierce aspects, he is often depicted
slaying demons. Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of
yoga and arts.[11][12][13]
The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye
on his forehead, the snake Vasuki around his neck, the
adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from
his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as
his musical instrument. Shiva is usually worshiped in the
aniconic form of Lingam.[14][15][16]
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced
widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.[17][18]
Shiva
Shiva with Parvati and Ganesha

Devanagari
Sanskrit
iva
transliteration
Tamil
ivan
transliteration
Abode
Mount Kailsa[1]
Mantra
Om Namah Shivaya,
Mahamrityunjaya Mantra
Weapon
Trishula (trident)
Consort
Parvati(Durga),
Children
Ganesha, Kartikeya
Mount
Nandi
1 Etymology and other names

2 Historical development and literature
2.1 Assimilation of traditions
2.2 Indus Valley origins
2.3 Vedic origins
2.3.1 Rudra
2.3.2 Agni
2.3.3 Indra
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2.4 Later Vedic literature

2.5 Puranic literature
2.6 Tantric literature
3 Position within Hinduism
3.1 Shaivism
3.2 Panchayatana puja
3.3 Trimurti
4 Iconography and properties
4.1 Attributes
4.2 Lingam
4.2.1 Jyotirlinga
4.3 Shakti
4.4 The five mantras
5 Forms and roles
5.1 Destroyer and Benefactor
5.2 Ascetic and Householder
5.3 Nataraaja
5.4 Dakshinamurthy
5.5 Ardhanarishvara
5.6 Tripurantaka
5.7 Other forms, avatars, identifications
6 Festivals & Kumbh Mela
7 Beyond Hinduism
7.1 Buddhism
7.2 Sikhism
7.3 Others
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
The Sanskrit word "Shiva" (Devanagari: , iva) comes from the Shri Rudram Chamakam of the Taittiriya
Shakha (TS 4.5, 4.7) of the Krishna Yajurveda. The root word i[19] means auspicious. In simple English
transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. The adjective iva, is used as an attributive epithet for several
Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.[20] Other popular names associated with Shiva are Mahadeva, Mahesha,
Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochan, Devendra (meaning Chief of the gods) and
Trilokinatha (meaning Lord of the three realms).[21][22][23]
The Sanskrit word aiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of
the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.[24] It is used as an adjective to characterize
certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[25]
Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word ivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the
Sun (ivan, "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.[26][27]
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Adi Shankara, in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, the
thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", or "the One who is not
affected by three Guas of Prakti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)" or "the One who purifies everyone by the very
utterance of His name."[28] Chinmayananda Saraswati, in his translation of the Vishnu sahasranama, further
elaborates on that verse: Shiva means "the One who is eternally pure" or "the One who can never have any
contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas".[29]
Shiva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahdeva ("Great god"; mah "Great"
and deva "god"),[30][31] Mahevara ("Great Lord"; mah "great" and vara "lord"),[32][33] and Paramevara
("Supreme Lord").[34]
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many
names of Shiva.[35] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anusanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the
kernel of this tradition.[36] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the
Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the atarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing
him by many names.[37][38]
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across

all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.[17][18]
Assimilation of traditions
The figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time, with
the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single
figure.[18] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is
not well documented.[39] According to Vijay Nath:
Visnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults
and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to
represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were
supposed to denote different forms and appellations by
which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva
became identified with countless local cults by the sheer
suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g.,
Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."[40]
A sculpture of Shiva depicting him

with a moustache
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron
deity of farming and herding castes.[41] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in
Jejuri.[42] Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,[43] in which case he is worshipped in the
form of a lingam.[41][44] Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya[41] and
Karttikeya.[45]
Indus Valley origins
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Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention
shows a figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly
ithyphallic[46][47][48] figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position
and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro
Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra.
[46][49][50][51] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a
prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three faces seated in
a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
Some academics like Gavin Flood[52][53] and John Keay have expressed doubts
about this claim. John Keay writes that "He may indeed be an early
manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu- pati", but a couple of his specialties of
this figure does not match with Rudra.[54] Writing in 1997 Doris Meth
Srinivasan rejected Marshall's package of proto-Shiva features, including that of
three heads. She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not
human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.[55]
Seal discovered during

excavation of the Indus
Valley archaeological site in
the Indus Valley has drawn
attention as a possible
representation of a "yogi" or
"proto-Shiva" figure
Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be

appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of
ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far."[56]
Vedic origins
Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities,
including Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, Prajpati, Vyu, and others.[57]
Rudra
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra,[58]
and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu
scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring
storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a
fierce, destructive deity.
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to
between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence.[59] A
god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as
a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a
group of storm gods.[60] Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred
hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas and addressed to
Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances, but the term Shiva is used as
an epithet for the gods Indra, Mitra and Agni many times. Since Shiva means
pure, the epithet is possibly used to describe a quality of these gods rather than
to identify any of them with the God Shiva.
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is not universally
accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
Three-headed Shiva,
Gandhara, 2nd century AD
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Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: arva),[61] and the arrow is an essential attribute of
Rudra.[62] This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a
name of Shiva often in later languages.[63]
The word is derived from the Sanskrit root arv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill",[64] and Sharma uses that
general sense in his interpretive translation of the name arva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".[63]
The names Dhanvin ("Bowman")[65] and Bahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")
[65][66] also refer to archery.
Agni
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[67][68] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic
literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as
Rudra-Shiva.[69] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text
on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[70] The interconnections between the two deities are
complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
The fire myth of Rudra-iva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and
phases, from conflagration to illumination.[71]
In the atarudrya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipajara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and
Tivamati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.[72] Agni is said to be a bull,[73] and Lord
Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are
mentioned.[74][75] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair
as a special feature.[76]
Indra
According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic
Indra.[77] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated
with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare,
transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig
Veda the term iva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[78] 6.45.17,[79][80] and
8.93.3.[81]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[82][83] In the Rig Veda, Rudra
is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits
as is Indra.[84]
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to
Coin of the Indo-Sassanid
the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[85][86] and the Indo-Iranian
(early 4th century)
[87]
religion.
According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged
among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan
River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[88] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and
new Indo-European elements",[88] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[87] from the
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BactriaMargiana Culture.[87] At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture,
including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[89] According to Anthony,
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the
adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the
subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with
Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC
religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[90]
Later Vedic literature

Rudra's transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400-200 BC), which founded the tradition of Rudra-Shiva worship. Here they are
identified as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200
BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva, with
references to Shaiva ascetics in Patanjali's Mahbhya and in the Mahabharata.[53][91]
Early historical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, depict Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount
Nandi but no other Vedic gods.[92][93]
Puranic literature
The Shiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, discuss the various forms of Shiva and
the cosmology associated with him.[94]
Tantric literature
The Tantras, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, regard themselves as Sruti. Among these the Shaiva
Agamas, are said to have been revealed by Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta.[95]
Shaivism
The Annamalaiyar Temple,

Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu is
dedicated to Shiva
Shaivism is one of the oldest of the four major sects of Hinduism, the
others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers
of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being.
Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver,
destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. The tantric Shaiva
tradition consists of the Kapalikas, Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva
Siddhanta. The Shiva Purana is one of the puranas, a genre of Hindu
religious texts, dedicated to Shiva. Shaivism is widespread throughout
India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, mostly. Areas notable for the practice of
Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia,
Singapore, and Indonesia.
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Indologist Axel Michaels suggests that Shaivism, like Vaishnavism, implies a unity which cannot be clearly
found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine
must be kept separate.[96]
Panchayatana puja
Panchayatana puja is the system of puja (worship) in the Smarta Tradition. It is said to have been introduced by
Adi Shankara, the 8th century Hindu philosopher. It consists of the worship of five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Devi,
Surya and Ganesha. Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households, one of these deities is kept in
the center and the other four surround it. Worship is offered to all the deities. The five are represented by small
murtis, or by five kinds of stones, or by five marks drawn on the floor.[97]
Trimurti
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction
are personified by the forms of Brahm the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and hiva the destroyer
or transformer.[98][99] These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"[100] or the "Great Trinity",[101]
often addressed as "Brahma-Vishnu-Maheshwara."
Attributes
Shiva's form: Shiva has a trident in the right lower arm, and a
crescent moon on his head. He is said to be fair like camphor or
like an ice clad mountain. He wears five serpents and a garland of
skulls as ornaments. Shiva is usually depicted facing the south.
His trident, like almost all other forms in Hinduism, can be
understood as the symbolism of the unity of three worlds that a
human faces - his inside world, his immediate world, and the
broader overall world. At the base of the trident, all three forks
unite. It is often not shown but Shiva has 6 heads, of which only
five (Isana, Tatpurusha, Vamadeva, Aghora, Sadyojata) are visible
while the 6th (Adhomukh) can only be seen by the enlightened.
Third eye: (Trilochana) Shiva is often depicted with a third eye,
with which he burned Desire (Kma) to ashes,[102] called
"Tryambakam" (Sanskrit:
), which occurs in many
sources.[103]
scriptural
In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka
denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as
three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three
eyes".[104] However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word amb or ambik
means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis
for the translation "three mothers".[105][106] These three mothergoddesses who are collectively called the Ambiks.[107] Other
related translations have been based on the idea that the name
actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to
Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted

three-eyed, the Ganges flowing
through his matted hair, wearing
ornaments of serpents and a skull
garland, and covered in ashes, and
seated on a tiger skin.
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some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambik.[108] It has been mentioned that when Shiva loses
his temper, his third eye opens which can reduce most things to ashes.
Crescent moon: (The epithets "Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli")- Shiva bears on his head the crescent
moon.[109] The epithet Candraekhara (Sanskrit: "Having the moon as his crest" - candra =
"moon"; ekhara = "crest, crown")[110][111][112] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his
head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became
the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[113] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon
with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later
literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.[114] The
crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord's head as an ornament. The waxing and waning
phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning
to the end.
Ashes: (The epithet "Bhasmaanga Raaga") - Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). The ashes are
said to represent the end of all material existence.[115] Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are
associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some
groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.[116] These practices associated with cremation
grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.[117] One epithet for Shiva is
"inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: manavsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin), referring to
this connection.[118]
Matted hair: (The epithet "Jataajoota Dhari/Kapardina") - Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the
epithets Jain, "the one with matted hair",[119] and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"[120] or "wearing
his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[121] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of
hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.[122] His hair is said to be like
molten gold in color or being yellowish-white.
Blue throat: The epithet Nlakatha (Sanskrit ; nla = "blue", katha = "throat").[123][124] Since
Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive
capacity. Shocked by his act, Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck
itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the
poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.[125][126] (See Maha Shivaratri.)
Sacred Ganga: (The epithet "Gangadhara") Bearer of Ganga. The goddess Ganga flows from the matted
hair of Shiva.[127][128] The Gag (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made
her abode in Shiva's hair.[129] The flow of the Ganga also represents the nectar of immortality.
Tiger skin: (The epithet "Krittivasana") He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin,[115] an honour
reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.[130]
Serpents: (The epithet "Nagendra Haara" or 'Vasuki"). Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[131]
Deer: His holding deer on one hand indicates that He has removed the Chanchalata of the mind (i.e.,
attained maturity and firmness in thought process). A deer jumps from one place to another swiftly,
similar to the mind moving from one thought to another.
Trident: (Trishula): Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.[115] His Trisul that is held in His right hand
represents the three Gunas Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. That is the emblem of sovereignty. He rules the
world through these three Gunas. The Damaru in His left hand represents the Sabda Brahman. It
represents OM from which all languages are formed. It is He who formed the Sanskrit language out of the
Damaru sound.
Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru (amaru).[132][133] This is one of
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the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[134]

known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called
amaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "amaru-hand") is used to hold the
drum.[135] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by
members of the Kplika sect.[136]
Axe: (Parashu):The parashu is the weapon of Lord Shiva who
gave it to Parashurama, sixth Avatar of Vishnu, whose name
means "Rama with the axe" and also taught him its mastery.
Nand: (The epithet "Nandi Vaahana") Nand, also known as
Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount
(Sanskrit: vhana).[137][138] Shiva's association with cattle is
reflected in his name Paupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit:
),
translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"[139] and by Kramrisch as

"lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an
epithet of Rudra.[140] Rishabha or the bull represents Dharma
Shiva bearing the descent of the
Devata. Lord Siva rides on the bull. Bull is his vehicle. This
Ganges River as Parvati and
denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma, is an
Bhagiratha and the bull Nandi look,
embodiment of Dharma or righteousness.
folio from a Hindi manuscript by the
Gaa: The [[Gana|Gaas]] (Devanagari: ) are attendants of
Narayan, circa 1740
Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the
bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally
benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on
behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaa-a or
gaa-pati, "lord of the gaas".[141] Ganesha is created by Gauri not as gana but her beloved obedient
child.
5 heads: Shiva is known as panchavactra means 5 heads which indicates 5 elements.
Arms: Shiva has 4 arms which resembles 4 vedas
Mount Kailsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.[115] In Hindu mythology,
Mount Kailsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.[142]
Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the
holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[143]
Lingam
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam, is also important.
[144][145][146] These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
Shiva means auspiciousness, and lingam means a sign or a symbol, so the Shivalinga is regarded as a "symbol
of the great God of the universe who is all-auspiciousness".[147] Shiva also means "one in whom the whole
creation sleeps after dissolution".[147] Since, according to Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains and
withdraws the universe, the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself.[147] Some scholars, such as
Monier Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger, also view linga as a phallic symbol,[148][149] although this
interpretation is disputed by others, including Swami Vivekananda,[150] Sivananda Saraswati,[151] and S. N.
Balagangadhara.[152]
Jyotirlinga
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A 10th-century four-headed
stone lingam (Mukhalinga)
from Nepal
The worship of the lingam originated from the

famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhit
sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the
sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is
found of the beginningless and endless
Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the
said Skambha is put in place of the eternal
Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its
smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and
the ox that used to carry on its back the wood
for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the
conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body,
his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the
Lingam at Jambukesvara
riding on the bull of the Shiva, the
temple in Thiruvanaikaval,
Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the ShivaTamil Nadu
Linga.[153][154] In the text Linga Purana, the
same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories,
meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva
as Mahadeva.[154]
Jyotirlinga means "The Radiant sign of The Almighty". The Jyotirlingas are
mentioned in the Shiva
Purana.[155]
Shakti
Shiva forms a Tantric couple with Shakti, the embodiment of energy,
dynamism, and the motivating force behind all action and existence in
the material universe. Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect,
providing the divine ground of all being. Shakti manifests in several
female deities. Sati and Parvati are the main consorts of Shiva. She is
also referred to as Uma, Durga (Parvati), Kali[156] and Chandika.[157]
Kali is the manifestation of Shakti in her dreadful aspect. The name Kali
comes from kla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva.
Since Shiva is called Kla, the eternal time, Kl, his consort, also means
"Time" or "Death" (as in "time has come"). Various Shakta Hindu
cosmologies, as well as Shkta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the
ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatrini (literally
"redeemer of the universe"). Kl is represented as the consort of Lord
Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing or dancing. Shiva is the
masculine force, the power of peace, while Shakti translates to power,
and is considered as the feminine force. In the Vaishnava tradition, these
realities are portrayed as Vishnu and Laxmi, or Radha and Krishna.
These are differences in formulation rather than a fundamental
difference in the principles. Both Shiva and Shakti have various forms.
Shiva has forms like Yogi Raj (the common image of Himself
meditating in the Himalayas), Rudra (a wrathful form) and Natarajar
(Shiva's dance are the Lasya - the gentle form of dance, associated with
the creation of the world, and the Tandava - the violent and dangerous
dance, associated with the destruction of weary worldviews weary
Kali and Bhairava (the terrible form

