Aluminium Extrusions Technical Design Guide

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ALUMINIUM EXTRUSIONS
a technical design guide
i;c
Forfree, objectiveadviceon allmatters relating to aluminium

extrusions contact:
TheShapemakers Information Service
Broadway House
Calthorpe Road
Birmingham
B151TN
Tel: 021 4562276
Fax: 021 4562274
a
technical design guide
PUBLISHED BY THE SHAPEMAKERS

the information arm of the UK Aluminium Extruders Association
'I
TheShapemakers
Broadway House
Calthorpe Road
Birmingham
B151TN
DISCLAIMER
This book is intended for use by technically skilled personnel. The use of the
information contained herein by suchtechnicallyskilled personnel, is at the risk of
the user. While all reasonable skill and care hasbeen exercised in the preparation of
this book, there are no warranties, express or implied, as to the accuracy or
completeness of this work,either by the author or the publisher, both ofwhom deny
responsibility or liability for any results obtainedor damagescaused as a consequenceofthe usethereof .The publisher and the authorhereof grantno licence withthis
book and disclaim all liability for suitability, practicability, infringement of property
rights of third parties or non-conformance with anycodes, standards or regulations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TO BSI
Extracts from British Standards are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Complete copies ofthe Standards canbe obtained by postfromBSI Sales, Linford Wood,
Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE.
First published October1989 Reprinted July 1991
Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Ltd

Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk
VI
Reprinted August 1994
PREFACE to the 1994 reprint by Howard Spencer
Since this manual was originally published, British Standards havepublished a new
aluminium structural code, BS 8118 1991, whichsupersedes BS CP118 1969:
Part 1: Code of Practice for Design

Part 2: Specification for Materials, Workmanship and Protection
There is at presenta change-over periodwhere both design codes are valid, but at
some time in the future BS CP118 will be withdrawn. This new code is intended to
bring aluminium structural design into line with othermetals and also with European
standard codes, which will simplify future preparation of an overall European
structural code for aluminium.
I intend here to give users ofthe manual averybrief outline of how the new codes will
affect the use of aluminium. It is impossible to go into too much detail. Those
requiring additional information should refer to the codes themselves, available
from British Standards (see address below).
The New Code
The new code is based around a new design approach, based on the principle of
'limitstatedesign'. Thisprinciple is concerned with ensuring that anygivenstructure
cancarry the loadsand forces placed upon it withoutfailure, up to a pre-determined
limit. The factored resistance of a structure must therefore never be less than the
factored loading. The following equation can be applied:
Y12R = Y4S
= overall resistance factor

= calculated resistance
= overall loading factor
= maximum design load
The resistance is calculated from the effective sectional properties, the limiting
stressand a material and connection factor. The loading effectisfactored fortypeof
load, i.e. dead load, imposed load, wind load and temperature induced forces.
The new code also covers the calculation of elastic instabilities. Aluminium sections
with verywide, thinelements are susceptible to local buckling underhigh compressive stresses. The relevantcalculations have been simplified in the new code by
adopting a classification system based upon a factored relationship between the
width or depth of the element and the thickness. Three categories are listed for
moment resistance compact, semi-compact and slender. For compact sections,
no further check is required as theywill not suffer fromlocal buckling. (For example,
afl the sections listed in BS 1161 "AluminiumStructural Sections" are compact.)
Semi-compact resistance is obtained by using the quoted limiting stress of the
material. Sections defined as slender, however, are assessed on the basis of a
reduced effective wall thickness and the extent of the reduction can be obtained
from a seriesofcurves. Only the compact and slender categories are allowed when
calculating the axial resistance of struts.
Therecommendation fordeflection levels hasnot changed, but a word of caution is
included in the specification against imposing too tight a standard on aluminium
structures when the particularapplication does not merit it.
The section on welding has been greatly extended from that in the original code.
Guidance is provided on the design of weldstaking intoaccount the strength ofthe
weld metal and a partial reduction in strength in the heat affected zoneof the parent
metal. The limiting stressesfor both filler and parent metal are given with factorsfor
designing butt and lap joints for both traverse and longitudinal welds.
Adhesively bonded joints are only recommended for secondary stressed connections. The factored resistance of a bonded joint can be calculated from an expression containing a failing standard, obtainedfromtesting, and a material connection
factor for bonded joints, If validated test data is available, it can be used in the joint
resistance expression.
The section on fatigue has also been greatly extended, incorporating information
fromboth UK and European research. The tablesfor both welded and non-welded
structures contain detailed sketches illustrating the typeof construction, direction of
stress, fluctuation and possible cracklocations. Thetables are based upon BS 5400
Part 10: Bridges and give the classification for a range of structural detail.
Full supporting data including mathematical formulae relevanttothe design calculationsand curvesused in the codeare setout in the appendices of the new codeand
can be used to assistcomputer aided design.
All references in the manual to BS CP1 18 now apply to BS 8118 and, as the new
code does not cover permissible stress levels, table 3.2 and figure 3.3 are not
applicable. Tables 3.4 and 6.11 have also been modified as the standard elastic
modulus for all wroughtaluminium alloysis now 70,000 N/mm2
Reviewing the worked examples given in the manual, the pedestrian balustrade
(pages 113122) results in marginal modifications to some sections whenworkedto
the new code but gives similar overall results. In the case of the unloading ramp,
however (pages 111112) there could be a slight saving in the thickness of the
section when meeting the new code. The column example (pages 123125)refers
to alloy2014AT6 which is no longer astandard material inthe newcode. Although it
can be used, the limit statestresses would have to be established and, in this case,
the sectionthicknesswould haveto be slightly increased.
VIII
Competently used, the old code should still give an acceptable level of design. It
should be noted, however, that if the calculations are to be officiallyapproved then
only the new code is valid. Furthermore, the up-dated information in the new code
can result in a more economical structural useof the material.
Codes referred to: BS 8118 Part 1:
BS 8118 Part 2:
Codeof Practice for Design

1991 Specification for Materials,
Workmanship and Protection
1991
These are available from:
Sales Dept, BSI, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE, or any HMSO.
ix
INTRODUCTION
Aluminium is a highly versatile, light and strongmaterial whichcanbe produced in a

varietyofalloysandextruded intoan almost infinite number ofshapes. Thispowerful
combination of factors enables the user to be more innovative and facilitates costeffective design.
Comprising 8% of the earth's crust, aluminium is a plentiful resource. It is a
modern material, first used in commercial production in 1886. Since then, the list of
applications has grown immensely. Now, designers working in a whole range of
different sectors, including generalengineering, construction, transport, packaging
and consumer products, are reaping the benefits gained by using aluminium
extrusions.
The Shapemakers was established by the Aluminium Extruders Association

(AEA) in 1984 to provide independent guidance on all matters relating to extruded
aluminium. Representing the UK's top extrusion companies, The Shapemakers is
ableto drawupon thesecompanies' considerable resources and expertise.
This technical design guide contains a wealth of information on aluminium itself,
as well as giving details on the extrusion process, fabrication and finishing. Also
included is a comprehensive design section, which outlinesthe important design
considerations and shows a number ofworked examples.
Forreasonsofclarity, onlysix alloys have been incorporated intothemainbody of

the manual. These have been carefully selected to illustrate the various uses of
alloys from general purpose to high strength. Additional alloys are listed in the
appendices. For details of the availability of anyalloy listed in this manual, please
contact the Shapemakers Information Service in Birmingham, Tel: 021 4562276.
The AEA would like to thank The Shapemakers' technical consultant, Howard
Spencer, forall his workin compiling thisdesign guide. Aspecial thanksalsogoesto
TheShapemakers' members, Hugo Ravesloot, Jim Peach and Chris Forman.
Derek Phillips
Chairman of The Shapemakers
CONTENTS
PRINCIPLES OF EXTRUSION
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
25
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
33
DURABILITY
45
SURFACE FINISHING
55
FABRICATION
63
CONDUCTIVITY
87
TEMPERATURE
93
FIRE
97
CARE AND CONTROL
101
DESIGN
105
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
127
APPENDICES
133
SECTION 1 - PRINCIPLESOF EXTRUSION
CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
EXTRUSIONPROCESS
Direct Extrusion
IndirectExtrusion
Hollow Sections
EXTRUDABILITY
Extrusion Ratio
Shape Factor
7
7
7
SIZE
THICKNESS
4
5
6
SLOTS
10
SECTION CLASSIFICATION
11
CORNERS
11
TOLERANCES
12
List of Figures
Fig No.
Title
1.1
TheDirect ExtrusionProcess
1.2
TheDiffering Operating
Principlesof Direct
Page No.
4
and IndirectExtrusion
1.3
Extrusion of a Hollow Section
1 .4
Thick to Thin Transitionsin

Extrusion Cross Section
10
1.5
PressureHinge
10
1.6
SlotAspect Ratios
10
1.7
Standard Section Types
11
Listof Tables
No.
Title
1.1
Shape Factor Value
1.2
A Guide to MinimumThickness
1.3
Toleranceson Diameter of Round

Bar Intendedfor use on
Automatic Lathes
12
Toleranceson Widths Across

Flats of HexagonalBar forthe
Manufactureof Nut & Bolts
13
Toleranceson Diameter of
Round Bar in the Controlled
StretchedCondition
13
1.4
1.5
Page No.
List of Tables (contd.)

No
Title
1.6
Toleranceson Diameter or Width

Across Flats of Bars for General
Purposes and on Width of Solid
or Hollow RegularSections
14
Angular Tolerancesfor
ExtrudedRegul&Sections
15
1.8
PermittedCorner Radii
15
1 .9
Toleranceson Wall Thicknesses

of ExtrudedRound Tube
(classes A, B and C).
16
Toleranceson Thicknessof
Bars and Regular Sections
17
Toleranceson Open End of

Channelsand L Beams
18/19
1 .7
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1 .14
1.15
1 .16
1 .17
Page No.
Tolerances on the Outside

Diameter of All Extruded Round
Tube and on the Inside Diameter
of Class A and Class B Extruded
Round Tube
20
Toleranceson Thicknessof
Hollow Sections (classes A and B)
21
Toleranceson Straightnessfor
ExtrudedBar, RegularSections
and Extruded RoundTubes
22
Toleranceson Length for All

Materials Suppliedin Fixed
Cut Lengths
23
Tolerances on Concavity
and Convexityfor Extruded
Solid and Hollow Sections
23
Toleranceon Twist for Extruded

Solid and Hollow Sections
24
EXTRUSIONPROCESS
Direct Extrusion
The direct extrusion processcan be clearly seen in the schematicdiagram in Fig. 1.1.
Cylindrical aluminium alloy billets of cast or extruded manufacture are heated to
between4500and 500 before being loaded into a container and the billet squeezed
through a die orifice using ram pressuresof up to 68OMPa. The die is supported by a
series of back dies and bolsters so that the main press load is transferred to a front
platen.
Ram cross head

Stem
Liner
Die slide
Dummy block
Platen
Container
Billet
Die
Backer
Sub bolster
Extruded section
Fig. 1.1 - The Direct Extrusion Process
On leavingthe die the temperatureof the section is more than 500C and with heat
treatable afloys the quenching, or solution heat treatment, takes place in the
production line. Thiscanbe bywater bath, water spray or forced-draughtair, with the
latter being particularly useful for thin sections. The approximatetemperaturedrop
during the traverse of the quench box is 250C. To avoid distortion care hasto be
exercised in handling sections with extreme aspect ratios and large variations in
thickness.
Afterextrusionthe section is guided downthe table by a puller on to a slatted moving

belt. Modern Pullers are based on linear motor s,stemsand operateon tables up to
40 metres long. On completion of an extruded length, the section is sheared at the
press end and lifted from the slatted table by eccentric pivoted arms. It is then
transferred by a walking beam or multi-belttransfertable to the stretcher bay where
it is given a controlled stretch to straighten and remove minor mis-alignments.The
section is then taken and cut to ordered lengths on high speed tungsten carbide
tipped saws.
If the material is requiredin the solution heat treated condition (T4) it is released at
this stage. If the full strength aged material (T6) is required, it is given a precipitation
treatment before release. In the caseof the T5 temper,there is limited cooling atthe
press exit and the material goes directly to precipitationtreatment.
Indirect Extrusion
In the traditional direct methodof extrusion,as described above, the die is stationary
and the press ram applies pressure on to the billet. In the indirect method,the ram
carriesthe die and appliespressureon tothe stationarybillet, inthe oppositedirection
of extrusion.There can be variationto this basic concept,but in every case the billet
remains stationary in relationto the container,thereby keepingfriction loss to a bare
minimum. See Fig. 1.2.
Die
Extrusion
Billet
Die
Extrusion
Indirect extrusion
Die
Billet
Fig. 1.2 - The DifferingOperatingPrinciplesof Directand Indirect Extrusion
HollowSections
A bridgeor 'port-holedie' is usuallyusedto makehollowsections.Asolid billet isforced,
under pressure,through acompositedietoolthatfirstdividesthe metal intotwo or more
separate streams which then flows down under the bridge to be pressure welded
together and emerge, as an extruded section,through the orifice formed betweenthe
mandrel nose and the outer section shape which hasbeen cut in the die. See Fig. 1.3.
Any sample taken across the section would show an integralmaterial quality with no
reductionofstrength in the weld areas. Inspectionmethodsare usually by destructive
test samplingin line with that laid down by the British Standards for scaffold tubing in
specificationBS 1139. Productionmethodsfor this kind of section are wellestablished
and extruders will be pleased to advise on the feasibility of producing any hollow
section.
Some caution must be exercised, howeverwherethin hollowsections are required in

thestronger alloys,particularlyfromthebridgeorport-holeproductionmethods.Hollow
sections are usually produced in these alloys by using centre mandrelsthat are not
connectedtothedie but are passedthrough a boredor piercedhole inthecentre ofthe
billet and eitherconnectedorsupportedby the press rod. In this type of production,the
metalflow aroundthe mandrelis not interruptedandthereare no extrusionweld planes
inthe section. Theremaybesome restrictionintheavailabilityofthis type ofproduction
and in the range of sectionsobtainablefrom it. As the standardoftolerances may also
be wider further informationand advice should be sought from the extruderforstrong
alloy hollow sections.
area
Pressure
Mandrel nose
Bridge
Fig. 1.3 - Extrusionof a Hollow Section

6
EXTRUDABILITY
Aluminium alloys offer a wide range of performance characteristics and important
amongst these is its extrudability. Linked with modern die-making facilities and
traditionalexpertisethe metal offersa virtuallyunlimitedvarietyof sectionshapes. The
feasibilityof any extrusionhasboth technicaland commercialconsiderationsand most
extruders use a numberof methodsto evaluateextrusioncomplexity. These methods
are usually based upon a combinationof extrusiontheory and experience.
ExtrusionRatio
Extrusion ratio isthe valueobtained bydividingthe cross-sectionarea ofthe extrusion
billet bythe cross-sectionarea of the extrusionto be produced. It dependsvery much
on the size and type of press available and is a factor that can only be considered by
the extruder. Optimumextrusion ratiosfordirect extrusionare usuallybetween30 and
50.
With lowvaluesof 7or under,there isvery littleworkingofthe materialduringextrusion.

This gives a correspondingdrop in mechanicalpropertiesand the possibilityof coarse
grain bands. Values of 80 and above require high breakthroughpressureswhich are
likely to cause die distortion and possible breakage.
In some casesthe extrusionratiocanbe improvedby usinga multi-holedie. Inthecase
of indirectextrusionmuch higherextrusionratios are possiblebecauseofthe relatively
low frictional force developed in the system.
Shape Factor
The resistanceof a sectionto extrusioncan be influencedby the shapefactor. This is

the relationshipbetween the periphery and cross-sectionareaof the section being
extruded. It is usualforextrudersto modifytheshapefactor value, interms of extrusion
weight, by dividingthe peripheryby the cross sectional area and multiplyingby .0027.
The shape factor of a proposed extrusion is usually compared with that of a similar
existing extrusionto obtain a measureof extrudability. This is not a precise method,
however, as any large difference in wall thickness canalter the ratio substantially. In
general, the higherthe value the moredifficult the extrusion and the more limitedthe
alloy choice thereby restrictingsome high strength alloys. Table 1 .1 sets out some
general values which can be used for reference.
Table 1.1 - Shape FactorValues
SectionType
CCD
mm
Thickness
mm
Shape Factor
142
2.5
300
70
1.5
500
112
5.0
152
142
solid
15
70
solid
30
50
3.0
247
50
1.5
494
ltiiiiiil
210
3.0
190
210
2.0
285
140
2.0/6.0
183
40
2.0/1.5
430
Iii 11J
II
SIZE
The sizeofanextrudedshape is determinedbythediameterof thecircumscribingcircle

(CCD) required to enclose the cross-section. The maximumCCD for any die size is
governed by the need to keep an unbroken structural ring aroundthe die orifice.The
minimumwidth ofthat ring can vary from 20 mm on an averagesize solid dieto 60 mm
or more on dies for large hollow sections. Most averagesectionsfit intoCCDs below
155 mm with a medium range of 250 mm and very large sections up to 400 mm.
The section, should, as far as possible, be distributedaroundthe centre of the CCD.
In anyextrusion,metalflow is slowertowardsthe outsideedge ofthe dieso the placing
of thicker parts of the sectionaway fromthe centre results in a more even metal flow.
THICKNESS
Factorsthat dictatethickness are influencedbysection shape,alloy, dieface pressure,
extrusionspeed and section stability duringsolution heattreatment and post-extrusion
handling. Ageneral guide to minimumthickness isgiven in Table 1.2 which is based
on 6063 material.
Table 1.2 - A Guideto Minimum Thickness
E
E
I0)
0)
C-)
0)
0)
200
50
250
300
C C D in mm
a)
b)
Values for 6082 should be increasedby 25%

Thesethickness - GCDratios representaveragevaluesbased upongood working
practice.
c)
d)
The values up to 1 .25 mm thick are for small specialised presseswith very high
die face pressurelevels.
When ratios below those shown are required contact extruders.
The extrusionprocess will toleratevariations in sectionthicknessbut it is importantto

avoid abrupt change. Acceptabletransition betweenthicknessescanbe obtained by
using radii or blendingcurves, see Fig. 1 .4. Short spans of local thinning can also be
incorporatedin most sections. This is a useful methodof introducingpressurehinges

in section elementswhichwillbedeformedduring subsequentfabrication,see Fig. 1 .5.
9
p
p
Radius
Fig. 1.4 - Thick to Thin Transitionsin

ExtrusionCross-Section
I Thin hinge
Fig. 1.5 - PressureHinge
SLOTS
The formationofslots,or open boxchannels,in asection requiresafinger or box spigot
to be retainedon the die. As it is not possibleto reinforcethese spigots, which actas
local cantileversunder extrusion pressure,a practical limitmust be placed on the size
and type of slots available. Fig. 1.6 detailsthe normal methodofcalculatingslot aspect
ratios althoughwhere gaps are below 3 mm these ratiosare evenfurther reduced. The
maximum ratios are 3:1. Higher valuesare possible,particularly in 6063 alloy. Screw
ports and bolt slots are detailed under these headings in section 6 Fabrication.
Gap
Depth
___
_____
=
Area
Aspect Ratio =
Aspect Ratio
Gap2
Fig. 1.6 - Slot Aspect Ratios.
10
Depth
Width
Width
SECTION CLASSIFICATION
There arethreestandardtypesof section - solid,semi-hollowand hollow. Thefirstand
last are self-explanatory.Semi-hollowdescribesthose solid sectionswhich have open
box recesseswith aspect ratios (depth/width)less than three. In general,the tooling
and productioncosts increasewith section categoriesfrom solid to semi-hollowand
then hollow.
Solid
Semi-hollow
Hollow
Fig. 1.7 - Standard SectionTypes

CORNERS
All corners are normally broken by a radius but where absolutely necessary,sharp
cornerscanbe incorporatedin asection either internallyor externallybut the life of the
die and thespeedofextrusionare both markedlyreduced.Suchcorners also introduce
problems where paintedfinishes are specified, introducingobvious sight lines. The
breakingof the corners,even by 0.5 mm radii is helpful in overcomingthese problems
but for ideal extrusion conditions, radii should be related to the overall size of the
section. Table 1.8 sets out preferredvalues.
11
TOLERANCES
Tolerance levels for regular sectionsare laid down in BS 1474, howeveras the bulk of
extrusions are non-standardthey are not covered in the standard. The extrusion
industry regards BS 1474 as a target level and is preparedto accept if for all general
business,apart from verythin or complexsections which will bethe subject of special
enquiry. Closertolerancescanbeobtainedfor some sectionsbut, again,this isamatter
betweencustomer and extruder.
In line with most productionmethods,tolerancesare necessaryto cover variationsin

the actual process and wearing of toolsand dies.
Most tolerances are quoted as plus or minus around a datum value but, if required,
unilateral tolerance can be obtained, either all positiveor all negative. It is essential,
however, to agree this requirement before die manufacture is commenced as the
dimensional datum of the die will be altered.
Alltolerancesshouldbe measuredat 160G. This isparticularlysignificantforthelength

tolerancesof long bars.
There is no laid-downstandardfor the surface smoothnessor texture of mill finished

extruded sections.
Table 1.3 - Tolerances on Diameter of Round Bar Intended
for useon AutomaticLathes
Diameter
Over
Up to and
including
mm
10
18
mm
18
30
30
40
60
80
40
100
Plus and minimum toleranceson

diameter
+mm
60
80
100
160
-mm
0.10
0.13
0.14
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.5% of specifieddiameter
0.05
0.08
0.14
0.20
0.30
0.40
12
Table 1.4 - Tolerances on Width Across Flatsof Hexagonal
Barfor theManufactureof Nuts & Bolts
Width across flats

Over
Up to and
Tolerance on width across flats

(all minus)
Including
mm
mm
mm
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.15
0.20
4.0
4.0
19.0
19.0
36.0
36.0
46.0
80.0
46.0
Table 1.5 - Tolerances on Diameter of Round Bar in the

Controlled Stretched Condition*
Diameter
Over
Up to and
including
Tolerances on diameter
(plusand minus)
mm
mm
+mm
-mm
10
18
18
0.05
0.08
0.14
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.20
0.26
0.28
0.40
0.60
0.80
0.5% of
1.0 % of
specified
specified
diameter
diameter
30
40
60
80
100
30
40
60
80
100
180
* The controlledstretch
procedurereducesthe level of any residual stressesin abar
and is ideal for machining stock. SpecialTempersT6510 and T6511 refers.
13
Table 1.6 - Tolerances on Diameter or Width Across Flats of Bars

for General Purposesandon Width of Solid
or Hollow Regular Sections
Diameter, width or
width across flats

Over
Up to and
including
mm
mm
10
18
10
18
30
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
Tolerances (see notes 1 and 2)
mm
0.16
0.20
0.26
30
0.32
40
60
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.65
80
100
120
140
0.80
180
0.90
1.00
1.10
200
240
280
320
1.20
1.30
1.50
1.70
160
NOTE 1: Tolerances in this table apply to solid materialsother than:

(a) round bar for use on automaticlathes (see table 1.4)
(b) controlledstretchedbar (see table 1.6)
(c) hexagonalbars for the manufactureof nuts and bolts (see table
1.5)
NOTE 2: Tolerances in this table apply to hollow regular sections
having awall thicknessnot less than 1.6mmor3%of the overall width,
whichever is the greater. In the case of non-heat-treatedmaterial or
1.6mm or4% oftheoverall width, whicheveris the greater,in the case
of heat treated material. The tolerance should be appliedto the width
measuredat the corners.
14
Table 1.7 - AngularTolerances for Extruded Regular

Sections
Nominal thickness of
Allowabledeviation from angle
thinnest leg
(measured at the exUp to and specified
Over
tremitles of thesection)
including
mm
-
j-
mm
1.6
5.0
-
1.6
5.0
1.5
1
Table 1.8- PermittedCorner Radii

For square and rectangularsections
Minor dimension
Over
Up to and
Including
mm
-
mm
5
10
10
25
25
50
120
Radius on corner (max.)

mm
0.4
0.8
1.6
2.5
3.0
5.0
50
120
-
For regular sections (e.g. angle, channel, I- and - sections)

Thicknessof
Radius on corner (max.)
section
mm
mm
Up to and
including 5
0.8
Over5
1.5
15
Table 1.9 - Tolerances on Wall Thicknessof Extruded Round Tube

(classes A, B and C) (see note 1)
Class A
ClassB
Toleranc Wall thickness

on mean atany point
thickness wall
oftube thickness
Class C
Nominal
Tolerano
wall
on mean
(Max.)
(Mm.)
mm
mm
mm
1.0
1.5
1.20
1.71
2.0
0.15
0.16
0.17
2.23
0.80
1.29
1.77
0.18
0.20
2.5
3.0
4.0
0.18
0.20
0.23
2.74
3.27
4.30
2.26
2.73
3.70
0.22
0.27
5.0
6.0
0.26
0.28
0.31
4.66
5.62
6.57
0.37
0.43
7.0
5.34
6.38
7.43
8.0
0.34
0.40
0.46
8.47
10.0
12.0
10.52
12.61
7.53
9.48
14.0
16.0
18.0
0.53
0.58
0.63
20.0
22.0
25.0
0.68
0.74
NOTE 2:
NOTE3:
NOTE 4:
NOTE5:
Wall thickness
at any point
wall
thickness
mm
NOTE 1:
Tolerance
on mean
wall
mm
0.81
Wall thickness
at any point
(Max.)
(Mm.)
mm
mm
1.74
2.27
2.80
3.36
4.42
0.31
thickness
(Max.)
(Mm.)
mm
mm
mm
1.26
1.73
2.20
2.64
3.58
0.65
0.70
3.87
4.93
2.13
3.09
6.00
7.09
8.18
4.00
6.73
8.64
4.51
0.75
0.51
5.49
6.58
7.67
5.42
6.33
0.82
0.89
8.76
10.85
13.03
7.24
9.15
0.94
9.27
11.39
0.56
0.65
0.77
10.97
1.03
1.15
11.36
13.54
10.46
14.71
16.76
18.82
13.29
0.88
12.76
14.66
16.56
1.30
1.40
1.50
12.25
1.00
1.13
15.24
17.34
19.44
15.75
15.24
17.18
20.90
23.00
26.10
19.10
21.00
23.90
1.22
1.35
1.49
21.63
18.38
23.81
20.19
23.00
1.60
1.73
1.88
27.00
4.91
5.82
17.88
14.12
20.00
16.00
22.13
24.32
17.88
27.50
22.50
19.68
BStoleranceclassesA,B and C forround tube denote a descendingorder of

tolerancestandard. All classesapplicable to 6063, 6063A, 6082, 6101A,
6463, Only Classes B & C are applicableto 2014A
The tolerances given in this table apply to non-heat-treatedtube ofwall

thicknessnot less than 1.6mmor3% ofthe outsidediameter,whicheveris the
greater and to heat treatedtube ofwall thicknessnot less than 1.6mmor4%
of the outside diameter,whichever is the greater.
These toleranceson wall thickness do not apply where tolerances on both
outside and inside diameterare required in which case the eccentricity
toleranceon the resultantwall should be agreedbetweenthe purchaserand
the supplier at the time of the enquiry and order.
Mean thicknessisdefinedasthe sum ofthe wall thicknessesmeasuredatthe
ends ofany two diameters at right angles, divided by four.
The toleranceon the wall thicknessof intermediatenominal wall thickness
should be taken as those of the next lower size.
16
034
036
-
032
-
180
240
320
120
180
240
Over
32
060
050
040
036
0 28
026
022
020
mm
065
055
045
039
034
0 30
028
024
022
mm
6mm
up to and up to and
including including
6mm
10mm
thick
thick
3mm
Over
070
060
050
042
0 37
0 33
030
026
mm
10mm
up to and
including
18mm
thick
Over
075
065
055
045
0 40
0 36
032
+ mm
080
070
060
048
043
40
085
075
065
052
50
090
080
070
057
0 45
+ mm
mm
+ mm
095
085
075
065
mm
mm
100
090
082
080
105
095
090
+ mm
mm
10
105
100
including including including including including including including including

30mm
40mm
60mm
80mm
100mm 120mm 140mm
160mm
thick
thick
thick
thick
thick
thick
thick
thick
Over
Over
Over
Over
Over
Over
Over
Over
18mm
30mm
40mm
60mm
80mm
100mm 120mm 140mm
up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and
NOTE:- For sectionsover 160 mm thick, the toleranceson thickness are thoseshown for comparablewidths (see Table 1.6)
0 30
0 28
80
120
0 26
24
60
80
024
022
0
30
020
018
mm
018
016
mm
18
18
10
mm
Over
1.6mm
up to and
including
3mm
thick
30
10
Up
Including
Up to and
Including
1.6mm
to and thick
Tolerances on specifiedthickness (plus and minus)
60
mm
Over
Widthacross
flats of bar
or width of
section
Table 1.10- Tolerances on Thickness of Bars and Regular Sections
mm
10
18
30
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
10
18
30
40
60
80
100
120
140
including
3.0
6.0
3.0
6.0
3.0
60
3.0
6.0
-
6
-
3.0
3.0
6.0
3.0
3 0
6.0
3.0
6.0
6
-
30
1.5
1.5
mm
1.5
3.0
-
6 0
For 0
0.45
0.45
0 43
0.37
0.35
037
0.65
0.62
0.59
0.57
0.54
060
0.55
0.52
0.49
0.41
047
044
0.34
0.32
038
0.28
0.26
0.31
0 29
0.28
032
mm
0.23
0 22
026
* mm
Up to and up to and over
1.5
3.0
mm
For 0
1.21
1.25
1.11
1.15
1.01
1.05
086
0.90
0.71
0.66
0 75
061
0.70
0 66
0.65
0.61
0 56
053
048
0.57
0.47
0 40
0.36
0.41
0.34
0.30
mm
36
1.30
1
126
120
1.16
1.10
095
1.01
073
0.86
0.80
0.75
0.68
1.52
1.44
134
1,42
32
1.24
1
1.17
1.09
1.02
0.94
0.82
0,77
097
0 89
0.84
0.72
0.70
0 63
081
0 92
0.64
055
0 76
076
0.84
0.55
0.47
070
0.68
0.62
0.56
0.46
0.41
* mm
deep
deep
+ mm
over
40mm
up to and
including
60mm
ForD
over
30mm
up to and
including
40mm
ForD
23
73
1.61
1
1.63
1,51
1.53
1.41
1.38
1.26
1.11
0.96
1.18
1 06
0.91
1.13
1.01
0 86
093
0 78
1.05
74
59
1.94
1.79
1.84
1.69
59
1.44
1
44
1.29
1.09
1
1.39
24
1.04
1
1 34
1.19
0.99
091
1.11
126
+ mm
deep
mm
For 0
over
80mm
up to and
including
100mm
For 0
over
60mm
up to and
including
80mm
deep
2.15
1.95
1.86
206
1.95
1.76
1.61
1.80
1.46
1.22
165
117
1.41
1.60
1.55
1.36
1.12
* mm
deep
For 0
over
100mm
up to and
Including
120mm
76
2.36
2.14
2.26
2.04
2.16
1.94
2.01
1 79
1.35
164
1.86
181
1 59
1.30
1,54
1.26
-'
+ mm
mm
2.57
2.31
247
221
2.37
2.11
2.22
1.96
148
2.07
1.81
2.02
1.76
1 43
For 0
over
120mm
140mm
to
and
up
up to and
including including
140mm 160mm
deep
deep
For 0
over
Inlernalor exte,nai tolerance on open end dimensionfor various deplhs of opening D(pius and minus)
For 0
over
18mm
including including 10mm
10mm
to
and
up
up to and
deep
including including
18mm
30mm
deep
deep
of webor flange
Minimum thickness
Up to and Over
mm
Over
Overall width Wof

channelor i-beam
Table 1.11 Tolerances on Open End Channels and L Beams
2.49
2.78
2.39
265
2.58
2.29
2.14
2.43
161
1.99
2.28
+ mm
For 0
over
160mm
up to and
including
180mm
deep
-L
(0
320
280
Depth of
280
240
6
Open end dlmens!on
240
200
200
180
180
160
mm
mm
mm
mm
10mm
deep
Web
Flonqe
31
55
71
Open
1.91
151
141
1.45
1.35
2.00
180
66
160
150
56
14
194
1 82
1.74
1.72
1.64
1.54
1.40
1
162
146
+ mm
71
232
211
191
2 03
181
1.93
183
mm
2.40
229
209
2,24
214
199
1.89
204
deep
mm
deep
+
For D
over
80mm
up to and
including
100mm
For 0
over
60mm
up to and
including
80mm
Depth of opeeng
+ mm
mm
+ mm
+
For 0
over
40mm
up to and
including
60mm
deep
For D
over
For D
over
18mm
30mm
to
and
to
and
up
up
up to and
Including Including including
18mm
30mm
40mm
deep
deep
deep
or D For D
to and up to and over
including IncludIng 10mm
Up
mm
Up to and Over
Including
of web or flange
2.66
246
2.26
2 45
2.35
2.16
2.06
225
+ mm
deep
For D
over
100mm
up to and
including
120mm
mm
284
264
2.44
2 66
2.34
256
2.24
246
deep
For 0
over
120mm
up to and
including
140mm
3.01
281
2 87
261
277
251
241
2.67
+ mm
over
140mm
up to and
including
160mm
deep
For
Minimum thickness internal or external tolerance on open end dimension for variousdepths of opening D (plus and minus)
Over
Overallwidth Wof
channel or I-beam
Table 1.11 (continued)
3.19
299
3 08
279
298
269
288
259
+ mm
deep
over
160mm
up to and
including
180mm
For
Table 1.12 - Toleranceson the OutsideDiameter ofAll Extruded Round Tube

and on the Inside Diameter of Class A and class B
Extruded RoundTube (see note 1)
Outsidediameter,
Over
Up to and
Including
Tolerance on
the actual
diameter(see
notes 5 and 6)
mm
mm
mm
mm
18
0.19
0.23
0.34
0.40
0.45
or inside diameter
12
18
30
30
40
0.25
0.30
0.36
40
50
60
50
60
80
0.45
0.54
0.60
80
300
1%of
diameter
Tolerance on
themean
diameter(see
notes5 and 6)
0.27
314%of
diameter
NOTE 1. For detailsconcerningtheapplicabilityoftolerance

class (A or B) to alloy, see 1.9.
NOTE 2. The tolerancesare applicableto non-heat-treated
tubing ofwallthicknessnotIessthan1.6mmor 3% ofthe outside diameter, whichever is thegreater,and to heat-treated
tubing of wall thickness not less than 1.6 mm or 4 % of the
outside diameter, whichever Is the greater.
NOTE3. In the caseoftubing in straight lengths, the above
tolerancelimits are Inclusiveof ovality.
NOTE4. Whereatoleranceon wallthicknessisrequired,the
toleranceson diameter areto beappliedeithertothe outside
diameteror to the Inside diameter, but notto both.
NOTE 5. Tolerances on the actual diameter Indicate the
amountby which the diameter (inside or outside, as appropriatemeasured in anydirection maydepartfromthespecified diameter. Tolerances on the mean diameter(inside or
outside, as appropriate) Indicate the amount by which the
mean oftwo diametersmeasured In two directions at right
angles in the same plane may depart from the specified
diameter.
NOTE6. Thegiventoleranceson the actual diameter do not

apply to annealed tube, coiled tube, or tube having a wall
thickness less than 2.5 % of outside diameter. The tolerancesoftheseproductsandofcontrolledstretchedtube are
subject to agreement between purchaserand supplier.
20
-'
N)
0.48
0.65
.
-
180
240
320
120
180
240
-
036
041
58
075
095
0.85
1 05
1 25
0.68
20
45
0.95
00
mm
1
1
40
80
110
.
062
0 82
048
058
0.41
048
* mm
30mm
thick
075
-
0.65
055
0.45
036
0.28
036
045
0.28
022
* mm
+ mm
including 1.6mm
up to and
including
3.0mm
thick
Up to and Over
0.85
1 00
065
075
0 80
0.54
* mm
3.0mm
up to and
including
6.0mm
thick
Over
mm
00
20
1 40
1
110
090
095
40
mm
60
1 80
2 00
1
1.50
145
nm
2 60
240
2.20
2 00
including including including