of Shiva) in Union, 18th century,
Nepal
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perspectives and lifestyles).
The five mantras

Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[158] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (nama
ivya).[159]
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pacabrahmans.[160] As forms of God, each of these
have their own names and distinct iconography:[161]
Sadyojta
Vmadeva
Aghora
Tatpurua
sna
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the
five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[162][163] Doctrinal differences and,
possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five
forms are linked with various attributes.[164] The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella
Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories, iva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material
cause of all that exists.[165]
According to the Pacabrahma Upanishad:
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that
the eternal verity of iva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pacabrahma Upanishad
31)[166]
According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing
themes.[167] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
Destroyer and Benefactor

In the Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or
auspicious (Sanskrit: iva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements
which created the complex Rudra-iva sect of later ages are to be found here".[168] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is
depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and
brilliance.[169] The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.
The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name
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Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry,
howl".[170] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology
connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means
"wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as
"the wild one" or "the fierce god".[171] R. K. Sharma
follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as
"terrible".[172] Hara is an important name that occurs three
times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva
sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each
time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not
Uma and Maheswar
repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as
"one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one
who destroys".[173] Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".[126] Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kla
"time" and Mahkla "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.[30][174] The name Kla appears in the
Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time."[175]
Bhairava "terrible" or "frightful"[176] is a fierce form associated with annihilation.[177]
In contrast, the name akara "beneficent"[63] or "conferring happiness"[30] reflects his benign form. This
name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788-820),[178] who is also known as
Shankaracharya.[30] The name ambhu (Sanskrit: ) , "causing happiness",[30][179] also reflects this benign
aspect.
Ascetic and Householder

He is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder, roles which
have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[180] When
depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.[181] His
epithet Mahyogi ("the great Yogi: Mah = "great", Yogi = "one who
practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.[182] While Vedic
religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the
Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became
more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in
philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[183] Shiva is also
depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali, it represents that Shiva is a
corpse without Shakti. He remains inert. While Shiva is the static form,
Mahakali or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is
powerless.
As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons,
An illustration of the family of Shiva,
Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umpati ("The husband of Um")
consisting of Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha
refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name
and Skanda (Kartikeya)
that mean the same thing, Umknta and Umdhava, also appear in the
[184]
sahasranama.
Um in epic literature is known by many names,
including the benign Prvat.[185][186] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as
well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kamakshi and Minakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of
his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.[187] His son Ganesha is
worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of
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Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the
names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the
names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[188]
Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty
and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar - is born.[189][190][191][192] Shiva is also mentioned in
some scriptures to have had daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari. The demons
Andhaka and Jalandhara and the god Mangala are considered children of Shiva.
Nataraaja
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naarja, "Lord of Dance") is
popular.[193][194] The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal
dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[195] His association with dance
and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[196] In addition to
the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of
dancing forms (Sanskrit: ntyamrti) are found in all parts of India, with
many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[197] The two most
common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote
the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the
destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be
destroyed, Lord iva does it by the tavantya.[198][199] and Lasya, which
is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is
considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.[200][201]
Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[201] The
Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the
world.[202][203][204]
Chola dynasty statue depicting

Shiva dancing as Nataraja (Los
Angeles County Museum of Art)
Dakshinamurthy
Dakshinamurthy, or Dakimrti (Tamil:, Telugu: , Sanskrit: ),[205]
literally describes a form (mrti) of Shiva facing south (dakia). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a
teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[206] This iconographic form for
depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.[207] Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated
upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[208]
Ardhanarishvara
An iconographic representation of Shiva called (Ardhanrvara) shows him with one half of the body as male
and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form
(Ardhanrvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".[209]
According to legend, Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the goddess Parvati, grants
her the left half of his body. This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin-Yang philosophy of Eastern Asia,
though Ardhanrvara appears to be more ancient.
Tripurantaka
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Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses,
Tripura, of the Asuras.[210] Shiva's name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: ,
Tripurntaka), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[211] In this aspect,
Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a bow and arrow, but different from the
Pinakapani murti. He holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms. In the
lower pair of the arms, he holds a bow and an arrow respectively. After destroying
Tripura, Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes. This
has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites.
Other forms, avatars, identifications

Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as
Avatars. Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh"
avatars of Shiva, the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism.[212] The Linga
Purana speaks of twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as
avatars.[213] According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad, he has four avatars.[214]
In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and
this belief is universal. Hanuman is popularly known as Rudraavtaar Rudra
being a name of Shiva.[215] Rama the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be
the eleventh avatar of Rudra (Shiva).[216][217]
Chola bronze from the

11th century. Shiva in the
form of Ardhanarisvara.
Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa,[218][219][220][221] the sage

Agastya, the philosopher Adi Shankara and Ashwatthama as avatars of
Shiva. Other forms of Shiva include Virabhadra and Sharabha.
Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th day in the
Krishna Paksha of the month of Phalguna in the Hindu calendar. This
festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Lord Shiva.
Mahashivaratri marks the night when Lord Shiva performed the
'Tandava' and it is the day that Lord Shiva was married to Parvati.[222]
The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals offered
up to Shiva, notably the Abhishek. This ritual, practiced throughout the
night, is often performed every three hours with water, milk, yogurt, and
honey. Bel (aegle marmelos) leaves are often offered up to the Hindu
god, as it is considered necessary for a successful life. The offering of
the leaves are considered so important that it is believed that someone
who offers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly.[223]
The five-headed Tripurantaka is seen

pointing an arrow towards the Tripura
(rightmost top corner) with the bow
made of mount Meru, the serpent
Vasuki is seen as its string.
Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela (/km mel/ or /km ml/) is a mass Hindu pilgrimage of faith in which
Hindus gather to bathe in a sacred river. It is considered to be the largest peaceful gathering in the world where
around 100 million (10 crore) people were expected to visit during the Maha Kumbh Mela in 2013 in
Allahabad.[224][225] It is held every third year at one of the four places by rotation: Haridwar, Allahabad
(Prayaga), Nashik and Ujjain. Thus the Kumbh Mela is held at each of these four places every twelfth year.
Ardha ("Half") Kumbh Mela is held at only two places, Haridwar and Allahabad, every sixth year. The rivers at
these four places are: the Ganges (Ganga) at Haridwar, the confluence (Sangam) of the Ganges and the Yamuna
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and the mythical Saraswati at Allahabad, the Godawari at Nashik, and the
Shipra at Ujjain. The name Kumbh Mela comes from Hindi, and in the original
Sanskrit and other Indian languages it is more often known as Kumbha Mela.
Kumbha means a pitcher and Mela means fair in Sanskrit.
Buddhism
Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as
Prajna.[226] In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive,
with Shakti being his active counterpart.[227]
Sikhism
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru
is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."[228] In the same
chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen."
Kalyanasundara: Celestial
Marriage of Shiva and Parvati
in presence of all depicted at
Elephanta Caves
In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath
Avtar.[229]
Others
The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite
Empire,[230] and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the
Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river
Zervashan.[231] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a
sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").[231] He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants
are wearing Sogdian dress.[231] A panel from Dandanwulike shows Shiva in His
Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.[231][232] Another site in
the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a
cushioned seat supported by two bulls.[231] It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind
god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.[232]
The Kirati people worship a form of Shiva as one of their major deity,
Daikokuten, God of Wealth
identifying him as the lord of animals. It is also said that the physical form of
Shiva as a yogi is derived from Kirants as it is mentioned in Mundhum that
Shiva took human form as a child of Kirant. He is also said to give Kirants visions in form of a male deer.
In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru. In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of
mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang
Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god
Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hinduism is
"Mahadewa" (Mahadeva).[233]
Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an
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exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.[234] The
name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahkla, the Buddhist name for Shiva.[235]
1. For the name Kailsagirivs (Sanskrit

), "With his abode on Mount Kailsa",
as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama, see:
Sharma 1996, p. 281.
2. Flood (1996), p. 17.
3. Tattwananda, p. 45.
4. Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
5. See Parmeshvaranand, Volume 3.
6. See Kramrisch, The presence of Siva, page 186.
7. See Abhayananda, page 95.
8. See Davis, pp 113-114.
9. Chatterji, Kashmir Shaivism.
10. Sharma, Iconography of Sadasiva
11. See Shiva Samhita, e.g. translation by Mallinson.
12. See Varenne, page 82.
13. See Marchand for Jnana Yoga.
14. Davis writes on page 122: "The Saiva worshipper
does not worship the object itself as Siva or as
representing Siva; he directs his worship toward it as
the physical support for Siva's special presence."
15. Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, by Jeanne Fowler,
pgs. 4243, In traditional Indian society, the linga is
rather seen as a symbol of the energy and potentiality
of the god.
16. See Fuller, The Camphor Flame, pp 58.
17. Flood 1996, p. 17.
18. Keay, p.xxvii.
19. "Sanskrit Dictionary". sanskritdictionary.com.
20. For use of the term iva as an epithet for other Vedic
deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.
21. See translation by Manmatha Nath Dutt, Chapter 17
of Volume 13.
22. See translation by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Chapter 17
of Volume 13.
23. See Chidbhavananda, "Siva Sahasranama Stotram".
24. Apte, p. 927
25. For the definition "aivism refers to the traditions
which follow the teachings of iva (ivana) and
which focus on the deity iva... " see: Flood (1996),
p. 149.
26. van Lysebeth, Andre (2002). Tantra: Cult of the
Feminine. Weiser Books. p. 213.
ISBN 9780877288459.
27. Tyagi, Ishvar Chandra (1982). Shaivism in Ancient
India: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300.
Meenakshi Prakashan. p. 81.
28. Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition,
pg.47 and pg. 122.
29. Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu

sahasranama, pg. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission
Trust.
30. Kramrisch, p. 476. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag;
name "auto" defined multiple times with different
content (see the help page).
31. For appearance of the name in the Shiva
Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 297
32. Kramrisch, p. 477.
33. For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama
see:Sharma 1996, p. 299
34. For Paramehvara as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch,
p. 479.
35. Sharma 1996, p. viii-ix
36. This is the source for the version presented in
Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the
Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of
the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See
Chidbhavananda, p.5.
37. For an overview of the atarudriya see: Kramrisch,
pp. 71-74.
38. For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and
commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).
39. For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not
well documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
40. Nath 2001, p. 31.
41. Courtright, p. 205.
42. For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see:
Mate, p. 162.
43. Biroba, Mhaskoba und Khandoba: Ursprung,
Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in
Maharastra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English
Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in
Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation
of Shiva."
44. For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and
possible identification with Shiva based on that, see:
Mate, p. 176.
45. For use of the name Khandoba as a name for
Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and
p. 40.
46. For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood
(1996), p. 29.
47. Singh, S.P., Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of
Mohenjo-Daro(Approx 2500-3000 BC), Puratattva
19: 19-26. 1989
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48. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. Ancient Cities of the Indus

Valley Civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press,
1998.
49. Ranbir Vohra (2000). The Making of India: A
Historical Survey. M.E. Sharpe. p. 15.
50. Grigori Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985).
Ancient Indian Civilization. Arnold-Heinemann.
p. 45.
51. Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential
Hinduism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 45.
52. Flood 1996, pp. 28-29.
53. Flood 2003, pp. 204-205.
54. John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press. p. 14.
55. Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms
and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity
in Indian Art. Brill. ISBN 978-9004107588.
56. Possehl, Gregory L. (11 November 2002). The Indus
Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman
Altamira. pp. 140144. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9.
57. For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajpati,
Vyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.
58. Michaels, p. 316.
59. For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see:
Oberlies, p. 158.
60. Doniger, pp. 221-223.
61. For arva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
62. For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch,
Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute"
see: Kramrisch, p. 32.
63. Sharma 1996, p. 306
64. For root arv- see: Apte, p. 910.
65. Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
66. For translation of Bahasta as "Armed with arrows
in his hands", see: Sharma 1996, p. 294.
67. For general statement of the close relationship, and
example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
68. For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas,
see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
69. For quotation "An important factor in the process of
Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the
Vedic literature and this identification contributed
much to the transformation of his character as Rudraiva." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.
70. For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927),
p. 155.
72. For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets
Sasipajara and Tivamati see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
73. "Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni
and Others". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved
2010-06-06.
74. For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull,
and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
75. RV 8.49; 10.155.
76. For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see:

Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
77. Doniger, Wendy (1973). "The Vedic Antecedents".
iva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US.
pp. 849.
78. For text of RV 2.20.3a as
and translation as "May that young adorable
Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector
of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p.
48, volume 2.
79. For text of RV 6.45.17 as
and translation as "Indra, who has ever
been the friend of those who praise you, and the
insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us
felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.
80. For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been
the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid,
As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973,
p. 310.
81. For text of RV 8.93.3 as
and translation as "May Indra, our
auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming
(cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya
& Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
82. For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see:
Chakravarti, p. 89.
83. RV 7.19.
84. For the lack of warlike connections and difference
between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.
85. B. S. Ahloowalia (2009). Invasion of the Genes
Genetic Heritage of India. Strategic Book Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-60860-691-7.
86. Roger D. Woodard (18 August 2006). Indo-European
Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. University of
Illinois Press. pp. 242. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.
87. Beckwith & 2009 32. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag;
name "FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932" defined
multiple times with different content (see the help
page). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name
"FOOTNOTEBeckwith200932" defined multiple
times with different content (see the help page).
88. Anthony 2007, p. 462.
89. Anthony 2007, p. 454-455.
90. Anthony 2007, p. 454.
91. Flood 1996, p. 86.
92. Javid, Ali (January 2008). World Heritage
Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Algora
Publishing. pp. 2021. ISBN 978-0-87586-484-6.
93. Mathpal, Yashodhar (1 January 1984). Prehistoric
Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India. Abhinav
Publications. p. 220. ISBN 978-81-7017-193-5.
94. Flood 2003, pp. 205-206.
95. Flood 2003, pp. 208-212.
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97. Himalaya Academy, Panchayatana puja