30mm
10mm
18mm
thick
thick
thick
Over
Over
10mm
18mm
to
and
to
and
up to and
up
up
6mm
Over
NOTE 2. The tolerancesapply to non-heat-treated sections of wall thickness not less than 1.6 mm or 3% of the overal width, whichever is the greater, and
to heat-treated sections of wall thickness not less than 1.6mm or 4% of the overall width, whicheveris the greater.
NOTE 1. For detailsconcerningthe applicabilityof tolerance class (A to B) to alloy, see Note 1 of Table 1,9
0,36
032
60
80
120
0.22
0.28
mm
18mm
thick
032
18mm
Over
10mm
6.0mm
up to and
including
10mm
thick
Class B
up to and up to and 1.6mm

including Including thick
Over
Over
.
.
* mm
* mm
30
60
80
026
0.20
+ mm
10
18
30
mm
6.0mm
thick
3.0mm
thick
Over
Up to and Up to and Over
3.0mm
Including including 1.6mm
1.6 mm
up to and up to and
thick
including Including
Class A
Tolerances on specified thickness
10
18
mm
Over
Width or widlh
across flats
Table 1.13- Tolerances on Thickness of HollowSections(classesA and B(
Table 1.14 - Tolerances on Straightness for Extruded Bar, Regular Sectionsand

Extruded Round Tubes (see below)
For bars, tubes Temper
Nominal length
of bar, tube or
section L
or sections
within a
circumscribing
circle
Over 100
Maximum
S from straightnessof localized kink

in any 300 mm
length L (metres)
portion
(see below)
mm
Up to and
including 100
Maximum derivation
mm
mm
All tempers
over 0.4
1.5 L
0.6
over 0.4
2.0 L
0.8
All other
tempers
over 0.4
2.5 L
1.0
NOTE 1. The straightnessis measured by determining the maximum deviation from

straightnessSover length1,whenthe bar, sectionortubeis supportedonaflattable such
that the deviationis minimizedby Its own mass.
NOTE 2. Kink Is measured using a straightedge 300 mm in length(see below).
NOTE 3. Tolerances on straightnessfor annealed and controlled stretched materials
should besubject toagreement between the purchaserand thesupplieratthe timeofthe
enquiryand order.
Localized kink
7/ / /
300mm straightedge
Bar,tube or section
ot length L
///V/ ////4// // /// // / //

Maximum
deviation S
Length L
22
Section through
tiatness measuring
table
-
Table1.15 - Tolerances on Length for All Materials Supplied in FixedCut Lengths

Diameter, width Tolerances on length for givenlength (plus and minus)
across flats or (see notes 1 and 2)
overall width
Over
Over
Up to and Over
1000 mm
including 300 mm
up to and up to and
including including
1000 mm 1500 mm
long
long
Over
1500 mm
up to and
including
5000 mm
Over
Over
Over
5000 mm 7000 mm 10000 mm
up to and up to and long
7000 mm
10000 mm
long
long
long
including including
mm
mm
jmm
jmm
jmm
jmm
jmm
60
60
100
140
180
240
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.5
2.5
2.5
3.5
4.0
5.0
2.5
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.5
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.5
8.0
4.0
5.5
6.5
8.0
9.5
100
140
180
4.5
jmm
6.5
7.5
8.0
9.5
11.0
NOTE 1. Tolerances on length are measured at a temperature of 16 5 C. Theyprovide

for out-of-squareness of cutto the extent of 10.
NOTE 2. Total tolerances (i.e. the sum of the plus and minus limits) may be applied
unilaterallyby agreement between the supplierand the purchaser.
Table 1.16 - Tolerances on Concavity and

Convexityfor Extruded Solid
and HollowSections
Width
of section W
Maximum allowable
deviationD(see figure)
mm
mm
Up to and
including 25
0.125
Over25
0.l2Sper2Smm
Coocoolty
increment in width
(e.g. for 150 mm width
maximumdeviation D
permitted is 0.75 mm)
23
Table 1.17- Tolerances on Twist for ExtrudedSolid and Hollow Sections
degrees
Under 20
20 up to and including40
degrees
7
5
Over 40 upto and including 80
0.5
Over 80:
Lengths upto and
including 8000 mm
Lengths over 8000 mm
Twist T
24
SECTION 2- MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
ALLOYS
27
TEMPER
Solution Heat Treatment
PrecipitationHeat Treatment
29
30
30
25
List of Figures
Fig No. Title
Page No.
2.1
Temper Cycles
29
2.2
Solubility Diagram
31
Listof Tables
No.
Title
2.1
Chemical Composition
27
2.2
Alloy Characteristicsand Uses
28
Page No.
26
ALLOYS
High purity aluminium,99.00% and above, hasexcellentdurability together with
high thermal and electrical conductivity.It is easily worked and afthoughit can be
strengthendby cold working it remains a low stength material.
For more general use, alloying elements are introduced, producingmaterialsthat

retain the general characteristicsof pure aluminium but have greater structure
strength (refer to Table 2.2). In the extrusion industry, the alloys most widely used
throughoutthe world are in the InternationalStandards 6000 series, to which the
British Standards alloys also conform.The main alloying constituents in this series
are silicon and magnesium(refer to Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 - Chemical Composition
ALLOY
COMPOSITION (%)
BS 1474
SI
6063
0.200.450.60 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.90 0.10
0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15
REM
6063A
0.30- 0.150.600.60 0.35 0.10 0.15 0.90 0.05
0.15 0.10 0.05 0.15
REM
6082
0.700.40- 0.601.30 0.50 0.10 1.00 1.20 0.25
0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15
REM
6101A
0.300.70 0.40 0.05
0.03 0.10
REM
6463
0.200.450.60 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.90 -
0.05
0.05 0.15
REM
0.90 0.50 5.00 1.20 0.80 0.10 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15
REM
0.502014A
Fe
Cu
Mn
Cr
Others
Each Total
(1987)
Mg
0.400.90
3.90- 0.40- 0.20-
* 6101A comformsto BS 2898
** T + Zr
27
NI
Zn
TI
Al
0.15-
Table 2.2 - Alloy CharacteristIcs and Uses
BS
CHARACTERISTICS
TYPICAL USES
6063
Suitable for intricate extruded

sections ofmid-strength. Forms
well in T4 condition. High
corrosion resistance.
Good
surface finish.
Themost widely usedalloy. Architectural
A stronger version of 6063 but

retaining mostofthat alloy'sgood
Road and rail transport, general engineering, ladders and light structures.
6063A
surface finish and formability.

6082
The recommended alloy for
structural purposes with good

strengthand generalcorrosion
resistance.
members i.e. glazing bars and window

frames; windscreensections, roadtransport.
Road and rail transport, scaffolding,

bridges, cranes and heavy structures.
Busbar,electrical conductorsand fittings
6101A The best combination of

electrical and mechanical
conductor properties with
conductivity of 55% of the
InternationalAnnealed Copper
Standard.
6463
Based on high purity (99.8%)

aluminium, this alloy was
developed to respond well to
chemical or electro-chemical
brighteningor anodizing. It has
excellent formability.
2014A A high strength alloy with

moderatecorrosion resistance.
Motor car trim and other applications

requiringa bright finish.
Structures, aerospace,general
engineering.
28
TEMPER
Thepropertiesof alloysinthe6000 and2000range canbeimprovedby heattreatments

after extrusion.
These alloys, although available in the F, "as manufactured", condition, are more
usually produced in one of the followingthree tempers:T4
T5
precipitationtreated (artificiallyaged)
T6
solutionheat treatedand precipitationtreated (fully heattreated)
solution heat treated
T5
PRECIPITATION
___________
SOLUTION
HEAT
TREATMENT
(AGEING)
EXTRUSION_F
(QUENCHING)
:
F
Fig. 2.1 TemperCycles
The current procedure for producingthe T4temper is usually 'on-line". An extrusion,

emerging from the die at about 500C, is rapidly cooled by air, water spray or water
immersion, depending upon the section shape and extrusion speed. The temper,
although strongerthan in the F condition, is stillof relatively low strengthand, with its
high elongationvalue, it is an excellent choicewheresevere forming is required. Some
natural ageing or hardening will occur which will, in some alloys, curtail the time
available forforming.
For thin sections a strongertemper, T5, is available. T5 is given greater strengthby

carrying out precipitation treatment without any solution heat treatment. This is
provided by heatingthe materialup to about 180C and soakingfor several hoursin an
oven.
29
The final and strongest temper available (without the applicationof cold work) is T6
which combines both the solution heat treatment and the precipitationtreatment.
The relationship between mechanical properties and heat treatment of a range of
aluminiumalloyswasfirst discoveredbyWilm in 1906. Overtheyears,theprocesshas
been developed with improvementsand innovations being introduced which have
helped to make the "heattreated" alloys the most widely used extrusion materials in
the world.
in recent years, much greater use has been made of reheat treatment following low
temper or heat inducedfabrication operations such as bending and welding. This is
a property of aluminium that is well worth considering at the design and material
selection stage of fabricated components.
It is not the purpose of this manual to deal with detailed metallurgical aspects of
aluminium and its alloys,but the followingsimplifiedexplanationof heat treatmentmay
be of background interest:The thermal treatment consists of two phases:
a)
b)
solution heat treatment

precipitation heat treatment
Solution Heat Treatment

Thechemical constituentsofaluminiumalloys are to agreateror lesserextent soluble
in aluminium. The degreeofabsorptionvaries with the amount and typeofconstituent
andtemperature. The higherthetemperature,the greaterthe amount dissolved. Fig.
2.2 shows a typical solubility diagram where, at temperaturesabove point A , (the
Solvus temperature) the atoms are in solid solution and designated by the prefix
"solute". These atom phases ofconstituentsare thus dissolved in solid solution and a
rapid temperaturedrop,throughquenching,willpreventthe solute atomsfrom diffusing
out of solution. This condition, however, is not totally stable and a natural ageing will
take place, varying from several days to several weeks depending upon the alloy.
Duringthe ageing processa fine dispersionof clustersofsolute atomswilloccur. The
final stable condition is defined as T4 temper.
PrecipitationHeat Treatment
The precipitationheat treatment process, also known as artificial ageing, speeds up
and greatly increases the rate of precipitationand fine dispersion of the constituent
atoms,which are distributed in clusters over the whole matrix. Thealloy will nowtend
to resist material dislocation, resultingin a marked improvementin both strengthand
hardness, usually to a level well above that obtained by natural ageing.
30
Liquid
Liquid
- solid
0
U)
CU
0
U)
U)
I
Solid
5
% Constituent
Figure 2.2 - Solubility Diagram
31
Page blank
in original
SECTION 3- MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
INTRODUCTION
35
STRESS
Axial Loading
36
38
STIFFNESS
41
HARDNESS
43
FATIGUE
43
33
Listof Figures
Page No.
Fig No.
Title
3.1
Yield Point
36
3.2
Typical Stress Strain

Curves
37
PermissibleCompressive
Stresses in Struts
39
RelationshipBetween
Hardness Number and
Tensile, Yield Strengths
42
FatigueCurves For Some

Aluminium Alloys
(Rotating CantileverTests)
44
3.3
3.4
3.5
List of Tables
Page No.
No.
Title
3.1
Propertiesto BS 1474
35
(1987)
3.2
PermissibleStresses
38
3.3
EffectiveLengths of Struts
40
3.4
Moduli of Elasticity
41
34
INTRODUCTION
A wide range of mechanicalproperties is availablefrom aluminiumand its alloys with
the level of performancevarying withthe degreeof alloying and temper. The property
range forthe more generally availablecommercial alloys is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 - Propertiesto BS 1474(1987)
ALLOY TEMPER
MAX
THICKNESS
0.2% Ps
mm
N/mm2
16
200
150
25
150
T4
15
T6
25
25
25
Fe)
T4
T5
6063
6063A
Fe)
T4
15
6082
%ELONGATIONb)
5.65y'
50
mm
13
16
12
14
110
160
100
130
150
195
8
8
7
7
90
160
190
150
14
8
8
12
200
230
12
7
7
200
150
120
230
255
110
190
270
295
13
16
8
7
6
20a)
T6
70
ULT.
STRESS
N/mm2
14
T6
170
200
10
T4
T6
50
50
75
6463
160
125
185
16
10
14
T6
20a)
20a)
230
370
370
435
11
2014A
10
6
6lOlAd)
a)
b)
C)
d)
e)
Thicker sections are possible and give higher mechanicalproperties. For

details contact extruder.
Theelongationisobtainedfrom atensiletestsampleon which agauge length
is markedpriortotesting. Thegauge length is specified,being either 50 mm
long or 5.65 cross-sectionalarea. (So)
The properties of aluminiumvary with temperatureoutside an approximate
rangeof-50Cto+80C. They willincreaseat lowtemperaturesand decrease
at high temperatures. Thevalues vary with the alloy, seeTable 8.2.
Alloy 6101A conformsto BS 2898.
Values given for F condition are not specifiedproperties in British Standards
and are given for informationonly.
35
STRESS
Aluminiumdoes not exhibit a yield point. Stress/strainbehaviouris similar to that of a
numberof othermetals,includingsome alloy steels. It is necessary,therefore,toadvise
a recognisablepoint of departure from elastic to plastic behaviour. In the method
chosen, the stress level registeredat 0.2%. Permanentstrain is regardedas the yield
point. Theyield point can be obtainedfrom thestress/straincurve bydrawingtheoffset
of O.2% strain parallel to the elastic line for the alloy under consideration. The 0.2%
proofstress can be read atthe pointof intersectionofthe two lines, seeFig.3.1. Alloy
curves will have a different point of departurefor each temper condition.
200
/
/ 0.2
Ordinate
E
E
z
0,
CO
U)
/
20
NB. for reasons of clarity

the alloy curve is
exaggerated
/
0.50
0.60
% Strain
Fig. 3.1 - Yield Point
36
0.70
2014A T6
500-
Mild Steel
400
//
300-
//'7
6082 T6
a,
ci)
''I
(I)
200-
100-
10
15
%
20
Strain
Fig. 3.2 - Typical StressStrain Curves
37
Table 3.2 - PermissibleStresses
ALLOY
TEMPER
AXIAL e)
BENDING
N/mm2
N/mm2
Pbt Pbc
SHEAR
BEARING
N/mm2
N/mm2
Pt
Pc
6063
15
62
69
37
117
106
6063
T6
87
96
52
139
81
6082
16
139
154
83
222
61
2014A
T4
135 124
153 142
81
239
71
2014A
16
154d)
108
278
49
20 154d) 224
Pt AXIAL TENSION
Pc AXIAL COMPRESSION
Pbt BENDING TENSION
PbcBENDING COMPRESSION
s SLENDERNESSRATIO AT EULER BLEND POINT SEE FIG. 3.3
a)
b)
C)
d)
e)
Permissible stress levels are laid down in BS CP1 18 TheStructural Use of

Aluminium".
6063 values are applicableto 6101A and 6463.
6063A is a new alloy, not yet allocateda value but from experienceit should
be slightly in excess of 6063 values (8%).
Arbitrarily reducedvalues to allow for inferior crack-propagationresistance.
Applies only when buckling is notthe criterion.
AxIal Loading
Foraxial loading,incolumnsand struts,the permissiblecompressivestress isobtained

by inserting the appropriate slendernessratio into the alloy/tempercurves given in
Fig. 3.3, and using the effective length factor from Table 3.3.
38
CM
E
E
z'a
CM
a)
(1)
a)
>
U)
(a
a)
0.
E
0
0
a)
.0
0)
0)
E
a)
100
A Slenderness Ratio
Fig. 3.3 - PermissibleCompressive Stressesin Struts
=
K!.
K
L
r
=
=
=
=
slendernessratio
end fixity factor (effective length)
=
=
whore
also
spaninmm
radius of gyration of section in mm
inertia
cross sectional area
39
Table 3.3 - EffectiveLengthsof Struts

End Condition
Effective Length
ofStrut
Effectivelyheldin position and restrained

in direction at both ends
0.7 L
Effectivelyheldin positionat both ends

and restrainedin directionat one end
0.85 L
Effectivelyheldin positionat both ends,

but not restrainedin direction

in direction at one end and partially
restrainedin direction but not heldin
position atthe other end
in direction at one end, but not held in
position or restrainedat other end
1.5 L
2.0 L
NOTE. L is the length of strut betweenpoints of lateral support.
Theextensive range of shapes and, over the last few years, the ability of the industry
to producethinner extrusions hasencouragedthe use of slendersections. Because
of low aspect ratios (width/depth)and high elementthickness ratios (width/thickness)
of the thinner extrusions they require examination for possible modes of elastic
instability. The modesoffailure listedbeloware particularlyrelevanttothin-walledopen
sections of asymmetricalshape in aluminium alloys.
a)
b)
C)
Torsional warping
Lateral instability
Local buckling
All thefactors are influencedbythe shapeand dimensionsofthe section and, whilst (a)
and (b) are also relevantto span, (C) is not.
Althoughsafe valuesare oftenquoted in simpletermsforaspect and elementthickness
ratios,theyare not entirely reliableand should not be used. Ifthere is anydoubt about
the robustnessof asection in theformoffailures list above,it shouldbechecked, using
appendicesF, G, H and Kin BS CP 118- TheStructuralUseofAluminium".Thedesign
approach uses equivalent slenderness ratios in conjunction with alloy compression
curves. The strut curves in Fig. 3.3 can be used for torsional warping but will give
pessimistic values for lateral instability and local buckling, where the equivalent
slendernessratio falls on thestraight line partsofthegraphs: See BS CP1 18 Fig. 2 for
modifiedcompression curves suitable for solving lateral instabilityand local buckling.
40
STIFFNESS
The stress/strain relationshipis given by Hooke's Law which states that intensity of
stress is proportionaltostrain. Thisisapplicabletoaluminiumalloys toa leveljustbelow
the 0.2% proof stress, the slope ofthe line being obtained from:
Table 3.4 - Modull of Elasticity
E
ALLOY
Stress
Strain
where E is the modulusof elasticity

MODULUSOF ELASTICITY E
N/mm2
6063
6063A
6082
6101A
6463
2014A
65,500
65,500
68,500
65,500
65,500
72,000
These values are approximately one third of that of mild steel, 210,000 N/mm2.
Aluminium under elastic bending will therefore give deflectionsthree times greater
than those obtained from mild steel under similar loading conditions. This is not true
for self weight loadingwherethe light weightofaluminiumcounteractsthe effect ofthe
lower elastic modulus of aluminium. The advantage to be obtained from a low
modulus are greater impact absorption with shock loads and lower imposed stress
levels from movement in static structurescaused by temperaturevariationor support
settlement.The modulusof elasticitywill vary with temperature,see Table 8.2.
In applicationswhere deflection is the controlling design factor, the performance of
aluminium can be dramatically improvedby utilising the advantagesof the extrusion
process to position materialsstrategicallyaround the section. The geometric properties can also be increasedby small additionsto section depth.
This modification applies to all materials but can be more readily incorporated into
extrudedaluminium sections. Examplesare given in Section 11, Design.
Therelationshipbetweenlateral and longitudinalstrain,within the elastic limit, isgiven

by Poisson's Ratio which, for aluminium alloys, is usually 0.34.
41
35
30
Tensile
x
E
E
Relationshipbetween
hardnessnumberand
tensile strength
for magnesium- silicide
alloy extrusions in
the artificially aged
condition
25
-c
0)
Yield
20
)2)
(0
.;
(0
C
15-
10
I-
(1/6063 T5 & T6
F
6063A
j"1
Brinell
6082 T6
1
i'
T6
45 055 6065 707580 85 9095100105110
Vickers
Rockwell
'F' 46 51 56 61
66 71 76 82 87 92 98103 109115
54 61 67 71 76 79 82 85 87 89 91
'E'
68 72 77 80 83 86 88 90 92 94 96
Rockwell 'B' 47 55 62
- - -I - 12 23 32 39 45 50 55 60 63 66
Rockwell 'K'
Rockwell
Webster
15253441485358826670737678
5 7 9 10 11 12 131314141515151616161717
Hardness number
HARDNESS TESTER SETTINGS
Rockwell
Brinell
lOmm.Steel ball penetrator - 500kg.load

Vickers
Diamond penetrator - various loadings
1.6mm
Rockwell
'B'
Steel ball penetrator - lOOkg.load
'K'
3.2mm Steel
Rockwell 'F'
1.6mm Steel ball penetrator - 6Okg.load
Rockwell 'E'
3.2mm, Steel ball penetrator - lOOkg.load
Webster
Model
ball penetrator - l5Okg.load
'B'
Note: Asthistable shows, a hardnessvalue covers a range of stress levels and must
not therefore be used to give precise measurementsof strength.
Fig. 3.4 - Relationship Between Hardness Number

and Tensile, Yield Strengths
42
HARDNESS
The surfaces hardnessof aluminium alloys can be assessed by most of the general
methods of measurement,Brinell, Vickers and Webster etc. The accuracy of the
results canvary, particularlywith those methodsthat usemanual pressureto obtain
the surface indentation.
Thetrendto relatemechanicalpropertiesto hardnessvaluesis nottobe recommended
as there is no accurate constant relationship. The curves shown in Fig. 3.4 are for
general guidanceonly and indicatethat there are given rangesof stress levels foreach
hardnessvalue.
FATIGUE
Aluminium is similar in its fatigue behaviourto other non-ferrous metals in that the
stress/cyclecurves nevertotally flatten out. An arbitrary maximumendurancelevel is
therefore imposed,. usually 50 million cycles. Curves are drawn up for alloy and
temper groups against semi-rangeof stress levels (see Fig. 3.5). Fatigue curves are
usuallybased upon actualtestresultsfrom Wohler typebeam machineswhich subject
the specimensto sinusoidal reversedbending. Theresults are generally plotted for
high cycle applications,above 1 O cycles, and any high strain/low cycle applications
should be discussed with the extruder.
The surface finish and geometric aspects of components, particularly joints, can
influenceperformance. Shot blasting of the surface can improve fatigue resistance,
whilstnotchescan reduceit. Withweldedconnections,itis usualto obtainbetter results
from butt joints than those which are lapped and continuous welds give a superior
performance to that of intermittent welds. Some data based upon nine different
classifications of structural componentsis given in BS CP1 18.
43
300-
270-
240-
210E
E
z
a
180-
0
a
a, 150C
C,,
120-
90-
60 -
i0
106
i07
Endurance (cycles)
108
Similar results are obtained for alloy 6082T6
Fig. 3.5- Fatigue Curvesfor Some AluminiumAlloys

(Rotating CantileverTests)
44
SECTION 4- DURABILITY
CONTENTS
Page No.
Title
INTRODUCTION
47
ATMOSPHERIC
47
CHEMICAL
49
MATERIALS
Bi-MetaIlic
49
49
53
53
53
Wood
InsulatingMaterials
Concrete
45
Listof Figures
Fig No.
Title
4.1
6082 T6 Alloy (Mill Finish)

ExposureGraph (1)
48
6082 T6 Alloy (Mill Finish)

ExposureGraph (2)
48
4.2
4.3
4.4
Page No.
Principleof Galvanic
Reaction
49
Typical Bi-metallic
ConnectionsBetween
Aluminium and Steel
52
Listof Tables
4.1
Electro-ChemicalSeries
50
4.2
Guide to Bi-metallic
Corrosion Effects at
Junction of Aluminium
and Other Metals
51
46
INTRODUCTION
Aluminiumand its alloys have, in general,excellentdurabilityand corrosionresistance.
Like most materials, however,their behaviourcan be influenced by the way in which
they are used. In this section the manner in which aluminium respondsto various
environments and design situations is reviewed with advice on use in specific
applications.
ATMOSPHERIC
Aluminium's naturalaffinitywith oxygen resultsin theformation of an oxide layer when
exposedto air. The resultingfilm is generally50Ang thick, extremely hard,chemically
stable, corrosion resistantand adheres stronglyto the parent metal surface, producing an integrated material. Once formed, it prevents further oxidisation and, if
damaged in any way, will reform, oxygen availability permitting. The only practical
reason for removingthis film is to facilitate anodizingor welding. In the firstinstance,
a thicker, morecontrolled deposition of the oxide layer can be carried out and in the
latter case, the oxide film would be a deterrentto good metal fusion.
The behaviour under atmospheric exposure can therefore be described as selfstifling. If the surface layer is pitted by any of the air-borne pollutants usuallyfound
in industrialor marine atmospheres,such as sulphuric acid and sodium chloride,the
resultingchemical reaction producesa larger volume of powderedcorrosionproduct
than the volumeof the original pit, thereby sealingoffthe surfaceof the aluminiumand
inhibiting any further corrosive reaction. In general,the ratio of corrosion productto
pit volume is 240:1.
With time, existingpits, which are usuallyof ashallow hemisphericalshape,are sealed
and the rate of formation of new pits is reducedso that eventuallyall reaction can be
assumed to have ceased. This processcan bedescribed as weathering,forthe depth
of pittingis extremelysmall. Thelevel of pollutionofcourse will determinethe general
appearance,which will appear to be a soft blueish-greycolour in ruralareas and dark
grey to black in industrial areas. Regular maintenanceand washing down should
prevent the permanentdiscolourationfrom industrial pollutants. Anodized surfaces,
however,will retain their original appearancefor a much longer period, providing that
regular maintenanceis carried out. See Section 10.
For the purposes of assessment,the various types of environmentalconditionsare
divided into 3 categories:
a)
RURAL
b)
MARINE
c)
INDUSTRIAL
47
E
E
1)
Marine
Industrial
0.
Rural
3-
Exposuretime
Fig. 4.1
- years
- 6082 T6 Alloy (Mill Finish) ExposureGraph (1)
The exposure trialson which Fig. 4.1 is based also provided samples for testing the
mechanicalpropertiesofthematerials. As canbeseen inFig. 4.2there isvery littledrop
in these properties, even afterprolonged exposure of 12 years. In both figures, the
graph line isvirtually horizontaland thereforedurabilityand mechanicalpropertiescan
be assumed to have reachedstable conditions.
stri:l
i::
6
8
Exposure time - years
10
Fig. 4.2- 6082 T6 Alloy (MillFinish) ExposureGraph (2)

48
12
CHEMICAL
The behaviourof aluminium alloys in contact with a wide range of chemicals is welldocumentedarid requestsfor specific information can usually be dealt with by your
material supplier. In general,corrosion of aluminiumonly occurs to anygreat degree
where the ph is be'ow 3 or above 9, i.e. under strongacidic or alkalineconditions. is
thereforenecessaryto knowthe concentrationofthechemical underconsiderationand
also thetemperatureat which it will operate, as in some casesthetemperaturecan be
the major considerationby alteringthe normal behaviourpattern.
MATERIALS
When aluminiumwill be in contactwith other materialsunder wet or moist conditions,
it is necessaryto check whether some form of protectionis required.
Bi-Metallic
When dissimilar metals are coupled together in the presence of moisture, there is a
likelihood of a galvanic reaction in which one metal will corrode see, (Fig. 4.3). In this
situation an electrolytic couple is formed in which a current flows from the less noble
metal,acting as an anode, tothe morenoble metal,acting as acathode,with corrosion
concentratedon the less noble metal. This behaviouris usually consistent with the
relative placings in the electro chemical series, see Table 4.1.
Corrosion
Electrons
ri
1
Positive
ions
Electrolyte
Cathode
Anode
Corrosion cell
Fig. 4.3 - Principleof Galvanic Reaction
49
Base or less
noble metal
Noble metal
Theseverityofthe galvanicactionalso dependsonthe degreeof separation,electrical

resistanceofthe metalpath, conductivityofthe solution and the arearatio betweenthe
two dis-similar metals. In practice, however, reaction between the metals can be
avoided by insulatingthem from each other with an electrically inert non-abosrbent
barrier. An excellent exampleof this kind of connection is between the aluminium
super-structure and steel decking on ships. Reference can be made to B.S.
publication PD 6484 - 1984.
Table 4.1 - Electro-Chemical Series
BASE
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium
Cadmium
Mild Steel
Cast Iron
Lead
Tin
Nickel
Brasses
Copper
Bronze
Monel
Silver solders (70% Ag. 30% Cu)
Nickel
Stainless Steel (Type 304)

Silver
Titanium
NOBLE
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
50
PASSIVE
Table 4.2 - Guideto Bi-metallicCorrosion Effects

at Junction of Aluminium and Other Metals
Metals Coupled With
AluminiumOf
Bi-metallic Effect
Aluminium Alloy
Gold.platinum,
rhodium,silver.
Attackacceleratedin mostenvironments
Copper,copperafloys.
irwnersion.silver solder
Attack acceleratedin mostatmospheres

to aluminiumand itsand conditionsof total
Soldercoatingson
steel orcopper
Attack acceleratedattheinterfacein
severeor moderateatmospheresand
underconditionsof total immersion,
Nickel,nickelalloys
Attackacceleratedin marineand industrial

atmospheresand conditions of total
irmtersionbutnot in mildenvironments,
_____________
---
Steel,castiron
Attackacceleratedin marineand industrial

atmospheres and conditionsof total immersion
butnot in mildenvironments.
Lead,tin
Attackacceleratedonlyin severeenvironments,
such asmarineand some indiatrial.
These metals,and
especiallythoseat
thetop of thelist are
generallycathodicto
aluminiumand its
alloys,whichtherefore
suffer preferential
attack when corrosion
occurs.
Tin zinc plating

(80/20)onsteel
Attackacceleratedonlyin severeatrrspheres
and condtionsof total Immersion.
Pure aluminiumand
alloysnot containing
Whenaluniniumis alloyedwith appreciableamountsof copper

becomesmoe nobleand when alloyedwith appreciable
amountsof zinc itbecomesless noble. Inmarineor industrial
atmospheres orwhen totallyimmersed,alunnium alloysuffers
acceleratedattackwhen Ingood electricalcontactwith another
aluminiumalloy that containssubstantialcopper,such ax
wroughtalloys2024 and 2014and castalloysLM 4-M and
BS L92. Thealuminium-zincalloys,being less noble,areused
ascladdingfortheprotectionof thestrongeraluminuimalloys,
Cadmium
No acceleration ofattack on cadmiumexcept

infairlysevereatmospheresin contactwith an
aluminiumalloy containingcopperand under
conditionsof total immersion,
Zinc and zinc alloys
Attackon zinc acceleratedin severeenvironments

such as marineand industrial and under
conditionsof total immersion,
si,stantialadditions
of copperorzinc
Magnesiumand
magnesiumbase alloys
Titanium
Attackonmagnesiumacceleratedinsevere
environments such asmarineand industrialand
underconditionsof total immersion,
Thesemetalsare
generallyanodicto
aluminiumand suffer
attackwhen corrosion
occurs,thereby
protectingthe
aluminium,
Attackonalurntnium
may alsobe
accelerated.
Not manydata available,but attackon alurTinium

is knownto beacceleratedin severemarineand
industrial conditionsand when immersedin
seawater.
Stainlesssteel
(18 8. 18/8/2and
13%, Cr)
Chromiumplate
Noacceleration ofattack on aluminiumin moderate atmospheres, butattack maybeaccelerated

inseveremarineand industrial atmospheres
and underconditionsof total irrynertion.
Noacceleration ofattack on aluminiumwhen

plating is not less than 0.0025 mmthick.
except insevereatmospheres; alsoprovldedthe
preliminarynickelcostingus in accordancewith
requirements of BS 1224.
51
These metalsform
protectivefilms
that tend to reduce
bi-metalliceffects.
Where attackoccurs
thealuminiumbase
materialsuffers.
Bulb plate
stiffener
Aluminium
plating
between
Steel bracket and 150mm mm.
Steel foundation bar
Inside
Outside
Inside
Outside
Treatment as for A
but with plate lapped
to inside of foundation
bar.
Steel rivets
Aluminium plate lapped

to joggled steel flat bar.
Galvanised steel bolts
with insulating washers
and ferrules. Treatment
otherwise as for A.
Figure 4.4 - Typical Bi-metallicConnectionsBetween Aluminium and Steel

52
Wood
In dry conditions there is usually no reaction on the aluminium but if the wood is
unseasonedor in damp conditions,it should be coated with aluminiumor bituminous
paint. Invery aggressive environments(immersion)anon-absorbentinsulatinggasket
should be fitted as with bi-metallicjoints. Where timber is treated with preservative
advice should be obtained from your aluminiumsupplier.
Insulating Materials
In the unusual event of insulatingmaterials becoming saturated, some protection of
the aluminium would be necessary for, apart from the possibility of attack from
leached-outchemicals, some poultice corrosion could occur, activatedmainly by the
reduced availabilityof oxygen. Protectioncan be afforded by using an inert barrier.
Concrete
Under perfectly dry conditions,aluminium buried in concrete would need no protection. In practice,however, such conditionsare rarely achievedtherefore it is recommendedthat in all cases the contact areaofthe aluminiumis coated with a bituminous
paint. In no circumstancesshouldthe steel reinforcementused in concretebe allowed
to come in direct contact with the aluminiumas this will result in a bi-metallicreaction
which in turn could cause spalling of the concrete.
53
Page blank
in original
SECTION5- SURFACE FINISHING
CONTENTS
Page No.
Title
INTRODUCTION
57
PRE-TREATMENT
57
ANODIZING
SpecificationFactors
for ArchitecturalType Anodizing
Chromic Acid Anodizing
Hard Anodizing
57
PAINTING
Electrophoretic
Electrostatic
Paint Performance
61
61
55
59
61
61
61
62
List of Figures
Fig
No.Titie
5.1
AnodizingProgramme
58
5.2
Depositionof Colouring
59
Page No.
Listof Tables
5.1
Suitabilityfor Anodizing
60
5.2
Paint Performances
62
56
INTRODUCTION
One ofthe most importantconsiderationsrelatingto surfacefinish is the need to have
a sound and permanent bond between any applied film or coating and the parent
material. In this respectaluminiumand its alloys are particularlysuitable, providingas
theydo integralbondingwith anodizingand excellentpaintkeys when suitablyetched
and de-greased.
PRE-TREATMENT
The surfacetextures on aluminium,like those on other metals, will be visible through
all but the thickest coating so it is as well to considerthis aspect before deciding on
the final surfacetreatment. Where positive relief features are required, like ribbing or
serrations,these can be easily incorporated into the extrusion shape. The usual cycle
for pre-treatmentincorporatesa de-greasingdip, followed by a rinse and then an etch
dip. The make-up and chemical concentrationof this etch can be varied to produce
a range of surfacesthat will affect the final appearanceof an anodizedfinish. These
canbe graded from the natural metal appearance,through a light grey satin finish to
a darker grey frosted appearance.
Specialisedsurface finishes can be applied,such as chemical brightening,mechanical polishing, scratch brushing and shot or vapour blasting. The special finishes
extend from bright reflective polished surfaces, through to heavy peened rough
textures.
Aluminiumprovidesan excellentsurfacefor paint. Afterdegreasing,alight etchis used
followed, when necessary,by a chemicalconversioncoatingto improvethe paint key
even further.
All ofthese services are available directly or indirectlythrough extrusionsuppliers. In
general the level of concentrationof pre-treatmentchemicals makesthem unsuitable
for manual non-dip application.
ANODIZING
Anodizing is a controlled surface oxidisation by immersion in an electrolyte, usually
dilutesulphuricacid. A lowvoltage,high amperagedirect current is passedthroughthe
metal, using the aluminium as the anode and a hard, non-corrodingoxide film builds
up on the surface of the aluminium. A less dense layer is subsequentlyformed in
which there are capillary pores. These pores provide the meansfor further oxidisation, building up the thickness from the base. This film is an integralpart of the metal
and is not an applied coating.
57
ProTreatment
Degrease
OPTIONAL TREATMENTS
Mechanically
Polish
Chemically
Metallic
Colour
Brighten
Organic
Colour
Scratch Brush
Vapour Blast
Rinse
Shot Blast
Light Etch
Etch
Rinse
Anodize
I
Natural
Finish
Seal
I
FIg. 5.1 - Anodizing Programme
Afterthe actual anodizingoperation, the surface film is porous and in a conditionto

accept colouring agents, if required. If a natural aluminiumfinish is desired then the
material proceedsdirectly tothe final tankwhich is usuallyboilingwater. Thechemical
reaction of immersion seals the pores against further moisture penetration,giving a
hard, weather resistingsurface.
Wherecolour is required, thechoice lies betweenthose obtainedfrom organicdies, as

used with textiles, and those obtainedfrom metallicsalts. Theformergives a rangeof
primarycolours,whilstthe latterofferscolours varyingfrom greythrough umbertodark
brown and black. As will be seen from Fig. 5.2the organic dies tend to remain at the
top and the metallic salts at the bottom of the surface pores.
58
l7nm
25 micron
(25,000nm)
H Ratio
d
= 1500:1
Natural
Organic
dies
Metallic
salts
Fig. 5.2 Deposition of Colouring