(http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources
/lexicon/)
98. For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett,
Freda. "The Puras", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.
99. For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator,
Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as
the transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p.
124.
100. For definition of trimurti as "the unified form" of
Brahm, Viu and iva and use of the phrase "the
Hindu triad" see: Apte, p. 485.
101. For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti
see: Jansen, p. 83.
102. For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of
the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see:
Flood (1996), p. 151.
103. For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of
tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39.
104. For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit
and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see:
Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.
105. For translation of Tryambakam as "having three
mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see:
Kramrisch, p. 483.
106. For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother
eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and
Fire.
107. For discussion of the problems in translation of this
name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambiks see:
Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
108. For the Ambik variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.
109. For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p.
109.
110. For ekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
111. For Candraekhara as an iconographic form, see:
Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.
112. For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see:
Kramrisch, p. 472.
113. For the moon iconography as marking the rise of
Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
114. For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon,
and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti,
pp. 57-58.
115. Flood (1996), p. 151.
116. Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
117. Flood (1996), p. 161.
120. For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted
hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.
122. For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of
the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
123. Sharma 1996, p. 290
124. See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.

125. For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world
ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
127. For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the
name Gagdhara see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
128. For description of the Gagdhara form, see:
Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.
129. For Shiva supporting Gag upon his head, see:
Kramrisch, p. 473.
130. "Mythology ~ The birth of Brahmarishis". Retrieved
2008-05-07.
131. Flood (1996), p. 151
133. For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
134. Jansen, p. 44.
135. Jansen, p. 25.
136. For use by Kplikas, see: Apte, p. 461.
137. For a review of issues related to the evolution of the
bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp.
99-105.
138. For spelling of alternate proper names Nand and
Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.
139. Sharma 1996, p. 291
141. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN
0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
142. For identification of Mount Kailsa as the central
linga, see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.
143. Keay, p. 33.
145. Flood (1996), p. 29.
146. Tattwanandaz, pp. 49-52.
147. Harshananda, Swami. "Sivalinga". Principal Symbols
of World Religions. Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore.
pp. 68.
148. See Monier William's Sanskrit to english Dictionary
149. O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1981). iva, the erotic
ascetic. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-520250-3.
150. Sen, Amiya P. (2006). "Editor's Introduction". The
Indispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan.
pp. 2526.
151. Sivananda, Swami (1996). "Worship of Siva Linga".
Lord Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust
Society.
152. Balagangadhara, S.N.; Sarah Claerhout (Spring
2008). "Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two
Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies" (PDF).
Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies 7
(19): 118143. Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors= (help)
153. Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). "God, the Father".
Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal
Banarsidass. pp. 156157. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9.
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154. Vivekananda, Swami. "The Paris congress of the

history of religions". The Complete Works of Swami
Vivekananda 4.
155. Chaturvedi, B. K. (2006), Shiv Purana (First ed.),
New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd,
ISBN 81-7182-721-7
156. "Why is Kali dancing on Lord Shiva?". The Chakra.
157. Bhattacharji 1998, p. 26.
158. For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
159. It is first encountered in an almost identical form in
the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see:
Kramrisch, p. 182.
160. For discussion of these five forms and a table
summarizing the associations of these five mantras
see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.
161. For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
162. For association with the five faces and other groups
of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
163. For the epithets pacamukha and pacavaktra, both
of which mean "five faces", as epithets of iva, see:
Apte, p. 578, middle column.
164. For variation in attributions among texts, see:
Kramrisch, p. 187.
166. Quotation from Pacabrahma Upanishad 31 is from:
Kramrisch, p. 182.
167. For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and
paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see:
Flood (1996), p. 150.
168. For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing
contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for
emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms,
see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
169. For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the
Mahabharata, see: Sharma 1988, pp. 2021.
170. For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional
etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
171. Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological
Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in:
Kramrisch, p. 5.
172. Sharma 1996, p. 301.
173. Sharma 1996, p. 314.
175. Sharma 1996, p. 280.
176. Apte, p. 727, left column.
178. Flood (1996), p. 92.
179. Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.
180. For the contrast between ascetic and householder
depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
181. For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti,
p. 32.
182. For name Mahyogi and associations with yoga, see,
Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.
183. For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period

influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
184. For Umpati, Umknta and Umdhava as names in
the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996,
p. 278.
185. For Um as the oldest name, and variants including
Prvat, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.
186. For Prvat identified as the wife of Shiva, see:
Kramrisch, p. 479.
187. Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri
188. For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta,
Preface.
189. Doniger, Wendy (1999). Splitting the difference:
gender and myth in ancient Greece and India.
London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 2635.
ISBN 978-0-226-15641-5.
190. Vanita, Ruth; Kidwai, Saleem (2001). Same-sex love
in India: readings from literature and history.
Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-312-29324-6.
191. Pattanaik, Devdutt (2001). The man who was a
woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore.
Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-56023-181-3.
192. See Mohini#Relationship with Shiva for details
193. For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp.
110-111.
194. For interpretation of the naarja form see: Zimmer,
pp. 151-157.
195. For names Nartaka (Sanskrit ) and Nityanarta
(Sanskrit ) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma
1996, p. 289.
196. For prominence of these associations in puranic
times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
197. For popularity of the ntyamrti and prevalence in
South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
198. Kramrisch, Stella (1994). "Siva's Dance". The
Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 439.
199. Klostermaier, Klaus K. "Shiva the Dancer".
Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the
Theistic Traditions of India. Wilfrid Laurier Univ.
Press. p. 151.
200. Massey, Reginald. "India's Kathak Dance". India's
Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future. Abhinav
Publications. p. 8.
201. Moorthy, Vijaya (2001). Romance of the Raga.
Abhinav Publications. p. 96.
202. Leeming, David Adams (2001). A Dictionary of
Asian Mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 45.
203. Radha, Sivananda (1992). "Mantra of Muladhara
Chakra". Kualin Yoga. Motilal Banarsidass.
p. 304.
204. when it requires to be destroyed, Lord iva does it by
the tavantya (http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en)
205. For iconographic description of the Dakimrti
form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.
1/2/2016 12:59 PM
20 of 22
206. For description of the form as representing teaching

functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
207. For characterization of Dakimrti as a mostly
south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
208. For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as
Dakimrti, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.
209. Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by
Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man,
half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by
Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in
Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
210. For evolution of this story from early sources to the
epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's
increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.
211. For the Tripurntaka form, see: Sivaramamurti
(1976), pp. 34, 49.
212. Parrinder, Edward Geoffrey (1982). Avatar and
incarnation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 88.
ISBN 0-19-520361-5.
213. Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1981). A
History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal
Banarsidass. pp. 543544. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3.
214. P. 184 Cultural History from the Vyu Purna By
Devendrakumar Rajaram Patil
215. Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p.
5
216. Lutgendorf, Philip (2007). Hanuman's tale: the
messages of a divine monkey. Oxford University
Press US. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8.
217. Catherine Ludvk (1994). Hanumn in the Rmyaa
of Vlmki and the Rmacaritamnasa of Tulas
Dsa. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 1011.
ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5.
218. "Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English
translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter
IX".
219. "Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English
translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter
X".
220. "Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 - English

translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada".
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222. Dr. B. R. Kishore (2001). Lord Shiva. Diamond
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223. Saraswati, Chidanand, Swami (January 2006). "Shiva
as Destroyer". Dialogue & Alliance: 7983. Retrieved
25 September 2013.
224. "India's Kumbh Mela festival holds most auspicious
day". BBC News. 11 February 2013.
225. Sugden, Joanna (2 February 2013). "How the Kumbh
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The Wall Street Journal. Wall Street Journal.
Archived from the original on 3 February 2013.
Retrieved 26 May 2014.
226. David Kalupahana (2001). Buddhist Thought and
Ritual. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 95.
ISBN 8120817737. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
227. Barnaby B. Dhs. What Is Tantric Practice?. p. 43.
Retrieved 13 October 2013.
228. Winfried Corduan. Neighboring Faiths: A Christian
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230. Puri, P. 132 Buddhism in Central Asia
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234. Roberts, Jeremy (2009). Japanese Mythology A to Z.
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Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (1959). Tantra and its Effect on Society. Bhagalpur: Ananda Marga Pubs.
Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (Ac. Vijayananda Avt. Editor) (1994). Discourses on Tantra, vol. 1. Kolkata:
AMPS-Ananda Printers. ISBN 81-7252-112-X.
Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (Ac. Vijayananda Avt. Editor) (1994). Discourses on Tantra, vol. 2. Kolkata:
AMPS-Ananda Printers. ISBN 81-7252-112-X.
Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (Ac. Narayanananda Avt. Editor, Ac. Vijayananda Avt. transl. from Bengali) (1985). Namah
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Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian
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Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Princeton University Press
Bhattacharji (1998), Legends Of Devi, Orient Blackswan
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Shiva (/iv/; Sanskrit: iva, meaning "The Auspicious

Shiva with Parvati and Ganesha

1 Etymology and other names

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2.4 Later Vedic literature

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across

A sculpture of Shiva depicting him

Indus Valley origins

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Seal discovered during

Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Later Vedic literature

The Annamalaiyar Temple,

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

), which occurs in many

Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[134]

translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"[139] and by Kramrisch as

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The worship of the lingam originated from the

mentioned in the Shiva

Kali and Bhairava (the terrible form

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

perspectives and lifestyles).

The five mantras

Destroyer and Benefactor

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ascetic and Householder

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chola dynasty statue depicting

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Other forms, avatars, identifications

Chola bronze from the

Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa,[218][219][220][221] the sage

The five-headed Tripurantaka is seen

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1. For the name Kailsagirivs (Sanskrit

29. Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

48. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. Ancient Cities of the Indus

76. For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see:

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

97. Himalaya Academy, Panchayatana puja

124. See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

154. Vivekananda, Swami. "The Paris congress of the

183. For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

206. For description of the form as representing teaching

220. "Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 - English

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Shiva - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Lectures on Saiva" (Oxford Center for Hindu Studies)

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