SpecificationFactorsfor ArchitecturalType Anodizing
British Standardslay downspecificationsto govern thequality of anodizing.
BS 1615coversgeneral anodizedcoatings in aluminiumand BS3987 covers
external architecturalapplications. Europeanstandardsare covered by the
Qualanod quality control scheme.
The average thicknesses readily available are usually designated in AA

values, the figures conformingdirectly to the film thickness in microns.
M
5
Applications
Furniture and other indoor products. Also used with chemically brightened
material where a thicker coating would tend to reduce reflectivity.
101
155
Internal applicationslikely to have more robust

handlingsuch as hand-railingand internalpartitions.
25
All external applicationssuch as windowframes etc.
59
c)
The mostappropriateextrusion alloysfordecorativeand architectural anodizing

are in the 6063 range. Other alloys canbe anodizedbutthe finish cannot be
guaranteed to meet the requirements of British Standards architectural
specifications.
Table 5.1 - Suitability For Anodizing
Alloy
Natural
Colour
Brightened
Protective
6063
G-V
6063A
G-V
6082
6463
2014A
*This also includes "hard"anodizing

E = excellent V = very good G = good F = fair U = unsuitable
d)
In componentanodizing,the heat affectedzone ofwelded orbrazed joints will

show somecolour variationfrom that on the rest ofthesection. This can vary
fromslightly darker tone to averydark grey oreven black if a siliconfiller wire
is used in brazing.
e)
There can be slight variation in colour between production batches, so top

and bottom colour limits should be agreed with the anodizer. This is
particularlyso where cast and wrought componentsare concerned,because
an exact colour match is rarely possible due to the markeddifference in the
chemical composition of the two materials.
f)
Electrical contact is extremely important between the loading bars and the
aluminium section during anodizing. It is obtained by jigging with nonmetallicclamps. Thecontact areas, however, do not anodizeor colour and
willtherefore leavea light-colouredarea even on naturallyanodized material.
Non-visible surfacesshould be shownondrawings sothat the clamps can be
placed in the best possible position. If all surfacesare visible, then an extra
50 mm should be allowedat eachendofthe bar forclampings,which can be
cutoff after anodizing.
60
ChromicAcid Anodizing
The original commercially developed anodizing process used chromic acid as the
electrolyte.The procedureis similarto that employedwith sulphuricacid but the bath
temperatureis higher.The resultantfilm is softer and thinner (max. 10 microns) but for
equal thicknessesitoffers morecorrosionresistancewhich makesit idealforaggressive
industrialenvironmentswhere the relatively soft surface is no disadvantage.As the
chromicacid is passivewithaluminium,itisalso recommendedlorfinished components
where there are laps or crevices which could retainelectrolyte.
Hard Anodizing
Hard anodizingis a lowtemperatureoperation,usingconsiderablyhighervoltage than
other anodizingprocesses.The relatively rough surfaceproduced is extremelydense
and hard and is available up to 125 micronsthick. The film is normally left unsealed
but can be waxed or treated with mineraloil. In either case, the abrasion resistance
is very high, comparingfavourablywith that of tooled steel and chromiumplate. Hard
anodizedfilms have good electrical insulationpropertiesand their excellent corrosion
resistance and durability make them ideal for use even in aggressiveenvironments.
PAIN11NG
Aluminium rarely needs to be paintedfor protectionbut where colour is necessaryon

aesthetic grounds a number of high-quality paints and methods of application are
available.Thesurfacepresentedby aluminiumis idealforcoatingwhenthecorrect pretreatmentiscarriedout. As mostcoatingsare appliedbycommercialcoatingcompanies,
the basic pre-treatmentsare usuallyvariedtosuit their particularpaintformulationsand
methods of application. In general, the oxide film is removed and the material degreased,etchedand rinsed.This is adequatepreparationfor electrophoreticpaints but
thereis an additionalchemicalconversioncoatingwhich isthen appliedforelectrostatic
application.
Electrophoretic
Thepre-treatedworkpiecesare madeanodicand dippedinto electricallychargedpaint

tanks. This ensuresthat the paint is attractedto the metal surfaceand deposited in an
even coating.Afterrinsing,thematerial passesthroughstoving ovensatapproximately
160Cforadurationof 15 minutes.Duringthis operationthepaint isfused and strongly
bonded to the aluminium.
Electrostatic
Afterpre-treatment,the workpieces are passed through an electrostatic field during
which time paint, in theform of wet or powderparticles,is sprayed on to the surfaces.
Theworkpiecesare then transferredto atunnel oven where they are stoved at 200C
for 10 minutes.
61
Paint Performance
Comparing paint surfaces and their respective performance is always somewhat
subjective,neverthelessTable5.2 attemptsto providegeneralised information.Paint
and coating companies are always pleased to advise on the best system of
application. For all paints and systems, sharp corners provide a challenge in that
either a metal or a shadow line appears,depending upon the thickness of the paint.
This can be avoided by following good extrusion design although for paint the
minimum recommendedcorner radius is 1mm.
Table 5.2 - Paint Performances
PAINT
Acrylic
Method
of
Mean
Colour
Thickness Range
Application (Microns)
Surface
Texture
Electro-
Gloss
Level
Colour
Fastness
Hardness Inside
Groove
Post
Coating
Painting
Fabrication
V. good
Good
25
White
Smooth
70%
Moderate
Hard
60-80
Wide
Slightly
Textured
20%-
Good
93%
Moderate Shallow
Channels
Polyphorec
urethane (WetBath)
Polyester
Electrostatic
Range
(Powder
Spray)
PVF2
Electrostatic
Excellent
Only
30-100
Small
(a)
Range
25(a)
Wide
V.good
(Powder
Spray)
Fluoro- ElectroCarbon
static
Smooth
9%70%
Excellent
Moderate
Moderate
Smooth
9%90%
Good
Hard
V. good
Range
(Wet
Spray)
Acrylic ElectroPolyesterstatic
25
Full
Range
(Wet
Spray)
(a) Suitable formulti-coat applications

Further information is available from:
Aluminium Coating Association
Broadway House
Calthorpe Road
Birmingham B15 1TN
62
a technical
design guide
SECTION6- FABRICATION
CONTENTS
Titles
Page No.
BENDING
MachineTypes
Alloy/Temper
Shape Factors
Tube Bending
65
65
67
67
69
70
70
Springback
Lubrication
MACHINING
70
72
73
74
Routing
Drilling
Sawing
JOINING
Welding
75
75
79
JointDesign
81
Screwing
Crimping
82
83
85
86
Riveting
Bolting
Adhesives
63
Listof Figures
Fig No.
Title
Page No.
6.1
6.2
Bending Methods
Routing (Profilingand
65/66
72
73
74
77
78
Facing)
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
Drills
Types of Saw
TIG Welding
MIG Welding
RecommendedDiameters
of ScrewGrooves
LongitudinalScrew
Grooves
Crimping
Blind Rivets
Self-Piercing Rivets
Clench Rivets
81
82
82
83
84
84
Listof Tables
No.
Title
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Bending Characteristics
Minimum Bend Radii (1)
Minimum Root Radii R in
Terms of Tube Diameter
Basic Saw Tool Data
Process Capacity
RecommendedFiller Alloys
for Welding Parent Metal
Combinations
Edge Preparationand Fit Up
forTiGand MIG
Permissible Stress Levels
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
Page No.
64
67
68
68
69
69
71
74
76
79
80
81
BENDING
There are several types of torming machinesuitablefor bending aluminium sections.
Thechoicedepends uponthe class ofsection, whethersolid open or hollow;the range
of support tooling available; the alloy and the temper.
Machine Types
Bending may be carried out by four main methods, as shown in Fig. 6.1. The three
roll bender has a centralmoveablerollerwhich is graduallydepresseduntil the desired
radius is obtained. The point bender has a similarmethodof operation,the load either
being appliedgraduallyorimpacted. Theroll and point methodsof bendingare usually
applied to robust sections.
In the wrap and the mandrel benders, it is possible to provide formers and other
support tools which enable tighter radii to be obtained and minimise the amount of
buckling.
As the name implies,the stretchformer putsthe section into tension and then, moving
laterally,wraps it arounda former: this method reducesthe likelihoodof compression
failure.
As well as the above basic machines, a number of specialist benders are available,
such as the rotating disc, which is suitable for tube bending.
-Former
Wrap Bender
Clamp
Guide
Draw Mandrel Bender
Former Moves Around Section
Section Moves Around Former
Fig. 6.1 - Bending Methods

65
Section
Bending Roll
Fixed Position
Drive Rolls
Three Roll Bender
Bending Point
Fixed Position
Drive Points
Three Point Bender
Stretch Former
FIg.6.1 - BendingMethods(continued)
66
Alloy/Temper
Heattreated aluminium alloys in the T6 conditionhave relatively short plastic ranges

with proof-stress/ultimate-stressratiosof0/86: 1 and minimumelongationvaluesof7%
- 10%. Althoughthese values do notprovidethe whole pictureof ductileperformance,
theygive a reliableindicationof bendability. Where bending is aprimary requirement,
it is usualto use materialinthe T4 solutiontreated condition. Theplastic stress range
ratios are then improvedto0.6:1 with minimumelongationvaluesof between14%and
16%. Theslowrateof natural ageing in the 6000 series alloys does not appreciably
affect the bending characteristics,except in the most severe bending cases.
Bending at raised temperatures is not usually recommended as the mechanical
propertieswould be affected. It is possibletocarry out post-bendingheattreatmenton
T4 temper materialthat will increase its propertiestowards those of the T6 condition.
Care should be exercisedwith thin sections as some distortioncould occur underthis
treatment.
Table 6.1 - Bending Characteristics
Alloy
Temper
Bending Index
6063
T4
T6
6063A
14
T6
6082
T4
T6
G
F
G = good
6101A
T6
F=fair
6463
T4
T6
2014A
V=verygood
14
T6
Shape Factors
The complexityof shapesavailablein aluminiumalloys makes it verydifficultto provide
information to cover every situation. By considering the behaviour of the various
elements of the shape in relationto the bending axis it is possible to predictthe most
likely modeoffailure when bent throughtoo tight a radius. In most cases,the neutral
axis of the section and the bending axis almostcoincide butthis is nottrueforstretchforming where, becauseof longitudinaltension,the bending axis is assumedto move
outside of the section.
67
Thefollowing tables give minimum bend radii for section elements under the various
forms of bending stresses.
Radii values are to the neutral axis and are given in multiplesof y.
y is the maximumdistancefrom outerfibres of the element to the neutral axis ofwhole

section. t is thickness of element.
Flange denotes shaded element parallelto the plane of bending.
Web denotes shaded element vertical to the plane of bending.
Theuse of support tooling in the bucklingmodescan reduce the minimum radiibelow

the levels shown in the tables. Theextent of the reduction depends upon the typeof
tooling used.
Table 6.2 - Minimum Bend Radii (1)
y
t
12
Alloy
Temper
6063
T4
O.7y
0.7y
O.8y
2.Oy
3.5y
T6
O.8y
0.By
l.4y
3.Sy
7.Oy
T4
2.5y
2.5y
2.5y
3.Oy
5.Oy
T6
2.5y
2.5y
2.5y
3.5y
7.Oy
6082
=1

y
Alloy
Temper
6063
T4
l.Oy
3.5y
8.Oy
20.Oy
T6
l.Oy
4.Oy
1O.Oy
20.Oy
T4
l.8y
4.Oy
1O.Oy
20.Oy
T6
l.8y
5.Oy
1O.Oy
25.Oy
6082
WEB
TENSILE
L
WEB
BUCKLING
C1
68
F1
Table 6.4
- Minimum Bend Radii (3)

FLANGE
FLANGEWIDTH
THICKNESS
Alloy
Temper
6063
14
7.Oy
8.Oy
T6
10.Oy
lO.Oy
14
8.Oy
Boy
T6
10.Oy
lO.Oy
6082
TENSILE

FLANGE WIDTH
THICKNESS
FLANGE
4
Alloy
Temper
6063
T4
5.Oy
8.OY
T6
8.Oy
20.OY
T4
7.Oy
l2.Oy
16
8.Oy
2O.Oy
6082
N.B.
BUCKLING
Where flanges have bulbs greater than 3t thick they can be bent to radii 60%
of those shown in the table.

Tube Bending
The recommendedmethodsof tube bending are wrap and draw mandrel. Although
threepoint bendingcan be used,there is lesscontrolparticularlywiththin-walledtubes
in the stronger alloys and tempers. Aluminiumtubes can be readily bent but, like all
materials,there are limitsand thekey to successfulbendingisto understandthem and
take appropriateaction at both the design and fabrication stages.
Failure modesare, once again,tensiletearing and compressionbuckling butthere are
in-between situations where wrinkling, necking and flattening can occur without
causingfracture ofthetube. To preventthese surfacedefectsor to restrictthem to an
acceptable level, the tubes can be filled with sand, springs or low melting materials
such as Wood's metal.
69
Theseare allestablishedmethodsofprovidinginternalsupportwhich,together withthe

use of external groove formers and followers,provide the maximum level of bending
control.
Table 6.6 shows the minimumrootradiifor a rangeof tube sizes based upondiameter!
wall thickness ratios, alloys and tempers but ignoringflattening.
Sprlngback
Althoughthedegreeofspringbackcanbecalculatedforaspecific sectionthathas been
bent around a given radius,it involvesa lengthy process. The more usual method of
establishing springback is to carry out trials prior to a production run. Generally,
sectionswhich are symmetricaland havethe majorportion oftheir material awayfrom
the neutral axis exhibit less springbackthan a heavy centred cruciform section or an
asymmetricalT-bar.
Lubrication
Frictionbetweenthesurfacesof steelformingtoolsand the natural surfaceoxideof the
aluminiumcreatesthe need to lubricateboth work and tools. This helpsto reducetool
wear and prevent damageto the surfacefinish ofthe formed parts. Dependingupon
toolshape,sectionsize andalloy,thelubricantscommonlyusedincludemineraloil, lard
oil, proprietarywater soluble compounds and waxes.
MACHINING
Aluminium alloys are amongst the most machinable metals and can be cut at high
speeds. Two basic properties influencethe machiningoperation:
a)
the high co-efficient of linear expansion of aluminium.
b)
the friction generated betweensmall tools and aluminium.
The problems associatedwith the above characteristicscan easily be overcome by

using a combined lubricantand coolant.
Machines normallyfound in a workshopare suitable for use on aluminium. The best
results are obtained with relatively high speeds and it is frequently found that
woodworkingmachinescan be employedfor machining,providingthey have sufficient
power and rigidity. High speed steel tools may be used on all the aluminium alloys.
Plain carbon steels may also be used for short runs buttheydo not have sufficient life
for quantity production. For long productionruns tungsten carbide tips are recommended but even these toolswould require regular resharpeningparticularly when
used with anodized material. A chip breaker should be used on alloy 6082 for high
speed operations to avoid the formation of long spiral swart.
70
Table 6.6 - Minimum Root Radii R In Termsof TubeDiameter
MATERIAL
DESIGNATION
CHARACTERISTICCURVE
AND TEMPER
WRAP
MANDREL
B
B
B
B
F
T4
T6
C
D
C
D
6101A T6
6063
6082
F
T4
T6
4U -
30
30
tr
o
20
10
Ill
S
20
S
15
---
lEt
2D
3D
4D
lD
50
Minimum Root RodS In Terms Of lobe Diomneter
2D
3D
71
5D
Minimum Rout Rods In Terms Of Tube Diameter
Mandrel Bend
Wrap Bends
4D
Where extensive removalof metal is to becarried out, there is alwaysthe possibilityof

distortion occurring. Machining practiceswill also affect the amount of distortion that
takes place. Coolingand lubricationshould be generous but even so, over-tightened
chuckscould add tootherstressesoccurringthroughthermalexpansion. Ifthere is any
doubt, the material suppliershould be consulted.
Routing
One ofthebest methodsofmachiningaluminiumis byrouting. This resemblesa milling
operation, giving a good surface finish, as fine as 0.75 micron,and can be used with
spindle speeds up to 24,000 rpm. The high operating speed, in conjunctionwith low
loading,ensures smooth, easy controlwhich is essentialwhen followingthe contours
of a complextemplate. See Fig 6.2.
Helix angle
Radial rake
Primary
clearance
CUlliNG
SPEED
FEED
HELIX
RADIAL
rn/mm
rn/mm
ANGLE
RAKE
Profiling
600-2100
Up to 6
Reduced
CLEARANCE
speeds
Facing:
Upto
6000
necessary
with
increase
in work
thickness
5-7
25
Fig. 6.2 - Routing(Profiling and Facing)

72
5-10
Drilling
As with other aluminiummachiningoperations,drilling can be carriedout atveryhigh
speeds. Specialmachinesfor usewith small diameterdrills work at 80,000 rpm, most
drilling operations, however, are carried out at more modest speeds. The cutting
performanceot adrill is influencedby its peripheralspeedand this shouldbetaken into
account when deciding upon the spindle speed for a given drill diameter.
Drills should be inspectedregularly to ensure that they keep their bright finish and
polishedflutes to ensure rapid chip removal and prevent build-up. When necessary,
thedrills should be regroundwithcare beingtaken to ensurethatthechisel edgeretains
itscorrect lengthandtheweb atthedrill point does notthicken. Shouldthickeningoccur
therewill be increased end pressureon the drill with the possibilityof drill breakage.
When drilling deep holes, particularlyof large diameter,excessiveheat is generated
and if not dissipatedby the coolant, hole contractioncould take place.
TOOL ANGLE
DRILL ELEMENT
PointAngle,H
118
Helix AngIe
20 - 25
ClearanceAngle, 0
12 - 20
Flutes
Polished
Web Thickness
Thiner than that used

for other metals
Fig. 6.3 - Drills
73
Sawing
Modernsawsused inthefabricationofaluminiumsectionsgiveclean, virtuallyburr-free
cuts providedthatthe correcttooth size and rotationspeed are used and theteeth kept
sharp. This is particularlyso for tungsten carbidetipped blades which are in general
useforaluminium. Thistypeofblade gives excellentresultsonthe hardsurfaceof preanodizedsections. Feedwill vary with the type of saw, section size, alloy and temper
butshouldneverbebelow 0.05mm per tooth. When cuttingthin sections,itis advisable
to havetwo or moreteeth engaging at the same time.
Table 6.7 sets out basic tooldata. Thelower speed range is recommendedfor high
speed steel blades and the higher range for tungsten carbide tipped blades. It is
always advisable to use a cutting fluid.
Segmental teeth
High speed steel
Top clearance
Top clearance
Top rake
Th
Depth of
Depth of
gullet
gullet
Fig. 6.4 - Typesof Saw

Table 6.7 - Basic Saw Tool Data
Type of Blade
Saw & Size
Teeth
Cutting
Pitch
Gullet
Speed
Blade
Material
m/min
mm
Circular 250-460
dia
High
Speed x
Steel
2.3-3.7
thick
Circular 5601220
Segmental
dia
Inserted x
Carbide 64-12.7
thick
Tips
mm
Depth
mm
8.5-13
1500
to
2400
Hollow to
Ground 12.7
6.4
1200
coarse
to
25-50
4500
12.7breaker 57
teeth
Chip-
74
Top
Rake
Angles
Clearances
Side
Top
Handfeed:
12-18 20-30
Powerfeed:
15-24 25-35
Handfeed:
5-12
7-9
Powerfeed:
10-20 5-7
1-2
1.2
JOINING
Aluminium alloys can beconnected in avariety ofways. Theusual methods, all wellestablished,are welding, riveting,bolting, screwing,corner crimpingand glueing (but
aluminium alloys have also been explosivelybonded to other materials)..
The combination of material flexibility and the extrusion process enables mating
sectionsto be manufacturedin a range coveringboth permanentand releasabletypes
of sliding, rolling or straight clip connections. Detailsof this type of joining are given
under Section 11, Design.
Welding
Aluminium welding is a widely accepted method of fabrication, with no shortage of
competent personnel in the engineering and manufacturingindustries. There are
several methodsavailable,the basic ones being Tungsten Inert Gas (hG) and Metal
InertGas (MIG). As the titles suggest,both are inert gasshieldedsystems where the
weld area is shrouded from the air to prevent the reformation of an oxide film.
Preparation
Cleanlinessand the removalof theoxide film are most important. The proposedweld
areas has to be de-greased, using white spirit or acetone and the joints wiped dry.
Adequate ventilation must be provided for any solvents used but is particularly
applicableto industrialcleaning solvents, such as carbontetrachlorideetc. After degreasing the joint is deaned, using stainless steel wire brushes or a chemical etch
cleanerto removethe oxide film. Welding should be carried out as soon as possible
afterwards. Carborundumwheels are not recommendedas grit particlescanbecome
embedded in the surfacecausing contaminationof the completed weld. Filler wire is
cleaned by wiping with wire wool; pre-packed spool wire is supplied in a clean
condition.
Tungsten Inert Gas
In the tungsten inert gas (TIG) process,the arc is struck betweenthe workpieceand
a non-consumabletungsten electrode. The filler wire is fed independently. Although

mechanisedTIG is available the process is more widely used as a manual system
where close controloftheweldingconditionscan be readily maintained. The resulting
welds are usuallyof good appearanceand penetration,particularlywhere no backing
plate is available. Fig. 6.5 shows a schematiclayout of atypical TIGsystem and Table
6.8 shows the thickness range.
75
Metal Inert Gas
In the metal inert gas (MIG) process, the arc is struck betweenthe workpieceand a
consumable electrode which is constantly fed from a wire spool. The arc is selfadjusting and takes into account small movements of the torch. Penetration and
appearanceare not so easyto control as in the TIG system, althoughthe addition of
pulsed arc equipment will improve the penetrationand reduce the need for backing
plates. Fig. 6.6shows a schematiclayoutofatypical MIGsystemand Table 6.8shows
the thickness range. Small spool hand guns, sometimes called fine wire, are also
available with MIG systems. These dispense with the need for long wire feed leads
thereby increasingthe areaof work accessible from the base unit.
Table 6.8- ProcessCapacity
PROCESS
PARENT METAL
THICKNESS
I Max.
Mm
(mm)
(mm)
EQUIPMENT
Item
Compositeunit (350A)
Transformer(350 A)
H.F. orSurge Injector unit
Suppressor
Welding Torches
TIG
1.2
Compositeunit (250 A)
MIG
0.5 kg
1.6
MIG
5kg
NOTES:
9.5 (1)
4.8
withWire Feed unit and

Welding Gun for 1 lb Spool
8.0 (2)
Compositeunit (350 A)
withWire Feed unit and

Welding Gun for 10 lb spool
None
(1)
Althoughthe TIG processcanweld thicker material, for

economicreasons it is not normallyused for aluminium over
9.5 mm thick.
(2)
In theory there is no upper limit for 'one-pound'MIG, but it is

more economicalto use 'ten-pound MIG for material over 8.0
mm thick.
'
76
NOTES
1
CompositeTIG welding units include

all the necessaryauxiliaries: argon
and watershut-offvalves are usually
controlledby solenoids, although they
may be manuallyoperated.
The main power cable, fuseand

torch can be air-or water-cooled.
Fig. 6.5 - TIG Welding

77
Dry Bobbin
Flowmeter
Pressure
Reducing
Valve
Pressure
Gauge
Wire Feed
Unit
Workpiece
NOTES
Voltage pick-up lead for 'one-pound'

MIG.
The a.c. supply is 11OV for 'one

pound'MIG and 220V tot 'ten-pound'
The main power cable and gun of

'ten-pound MIG can be watercooled.
Arc Voltage in MIG Welding

Proceduresis measuredwitha
voltmeterconnected between the
contact tube and the workpiece.
MPG welding.
2
CompositeMIG welding units have

the contactorand control box built in.
The filler wire feed unit is integral

withthe gun in 'one-pound' MIG and
independentof it in 'ten-pound MIG
Systems.
Fig. 6.6 - MPG Welding

78
Filler Wire
6063 and 6082 alloys can be readilywelded to awide rangeofotheraluminiumalloys.
Table 6.9shows the preferredweld filler wire in bold print. An alternative,where given
canbe usedwhen the finished componentis to be anodizedand a close colour match
is required betweenthe weld area and the parent metal. Alloy 2014A is not shown in
the table as this alloy is not recommended for welding using the TIG and MIG
processes.
Table 6.9 - Recommended Filler Alloys for Welding

Parent Metal Combinations
PARENT
ALLOY
6063
6082
1050a
4043
5356
3103
4043
5356
5083
5356
5251
5356
5454
5356
6061
6063
6082
4043
5356
Alloy 2014A is Not Recommendedfor FusionWelding
Joint Design
Good joint design encompassesboth the practicalitiesof thewelding processand the
structuralrequirementsofthejoints in service. Theedgepreparationwill depend upon
the typeofjoint, butt or lap, thickness of materialto be joined and the weldingprocess
to be employed. Table 6.10 shows typical edge preparation for both TIG and MIG
processes.
Thestrength of welds is covered by BS CP118 which gives permissiblestress levels

for both 6063 and 6082 alloys in both butt and filled applicationssee Table 6.11. The
reduction in strength from the 0.2% proof stress levels is very marked, allowing for
79
Table 6.10 - Edge Preparation and Fit Up for Tig and Mig
THICKNESSt
MIG
TIG
(1)
NOMINAL
MAXIMUM
ROOT
GAP
GAP
(mm)
(mm)
FACE
(mm)
0.8c
Nil
Nil
1.2c
1.6c
4.8c
Nil
Nil
Nil
1.6
Nil
1.6
1.6
3.2c
4.8c
3.2p
8.0
6.4c
Nil
1.6
0.8
3.2
1.6
60
60
60
75
2.4
4.8
0.8
1.6
2.4
3.2
6.4
2.4
Nil
4iit
6.4c
Nil
12.7
15.9
Nil
Nil
0.8
0.8
1.6
1.6
90
90
1.6
2.4
6.4
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.8
1.6
6.4p
1.6
3.2
0.8
60
9.5
Nil
0.8
0.8
60
1.6
-
Nil
8.9
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.8
1.6
25.4
Nil
Nil
Nil
1.6
1.6
1.6
3.2
4.8
6.4
60
60
60
0.8
Nil
Nil
1.2c
2.4c
Nil
Nil
Nil
1.6
Nil
Nil
3.2
4.8
3.2
4.8
12.7
19.0
3.2c
1) MinimumThicknessof ParentMetal
0.8
Nil
0.8
80
DETAIL
4.8
1.6
4.8P
-
JOINT
INCLUDED
ANGLE
(deg.)
jj
I
HL
r
Li
[JJ
flu
p= PermanentBacking Plate
c=TemporaryBacking Plate
contingenciesinthe weldingprocessand the reducedpropertylevels of theweld heat

affectedzones. Themost cost effectiveway ofdesigningwelded structures,therefore,
is to keepthe weldedconnectionsclearof maximumstress points, as far as possible.
Table 6.11- PermissibleStressLevels
BUTT WELDED
JOINTS &
REDUCEDHAZ.
ALLOY
FILLET JOINTS
(WELD METAL)
TENSION COMPN TRANSVSL LONGITL

6063
31
19
54
31
6082
51
31
54
31
PermissibleStressesfor Table WeldedJoints in N/mm2

HAZ = Heat affected zone
Screwing
The ease with which aluminiumalloys canbe drilled orpunched and the incorporation
of screws ports or channels in extrusions has encouragedthe useof stainless steel
self-tappingscrews asthe standardmethod of joining, particularlyin the window and
door industries. The stainless steel threads bite into the aluminium to give a very
positiveconnection. A typical patio door will use two self-tappingscrews per kilogram
of aluminium section used.
Screw ports are rarely fully closed as the use of 300 degree ports, (Fig. 6.8), gives a
very marked improvementin extrudabilitywith very little loss in pullout strength. The
dimensional accuracy of the port diameter is very important and all extruders have
standardbore dimensionsfor each screw size. It is advisableto contact extruders at
the die design stage and where possibleprovide samplescrews.
Screw
__
1.78mm
(mm)
N
..
....
\\
Size
6
8
60
/
// I
/
10
12
14
Screw
Dia. (mm)
3.45
4.17
4.88
5.59
6.25
Screw Groove
Int. Dia. (mm)
3.20
3.56
4.32
5.03
5.74
FIg 6.7 - Recommended Diameters of Screw Grooves

81
Theuse of longitudinalscrew grooves, (Fig. 6.8), is not so widespreadbut thecorrect

combinationof slot width and screw size can ensure high pullout values. Some care
is necessary if self-tapping screws of triangulated cross-section are used as full
engagementof threads may not be possible on both sides ofthe groove. Advice from
the extruder is recommended.
Li
Fig. 6.8 - LongitudinalScrew Grooves
Crimping
In this method of corner connection,the extrusion has a built-in channel recess and
afterthe sections have been mitred,thecrimpingangle isfitted and thejointassembled
and heldin a rigidjig. Two pressureprongsthen upsetthesectionflange intothe corner
angle, producingavery stableframe assembly,see Fig 6.9. Most crimped corners rely
onmechanicalconnections,but, if required,aslowsettingadhesivecan beusedtoseal
the corners and providesome extra strength.
Crimpingis most likely to befound in the door and window industrybut is applicableto
anycomponent orform of constructionwhere mitredcorners are used.
Crimping
flange
Fig. 6.9 - Crimping

82
Riveting
Aluminiumcanberivetedwith aluminiumrivets, which are usuallydrivencold. As there
is atendency for these to work hardenduringthe processtheyshould be closed with
the minimumnumberofblows. It is advantageousto use a long stroke hammer,asize
larger than would be used with equivalentdiameterhot steel rivets. Therivets should
be drivensquare, not rolled round theedges. Largerdiameterrivets(over 12 mm.)can
have pre-formedend recess points to assist initialforming. Poweroperated squeeze
riveters are ideal for aluminiumas the heads are formed in a single stroke.
Where aluminium is to be riveted to steel structures, the faying (contact) surfaces
should betreated with azinc-chromateprimerand broughttogether whilestill wet. Hot
driven steelrivets should be used but these must be given at least one coat of primer
in way of the aluminium, after driving and cooling.
Blind Riveting
This form of joining is well established and uses rivets of tubular constructionwhich
enablethe workto becarriedoutfrom one side only. This isparticularlyattractivewhere
accesstothe reverseside is difficult. Only one operator is required and there is choice
of setting tools - pneumatic,hydraulicor hand held. Thereare a numberof proprietary
systems available,in diametersupto6.5 mm. Rivetlengthsare availableforcombined
joint thickness of up to 13 mm. Furtherdetails are availablefrom rivet manufacturers.
ELE
Mandrel breaks
and falls free
Setting tool
Clinching
mandrel
Fig. 6.10 - Blind Rivets
83
Self-Piercing Riveting
This is a relatively new developmentwhich canbe usedon combined thicknesses of

up to 6.5 mm.
T
Max.
L = 9.5mm
1=6.5mm
S = 5.0mm
Countersunk
Fig. 6.11 - Self-PiercingRivets

Clench Riveting
A numberofproprietaryfasteningsystemsusethegripof threadedboltswiththeclosing
mechanismof clench riveting. Fig. 6.12 showsatypicalpin and collet assembly. The
bolts are closedfromone side in asimilar mannerto blind riveting, althoughaccess to
the non-closing side is necessary to install the rivet. The collet deforms around the
threaded pinbefore the pin breaksoff atthe waistedneckunder a pre-determinedload.
As well as the advantage of ease of installation, these fastenings have excellent
vibration resistance.
Fig. 6.12 - Clench Rivets
84
Bolting
Inthismethodoconstructionstainlesssteel,aluminiumor mildsteelboltscan be used.
If stainlesssteel to 18/8 specificationis used, no extraprotectionis used andthe bolts
can be used in the conventionalmanner. The best aluminiummaterials are 6082 and
2014A but the latter will need painted protection in heavy industrial and marine
environments. Alloy 2011 is a widely used and available bolt material but would
certainly need protection in any external application. In the case of mild steel bolts,
galvanizedsteel washers MUST be fitted.
All boltsare best used in close-fitting holes and the appropriate tolerance levels will
be found in BS CP118.
Where possib'e, controltorque levels shoudbe specifiedfor aluminium bolts and the
indiscriminate use of "tommy bars' is an unacceptable practice. In line with good
bolting practice, no part of the threaded portion should be within the thickness of the
joint flanges.
The extrusion processallowscaptive bolt head slots to be built intothe extrusion. The
bolt can be positioned anywhere along the slot, thus requiring hole accuracy in one
dimension only. The internal width of the slot should be dimensioned to suit the
maximum width of the boithead across flats thereby locking the bolthead against
turning when tightening up the nut. See Fig. 11.3
85
Adhesives
This methodofjoining hasfound favour inthe high-techindustries,i.e. electronicsand
aero-spacewhere product cleanlinessand close fabricationcontrol were alreadywellestablished practices. In more recent years, adhesives tolerant of imperfect joint
conditions have been developed and have been taken up, particularly by transport,
engineering and even structural industries.
In general, bonding systems still require clean etched surfaces; some respond to
unsealed,anodizedor conversioncoatedsurfaces. The range of adhesivesavailable
covers cold, impact or heat curing together with single or two-part mixes. Each has
its own characteristicand therefore advice on suitabilityfor any specific application
should be sought from adhesive manufacturers.
86
SECTION7- CONDUCTIVITY
CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
THERMAL
Thermal Barriers
89
89
ELECTRICAL
90
87
Listof Figures
Fig No. Title
7.1
7.2
Page No.
MechanicallyClosed
InsulatingWeb
90
Poured Resin
InsulatingWeb
90
List of Tables
No.
Title
7.1
Thermal Conductivity
0-100C
90
7.2
Electrical Conductivity
91
Page No.
88
THERMAL
Aluminium has a high co-efficientof conductivity. It varies withthe different alloys but
the value forpure aluminium is 244 W/m0C. SeeTable 7.1. This propertyis extremely
useful whendesigningheat transferproducts,such as radiatorsand electrical heat sink
units. It is obviously less attractive in those applicationswhere low heat transfer is
required and it is then often necessary to in-corporatecomponents to improve the
thermal resistance, e.g. thermally broken window sections.
Thermal Barriers
This solution to the therma transfer problem has been used in the building and
constructionindustriesfor nearlythirty years. During this time, design and manufacturehasbeen refined so that now two majortypes of systems are in general use.
In the first, Fig. 7.1, the thermal insulatingweb, or webs, is madefrom strip material nylon, polyamide etc. - fixed into position by mechanical closing of dovetail type
channelsinthe aluminiumsections. Twoseparatesections are used enablingdifferent
surface finishes or colours to be used. The closing methods vary between rolling,
pressingand broaching,dependinguponindividualmanufacturers.Internalbroaching,
can only be used in the case of double web sections.
Thesecond systemis frequentlyreferredto as the "pour and cut" method, Fig. 7.2. A
specially formulated liquid resin is poured into a semi-closedchannel in the single
aluminium section. After the resin has solidified,the connecting aluminiumstrip "a" is
cutaway leavingthe thermalbarrier orbarriers. Aswith thefirstsystem, a doubleweb
sectioncanbeproduced,inthis case byusingeitheraproprietaryinstantaneousdouble
pourmachineor by a two pass procedureon conventionalmachines.
Thestructural properties of thermal barrier materials will generally be below those of
aluminiumand will varynotonly betweendifferentmaterialsbut alsoover atemperature
range of -20C to +80C. It is good design procedure,therefore,to keep the thermal
barrier materialas close as possible to the neutral axis of thefinal composite section.
In practice,this is not always possible and examplescanbe seen in existingwindow
systems wherethethermal barrieris offset. Inthese cases it is essentialthat extensive
laboratory proving tests are carried out to confirm that the composite section has
sufficient strengthand stiffness as wellas thermal performance.
89
Lips Mechanically
Closed On Insert
Aluminium
Resin
Webs
Holding Web
Cut Out "a"
Solid Insulating
Inserts
Mechanically Closed
Poured Resin
Fig. 7.1 - Mechanically Closed

Insulating Web
Fig. 7.2 - Poured Resin Insulating

Web
Table 7.1 - Thermal Conductivity
0- 1000C
ALLOY
6063
6063A
6082
2014A
TEMPER
W/mC
T4
T6
T4
T6
14
T6
T4
T6
* InternationalAnnealed
% IACS
197
50
201
51.1
197
50
201
172
51
184
142
159
43.7
46.7
36.1
39.8
CopperStandard
ELECTRICAL
Materials that are good thermal conductors are in general also good electrical
conductorsand this is certainlytrueof aluminium. Thecopper/aluminiumratio values
for thermal conductivity run virtually parallel to those for electrical conductivity. A
special alloy hasbeen developedforelectrical use-6101 A. Thismedium strengthalloy
hasexcellent electricalconductivityandgood fabricatingcharacteristics. It isavailable
in the T6 temper only.
Comparedwith copper, an aluminiumconductorofequal current-carryingcapacitywill
have cross-sectionalarea 84% larger but will be only 54% ofthe weight of the copper
bar.
90
Table 7.2 - Electrical Conductivity

Electrical
Resistivity
Conductivy
ALLOY
(20C)
Microhm
(200C)
%IACS
6101AT6
3.133 max.
55.1 mm.
91
Temperature
Coefficientof
Resistance
perC
0.00364
Page blank
in original
SECTION8- TEMPERATURE
CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
EXPANSION
95
MECHANICALPROPERTIES
Creep
Melting Point
96
96
93
95
List of Tables
No.
Title
8.1
Coefficientof Linear
Expansion (200 C - 1000 C)
95
Influence of Temperature
on Propertiesas %
of 25 C Values
96
8.2
Page No.
94
EXPANSION
Although aluminium has a relatively highco-efficientof linear expansion,24x 10-6 per
degree Cin its pureform,the low modulusofelasticityenablesthetemperatureinduced
stresses to be held at a low level. These are usually two thirds of those induced in a
similarsteelstructure. It is still recommended,however,that all long restrained structures likely to be subjectedto temperature variation and particularly those in dark
colours are checked out in the design stage. Any excessivestresses can be reduced
by fitting simple expansion joints. The general effect of alloying is to reduce the coefficient of expansion and relevantvalues forthe more common aluminiumalloys are
shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 - Coefficientof LInear Expansion
(20C - 100C)
ALLOY
TEMPER
106/0C
6063
T4
T6
24
23.5
6063A
T4
16
24
6082
T4
23
T6
23
T6
T4
23.5
16
23.5
22
22
6101A
6463
2014A
T4
T6
23.5
24
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Variation in temperaturealso directly affects the mechanicalproperties of aluminium
alloys. At low temperaturesthe structural strength and elastic modulus values are
actually increased, whilst at higher temperatures they are reduced. A further
important characteristicis that at low temperaturesaluminiumand its alloys show no
brittleness which makes them extremely useful in cryogenic applications such as
containers for low temperatures liquid gases. The more important properties are
given for each of the alloys in Table 8.2. The dotted line inTable 8.2 signifies the
maximumtemperatureat which itis recomendedeach alloycancontinuouslybe used.
Some official codes will accept highertemperaturesin specific applications- BS5222
"Aluminium PressurePiping" sanctionstemperaturesup to 2000C.
Note: special alloys have been developed for high temperatures applications,
contact extruders for performancedata and availability.
95
Table 8.2 - Influence of Temperature on Properties

as % of 25C Values
Alloy
Temper
Stress
606316 Ult
Temoerature
-200 -100 25
100
150
130
0.2% PS 115
608216 Ult
130
0.2% PS 115
2014AT6
Ult
124
0.2% PS 125
200
110
105
110
100
100
100
95
95
95
65
20
65 I 20
70 I 40
105
108
109
100
100
100
95
85
87
44
41
10
10
10
5
L40
191
11
17
10
Modulus
of Elasticity
300
110
105
100
100
95
90
70
Creep
At elevated temperatures under the prolonged application of a stress of sufficient

magnitude,metalwill"creep"and may eventuallyrupture.This behaviour,the progressivedeformationwithout increasein load, does notenterinto the designconsiderations
for structures operating below 100C but may require study in high temperature
applications. When creep is consideredto be adesign factor, moreinformationshould
be obtained from the material supplier.
Melting Point
As aluminiumapproachesits melting point it does not change colour, so othermeans
such as temperature sensitive crayons, must be employed if a visual check on the
temperature is required. While pure aluminium has a well-defined melting point of
660C, aluminium alloys have a meltingrange which, forthe alloys listed in the Table
8.2, varies from 570Cto 660C.
96
SECTION9- FIRE
CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
ALUMINIUMANDFIRE
97
99
List of Tables
No.
Title
9.1
BS 476 Fire Test Series
Page No.
98
99
ALUMINIUM AND FIRE

ALUMINIUMDOES NOT BURN. It will not ignite. Itwill not add tothe fire load. It will
not spread surface flame.
Although aluminiummelts at around 620C, it has athermal conductivityof fourtimes
that of steel and a specific heat twicethatof steel. Heat isconducted away faster and
therefore agreater heat inputis necessarytobring aluminiumupto agiventemperature
than required for steel.
In any applicationrequiringa structuralfire resistancemeasured against time, a test
certificate is usually necessary. Although aluminiumcomponents have obtained approvals above 30 minutes in tests it is not possibleto make accurate predictions. It
is necessary,therefore,to obtain atestapprovalfor eachtypeof application. Where
highertime ratings are required, aluminium must be used in conjunction with other
conventional fire-resisting materials.
The more usual fire performance requirements for aluminium extrusions can be
obtained from the results of the British Standardstestsshown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 - BS 476 Fire Test Series
Part No.
Aluminium Results
Title
*4
Non-CombustibilityTest
Non-Combustible
*5
ignitibility Test
P, not easily ignited
*6
Fire PropagationTest
P. actual index will
*7
Surface Spread of FlameTest
Class 1. Painted
surfaces will reduce
performancerating
21 1
22
23
Time/Structural
Resistance& Insulation
Test
vary with thickness
** individual
component testing
required
99
The BritishStandardfire testsare laid down in BS 476 and define results irrespective
of materials. Aluminiumand its alloys achieve the highestpossibleratingsfor parts 4,
5, 6 and 7 and are therefore widely used throughout the construction and other
industries where the highest standards of performance are required. Painted
surfaces could, however, reduce the levels of performance.
Tests 21, 22 and 23 are used to obtain the performanceof a component or unitfor
strength, integrity and insulation, all compared to time against closely calibrated
temperature levels.
**
It is usualfor aluminium extrusions,in these instances,to be used in conjunction

with other materials to obtain resistancetimes in excess of 30 minutes.
Indicated highestpossible rating.
100
SECTION 10- CARE ANDCONTROL
CONTENTS
Pag No.
Title
INTRODUCTION
102
HANDLING
102
STORAGE
102
MAINTENANCE
103
101
INTRODUC11ON
In post-extrusionhandling,every care is taken by extrudersto minimisedamage. It is

essential that this "good house-keeping"is continued in customers'works and warehouses. As with other high quality materials,carelessnesscan cause unnecessary
rejection, resultingin higher productioncosts.
HANDLING
The following recommendedpractices should be followed:-
(1) Single lengths should never be pulled longitudinallyfrom the middle of a bundle
of aluminium sections as the entrappedend will score adjacent sections.
(2) Cleanlinessis very important,particularly with sections to be anodised. Gloves
should be worn whenever dealing with this typeof section as the natural oil from
the hands can cause finger print corrosion which will become apparent at the
etching stage of the process.
(3) When lifting by crane, double slings should be used as single slings can cause
bending damage particularly with bundles of long, light sections.
(4) The sectionsshould always have adequatesupportwhen liftedby a fork-lifttruck.
STORAGE
Although aluminiumalloys are very resistantto atmosphericcorrosion,certain simple
precautionsshould be taken duringtheir storage. All materialsshould be storedaway
fromexcessivedustor fumes; particularlywhen portable gas or oil heaters are used,
for as wellas pollutantsthese heaters also produce moisture. Storagespacesshould
be dry and well ventilated and kept at a constant temperature above 16C. Any
superficial corrosion that occurs on extrusions is usually easily removed by hand
cleaning with white spirit. Even the most severe superficial corrosion responds to
cleaning with finewire wool and white spirit.
The moretroublesomeform of staining is water marking,caused by moisture ingress
betweensections that are closely nested, e.g. angle bars. Thiscan occur directly or
by condensation. In the latter case, it is possiblefor the moistureto work upwardsby
capillary action. Stacking in a self-draining position is therefore no solution. It is,
however, easily avoided by spacing the sections and ensuring that moisture can not
bridgethe gap. Thestain canbe removedby wire-brushingand chemical treatment.
Storage staining and corrosion will not usually have any detrimental effect on the
mechanicalproperties of the material.
102
Vertical racks are preferred for storage. If horizontal storage is unavoidable, care
should be taken not to overloadracksand to supportlight sections adequatelyto avoid
local damage atthe points ot support. Timberrubbing bars should be fitted to steel
racksto minimiseabrasion and to avoidspots which could cause condensationunder
adverse storage conditions.
Racking should be arrangedto facilitate easyinspectionwhich should be carried out
at regularintervals. As mostaluminiumalloys look alike, materialsshould be stamped
or colour-coded so that different alloys and tempers can easily be identified. This
would not be necessary where an alloy or temper is consistentwith a special shape.
It is also usefulto mark batches on arrival in store to ensure that they are used in the
original delivery sequence.
MAINTENANCE
Aluminium alloys require little or no maintenanceto retain their original mechanical
properties. Without regularcleaning,however,surfacescanbecome stained particularly under prolonged exposure on industrial sites. Mill-finishedaluminium can be
cleaned by rubbing down with finewire wool and white spirit. Anodised surfaces are
more resistantto staining but, nevertheless,benefit from regular washing down with
soapy water. Proprietarycleaners are available for both mill finished and anodised
surfaces but should they be used, it is absolutely essential that the manufacturer's
instructionsare strictly adhered to.
103
Page blank
in original
SECTION 11 - DESIGN
CONTENTS
Page No.
Title
DESIGN PROCEDURE
107
VALUEANALYSIS
107
PRACTICALDESIGN FEATURES
109
WORKEDEXAMPLES
UnloadingRamps
PedestrianBalustrade
111
111
Columns
105
113
123
Listof Figures
Fig No. Title
Page No.
11.1
Steel and Aluminium Beams
108
11.2
Examplesof Solid
Section Aluminium
108
11.3
Built-in MechanicalFastener
110
11.4
Advantagesof Aluminium
Versus Steel
110
Various Snap Fit Connections
110
11.5
106
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Indesigningasection,itisusualto haveaperformancespecificationsettingoutthetotal
requirements of both section and material. This could be part of a much wider
specificationfor a completefinished product ofwhich the aluminiumextrusion is only
one of the components. The extentand detail requiredfor such a specificationwillvary
with the applicationand also within different industries. It is good design practice to
have such a "check list" providing, as it does, a target of what needs to be achieved
and alogical procedurefor assessingdifferentideas. Acomprehensivelistofdesign
considerations is set out in Appendix 1.
Rarely will all these factors need to assessed and a moregeneral approach is given
in the following flow chart.
Idea
Performance Specification
I
Material
Selection
Fabrication
Appearance
I
Mechanical
Durability
Properties
I.
Machining
Shape
Strength
Atmospheric Electrical
Conductivity
Forming
Surface
Finish
Stiffness
Chemical
Jointing
Hardness
I.
Unit
Special
Requirements Cost
.1..
Availability
Unit Weight
Fatigue
VALUE ANALYSIS
Although basic materialcost isimportant,itshould be balancedagainstthe overallcost
of fabrication and subsequentservice performance. This is particularly relevant to
aluminium extrusionswhere shapes can be produced that require little or no further
fabrication and the aluminiumalloys availablehave characteristicssuitable for awide
range of applications.
Aluminium extrusions are usually sold by weight which tends to encouragecomparison with other materials on a straight weight/cost basis. This in unrealistic as
compared with steel, allowingfor the lower elastic modulus, aluminium/steelweight
ratios of 1 : 2 are easily attained to equal performancespecifications.
107
..
100
145
0L
Steel
21.7 kg/M
150
Aluminium
10.6 kg/M
Ag. 11.1 - Steeland Aluminium Beams

Thetwo beams in Fig. 11.1 have been designed for equal stiffnessin both xx and yy
axes. The strength of the aluminiumbeam is well over twice that of mild steel if alloys
2014A 16 or 6082 T6 are used.
It is importantalways to check the actualdeflectionrequirementas in many cases the
steel design has been stress based and the corresponding level of deflection is
automaticallyaccepted without considerationof the real level required.
The economic use of aluminium alloys is not just confined to comparisonswith steel
and other materials. The proficient use of extrusions can frequently result in
comparisons with other aluminium profiles to obtain the optimum shape. Fig. 11.2
illustratesthe design of solid sectionsto give good strengthand stiffness in both major
axes instead of a more expensivehollow section.
ii
[1
ft_
11
Fig. 11.2- Examples of Solid SectionAluminIum
108
Inothercases,the useofstandardstructuralsections is moreappropriate. Two ranges

of I beams,channels,Tbars and anglesare available,namelythe speciallydesigned
lipped sections conforming to BS 1161 and the range covering structural sections
similar to the universalsections used in the steel industry.
in manufacture,the availabilityof sectionsthat require little or no fabrication can be

a majorfactor in reducingfinal componentcosts. Thisequallyappliesto site erection
where, apartfrom light weight, the ability to use hiddenfixings can simplify procedure.
PRACTICAL DESIGN FEATURES
Replace several parts
One extrusioncan oftendo thework ofseveral structural
shapesjoined togetherand produce a neater, sounder
design,at less cost.
Place metal where It is most effective

Thus, bulbs,fillets and variationsin thicknesscaneasily
be incorporated for structural advantage and local
increasesof thicknesscan beintroduced tocounter wear
and abrasion orpermittappingofscrews.
The two bulbs, and root buteress improve inertia and
section modulus values as well as increasing torsional
resistance.
Hinge Fits
Continuous hinges with built in stop bars plus screw
groove forend stops.
Aslidefitwhichallowsone shapetomoveinacirculararc
with respecttotheother.
109
Slots, holes and threads for mechanical

fasteners can be extrudedas integralfeatures.
Adjustable locking
connection.
FIg. 11.3 - Built-in Mechanical Fastener
Typical early steelframe section.
Typical aluminium frame section.
FIg. 11.4- Advantagesof AluminiumVersus Steel
Retractable Cover
Locking Cover
Fig. 11.5 - Various Snap Fit Conections

110
Adjustable Locking
WORKED EXAMPLES
UnloadingRamps
Singlelengthsofchannelbar are frequentlyused intandemto unload wheeledvehicles.
In the interests of good working practice, they should always be longitudinally and
transversely restrained.
There are severalwaysof calculatingthe size required. The followingmethodis based
upon simple point load bending without any axial component. it is assumed that
unloading is always controlled and no unusualdynamic loads will occur.
Slope Q in degrees
Specification. The rampsshould be a maximumweight of 50 kg each. Span 2.5

metres. Operatingangle up to 30 degrees. Maximumvehicle load2.0 tonnes equally
shared on fourwheels. Maximumtyre width 200 mm with 25 mm clearance.
Theinitialchoice of sectionsize isgovernedby the final specificationrequirement,that

of typewidth and clearance.
Channel Section : 254 x 88 x
11
web x 14 flanges (all in mm)
Section properties:
Area
5030 mm2
Modulus
Zxx
54620 mm3
Inertia
lxx
3459100 mm4-
Radius of
Gyration
Weight/metre
Alloy
26.2 mm
13.39kg/m
6082 T6
111
Note: as section is used in

this plane check with
propertytables to confirm
the wayx & y axes are given
Asthevehicle isunloadedit movesoutofthe horizontalwith aconsiderable

shift in its neutralaxis and the loadingon thefirstsetofwheels increasing. This will be
a feature of the individualvehicle. Forthe purposesofthis calculation it is assumedto
be 10%, hence Loading.
Maximum individual wheel load
= 1 9640N (2 tonnes) x 1 10 = 5400N

4
100
Bending Stresses. The ramp acts as a simply supported beam and with normal
wheelbasedvehicles will have a central load as the worst condition. (Load Case 2.)
M=
WL = 5400N x 2500mm
4
Maximum bending moment = 3375000 Nmm

Maximum Stress =
3375000=
54620
fbc= 61.8N/mm2
Allowable Stress Levels. See Table 3.2 (From British Standards CP1 18)
6082 T6 alloy
Bending
p,
154N/mm2
Deflection
8 =
For 6082 E = 68,900N/mm2

48El
8 =
5400x 2500
48 x 68900 x 3459100
8 =
7.45mm
The deflection/spanfactor =
336
which is well insidethe recommendedvalue of
200
Lateral Instability. It is usuallyadvisableto checkthe ramp for lateral instability. The

methodforcalculatingthis canbefound in BS CP1 18. Thecross-tyingofthetwo ramps
together with lateral ties will dramatically increasethe resistanceto lateral instability,
but in thiscase, with thestronger axis ofthe section acting transversally,instabilitywill
not occur.
112
Pedestrian Balustrade
Specification. To enclosean external pavedareawithintheconfinesofan officeblock.
Therailingsmustmeetthe requirementsofthe appropriateBritishStandardsandwhilst
being functional should have an attractive appearance. Low maintenance is also
essential.
BS 3049 Pedestrianguardrail
BS 6180 Protective barriers in and around buildings.
In this instance BS 6180 applies.
As it isa possible areaof assembly,althoughin anofficedevelopment,two categories
of use are applicable.
From BS 6180 Table 1
Type 4
Type 7b
Office building
Placeof assembly
LOAD FACTORS Tables 2 and 3 from BS 6180

TYPE
7b
HORIZONTAL
U.D.L.
kN/M
INFILL
0.74
1.5
1.0
1.5
IJ.D.L.
kN/M2
INFILL
MINIMUM
POINT LOAD BARRIER HEIGHT
kN
0.50
1.50
mm
1100
800
Access will be controlled and private so that type 4 will apply.

Material.
Aluminium alloy 6063 T6 will meet all the requirementsof surfacefinish

durability
low maintenance
It is also an approved material in BS 6180 and its structuralcharacteristicsare set out

in BSCP 118.
113
.r
76x50 Top rail
70x70x2.5 Posts
30x30x2 Balusters
E
100mm Max Gap
E
0
0
50x54
1lOOmm
1500mm
1500mm
FabricationDetails
Main stanchions: Theseare tobesetdirectly into concretefoundations.Thestanchion
base overthe areato be bedded intothe ground is to be giventwo coats of bituminous
paint.
Topandbottom rails: Theseare to be connectedtothe stanchionsusingbolted lugs.

Bolts to be stainless steel to 18/8 specification.
Balusters: These are to be slotted intothetop rail and intopunchedslots inthe bottom
rail, then welded intoposition on both top and bottom rails.
Surface finish: A natural anodized finish is required to AA 25 suitable for external
application. This will necessitate the infill panels being anodized as single units.
Check availabilityof suitable facilities.
114
SectionDesign
Thefollowing sectionshave been drawn upto meet the requirementsof the performance specification.
76
::
70
Rad.:
70
Overallthickness 2.5mm
lop rail
Stanchion
54
2mm
50
Baluster
Bottom rail
STANCHION
TOP RAIL
Area
661 mm2
CCD
99mm
Shapefactor 298
Area
585 mm2
CCD
89mm
Shape factor 334
BALUSTER
BOTTOMRAIL
Area
215 mm2
CCD
43mm
Area
300 mm2
CCD
74mm
Shapefactor 370
Shapefactor 370
115
The CCDs are wellwithin the capacityof most medium sized presses with container
diameters of 150 mm.
The shape factors are slightly above average,but still acceptable.
Thethicknesses have been checked out against Table 1.2 and are within the level
required for 6063 material.
A further check is necessaryon the top rail forboth the extrudabilityratios of the semienclosedareaand the depth/width ratio of the side channels.
59 mm x 45 mm = 2655 mm2
Large recess
Gap
Area/gap2 ratio
= 31 mm
= 2.76: 1
Gap2
= 961 mm2
The section can be classed as a solid and the extrudability is acceptable.

Side channels Depth
Gap
Depth/gapratio
17.5 mm
= 3.5 mm
= 5:1
This is not acceptable so it is necessary to reduce the outer flange from 20 mm to

13 mm.
The internal depth of the channel is now 10.5 mm

Thedepth/gap ratio is now 3 : 1
This is now acceptable and the new top rail section details are as follows:
=
=
=
Area
CCD
Shape factor
550 mm2
89mm
314
Section Properties
STANCHION
Area
Modulus Z
Inertia
TOP RAIL
(modified)
BOTTOMRAIL
Area
Modulus Zy
Inertia ly
Area
Modulus Zy*
Inertia ly *
*effective area values (less slot area)
116
661 mm2
14190 mm3
496680 mm4
550 mm2
11150 mm3
423740 mm4
300 mm2
5650 mm3
152500 mm4
BALUSTERS
Area
Modulus Z
Inertia I
215 mm2
1838 mm3
27600 mm4
Loading
The load is appliedto the stanchionthrough the top rail.
STANCHIONS
740N1M x 1.5M = 111ON
Hence load
RAILS
The loadfor the top and bottom rails is the same as thatfor the
stanchions.
Hence load
BALUSTERS
..WL
8Z
WI.
8Z
Y.L.
4Z
lllONxl500mm
8 x11150mm3
Load Case
86.OON/mm2
lllONxl500mm
Two span, simply supported UDL

=1886N/mm2
Simply supportedUDL
= 36.BON/mm2
8x5650mm3
BALUSTERS
f =
Cantilever
14190 mm3
BOTTOM RAIL
lllQNxllQOmm
Load Case
- YL.
500N
Load Case
TOP RAIL
111ON
Central point load
STANCHIONS
Load Case
500N x 100mm
4x1838mm3
117
Simply supported central point load
68.OON/mm2
From CP 118 "StructuralUseofAluminium",the allowablestress levelsfor6063 T6 are

as follows (see Tables 3.2 and 6.11)
Bending
96N/mm2
Shear
52N/mm2
Welded areas
Heat affected zones
Bending
31N/mm2
Shear
19N/mm2
Welds (throatarea)
31N/mm2
Assessment of bending stresses.

STANCHIONS No welding. Allowablebendingstress 96N/mm2 Section acceptable
TOP RAIL
Heat affected zone is in maximumbending position. Allowablestress
level 31N/mm2. Section acceptable.
BOTTOMRAIL Heat affected zone in maximumbending position. Allowablestress
level 31N/mm2. Section not acceptable - re-design
BALUSTER
Heat affected zone clearof maximum bending position. Allowable
stress level 96N/mm2. Section acceptable.
54
Redesignof Bottom Rail.
Large bulbs placed at toesof flanges and merged into 2 mm thickness by 45 degrees
fillet to ease transition.
Newextrudabilityfactors
Area
CCD
Shape factor
=
=
=
350 mm2
74mm
335
118
New geometric properties (effectiveless slot area)

ModulusZy
Inertialy
6830mm3
184410 mm4
Re-checkbending stress
= lllONxl500mm =30.5Nfmm2
=
8Z
8 x6830
Allowablestress for heat affected zone material from Table 6.11
31N/mm2
New section acceptable.
Weld
Weld Strenath
Baluster
Thebalustersare slottedintothetopchannelandwelded
in position. They stand on the top ofthe bottomchannel
web and arewelded intoposition.Thetopweldshold the
balusterin the line ofthe top rail and do notdirectlytake
the full load. This is also the case at the bottom ofthe
balusterand itis reasonable, therefore, to consideronly
the bottom rail.
Weld 25mm each side

(no transversewelds)
Consideraweld leg lengthof3mm. Thecriticaldimension

weld design isthe throat width. It isusual to define this
dimensionas afractionof the leg length.
Throat
LegI
For 90degreesangle throat factor=0.7.
Weld
Throat width = 0.7 leg length = 2.1

Effectiveweld area = length of weld x throat width
5Ommx2.1 mm=105mm2
Shear load on weld
= QQII
250N/mm
2.3NImm2
19N/mm2
Stress in weld
QJ
105 mm2
Allowablestress in weld material
With such ahigh safety factor,the balustercan be weldedtothe bottom rail in a similar
manner to that at the top, on the longitudinalsides only.
Weld strengthacceptable,topand bottomwelds resistingdownwardloadwithtopweld
also resistingsideways load.
119
TIG WELDING
Electrode
dia.
rod dia.
Nozzle
Bore
mm
mm
2.4
2.4
Filler
Alt.
Weld
speed
mm
Argon
flow
Llmin
current
A
mm/mm
9.5
5.7
110
190
Weld
passes
No edge preparation and no gap between sections.

Filler rod material - 4043
or 5356 This material would give better colour match after
anodising
Deflections.
STANCHIONS
6
Load Case
WL3
TOP RAIL
=
Load Case
WL3
BOTTOM RAIL
=
BALUSTERS
=
lllOx 1500
5x1110x15003
LoadCase
1.3
48E1
0.73mm
Simply supported UDL
3.93mm
384x65500x 184410
384EI
Two span, simply supported UDL
Load Case
15.14mm
185 x 65500 x 423740
1 85E1
1110x11003
3 x 65500 x 496680
3E1
Cantilever
500x l000
central
load
Simplysupported
=
5.70 mm
48 x 65500x 27600
Allowable Deflection.
BS6180sets out a maximumdeflectionstandardof 12 mm but calculatedon the basis
of:
Aoolied load + wind load
2
120
This requires a wind load assessmentto be made using BS CP3 chapter V "Wind
Loading". It is necessaryto know where the installationis to be, as thewind code lays
down a map of basic wind speeds related to area and on which the dynamic wind
pressure is based.
Birminghamand the West Midlandsare in the 44m/sec area.
This value is, however,factored for there are other considerations:
Si Topography (site exposure)
For urban areas the value is .00.

S2 Ground roughnessand height
For urban areas the value is 0.56 in this case.
S3 ProbabilitylevelsTheprobabilityofthe
maximumdesign wind speed being
exceeded. Theusualfactor is once in
50 years and the value is 1.00.
Wind speed is therefore:
44 x 1.00
x 0.56 x 1.00 = 25 m/s.
Dynamic Pressure = 383N/m2

Total area per panel span of balustrading
= 0.59m2
Wind load = 383
x 0.59 = 226N
The worst case is the stanchionwith an actual deflectionof 15.14 mm.

Therefore considerthe stanchion.
Code BS61 80 requiresthe deflectionto be consideredusing an equivalenttotal load
which equals:
Basic load
+ Wind load
2
121
And where the resultingdeflection should not exceed:

Span between stanchions
125
Equivalentdesign load
111ON
+ 226N =
668N
Stanchion deflection with load 668N = 9.20 mm

Permissibledeflection
= j.QQ =
12mm
125
Stanchion is acceptable.
It is obvious that allthe other sectionswill meet the deflectionstandard.

Temperature.
In hot sheltered sites thermal expansion should be considered and in general it is
preferable to fit expansionjoints in long runs of balustrading.
Assumed erection temperature
16C
*Max surfacetemp. on aluminium 36C

20C
Temperature rise
*Thiswillvaryonthe degree of sun and wind as well as onthe colourofthe aluminium.
= 23.5 x
Thermal expansion of 6063
1 061C
Fit expansion joints at 15 metre intervals

Expansion = 23.5 x
10-6
x 20C x 15000 mm
7.1 mm
Stress induced in the rails if this expansion is not relieved can be obtained from:
Stress
Strain
=
=
69000M/mm2
7.1 mm
32.4N/mm2
15000mm
If expansionjoints are not fitted, the 32.4N/mm2stress will be absorbedaxially down

the rail. To check the ability of the rail to withstand this stress it will be necessary to
calculatethecombined bendingand axial compressionin asimilarmannerto that given
122
inthe columnexamplepage 11.20. The bottom rail, however,is performingvery close

to its allowable stress level e.g. 30.5N/mm2 to 31.ON/mm2. Therefore it will not
withstandthe extratemperatureinducedstress. Expansionjoints at 15 metre intervals
are therefore necessary.
The above proposed design meets all the requirementsof BS 6108 and is therefore
acceptable.
Columns
a)
An aluminium alloy column, 1 metre long, is fixed and restrained at both ends.
The cross section is a 50 mm x 50 mm x 2 mm hollow box and subjectedto a
62 kN concentric load. It is necessaryto confirmthe most appropriate alloy and
temper.
Section Properties
384 mm2
5910 mm3
19.6 mm
Section Area
Section Modulus
Radius of gyration
Actual axial stress
Load
Cross sectional area

=
62000 = 161.5N/mm2
384
As the column is rigidly held at both endsthe effective length from Table 3.3
= o.7L = 700 mm
X
Effective Lenath
Radiusof gyration
700 mm = 35.7
19.6 mm
Using this value in the strut curve Fig 3.3 the 35.7 vertical ordinate gives the
permissible axial stress for a numberof alloys and tempers.
Pc = 163N/mm2 for 2014A T6
A 50 x 50 x 2 mm box hollow in 2014A T6 is acceptable.

b)
If the load in the above column is offset by 10 mm, will the column still be strong
enough?
Theloadeccentricitywill inducebending stressesas well as axial stressesintothe

column.
123
The simplestwayto checkistoconsiderthe axial and bendingstressesindividually

and then check against the requirementsof the combined stresses.
Theaxial stressat 161 .5N/mm2 is 99% or the permissiblestress of 163N/mm2so

there is obviously no allowance left for bending in the original section.
Increasesection size to 70 x 70 x 2.5 mm boxalloy 2014A T6.
Section properties
675 mm2
14670 mm3
27.6 mm
Section Area
Section Modulus
Radius of gyration
=
700mm = 25.4
27.6 mm
FromFig. 3.3 25.4 ordinatefor 2014AT6 Givesthepermissiblestress = 177N/mm2

Actual axial stress from concentric load
fc
fc
Load
Cross sectional area
=
f bc
f bc
= bc
62,000N x 10mm
620,000 N mm
Moment
Section modulus
=
62.000mm
675mm2
92N/mm2
Induced bendingstress
Moment =
=
= 620.000N mm
14,670 mm3
42.3N/mm2
Permissiblecompressive bending, stress for 2014A 16 from Table 3.2

=
202N/mm2
Individuallythe bending and axial stress levels are within thepermissiblestresses

laid down in BS CP 118, but the should be checked against combined stress
allowances.
124
For combined bending and axial compression
I bc
Pc
must not exceed 1
Pbc(1-J
Pe
Where
fPcc
5 bc
Pbc
Pe
axial compressivestress
permissibleaxial compressivestress
compressivestressesdue to bending
permissiblebending compressivestress
Euler critical stress for buckling
where Pe =
Pe
it2
x 72.400 =
1108N!mm2
25.42
fc
Pc
5 bc
Pbc
Combined stresses
=
=
=
=
92N/mm2
177N/mm2
42.3N/mm2
202N/mm2
= .52 + .23 < 1

= .75 < 1
New 70 x 70 x 2.5 mm box section in 2014A T6 is within combined stress

requirementsin BS CP 118.
Further modificationscould be carried out by reducingthe size of the section in
order to obtain a moreefficientsolution and thereby approximatingthe combined
stress ratios towards unity.
125
Page blank
in original
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Term
Definition
Ageing
Precipitationfrom solid solution resulting in a change in properties

of an alloy, usually occurring slowly at room temperature (natural
ageing)and morerapidlyat elevatedtemperatures(artificialageing).
Angularity
Conformity to, or deviation from, specified angular dimensions in

the cross sectionof a shape or bar.
Annealing
Thermal treatment intended to soften a metal or alloy hardened by

cold work or artificialageing.
Anodizing
An electrochemicalmethod of producing an integral oxide film on

aluminium surfaces. See Section 5.
Anodizing
Describes material with characteristics that make it suitable for

decorative anodizingaftersuitable preliminary treatment.
Quality
Billet
A cast aluminiumproductsuitableforsubsequentextruding.Usually
of circular cross-sectionbut also may be rectangular.
Bow
The deviation, in the form of an arc, of the longitudinal axis of a

product.
Bright
anodizing
A process used to obtain highly reflective and bright anodized
Buffing
A mechanical finishing operations in which fine abrasives are

appliedto a metal surfaceby rotatingfabric wheels for the purpose
surfaces using alloy 6463.
of developing a lustrousfinish.
Burr
Athin ridgeorroughnessleftby a cutting operationsuch as routing,

punching, drilling and sawing.
Chemical
brightening
Treatment to improve the reflectivity of a surface.
Circumscribing
(CCD)A circlethatwilljust containthe crosssection of an extrusion,

usually designatedby its diameter.
127
circle diameter
Cold work
Plastic deformation of metal at such temperature and rate that

strain hardeningoccurs.
Concavity
A concave departure from flat.
Concentricity
Conformityto acommoncentre as, for example, the inner and outer

walls of round tube.
Container
A hollow cylinder in an extrusion press from which the billet is

extruded.
Conversion
coating
Treatment of materialwith chemicalsolutionsby dippingorspraying

to increasethe surface adhesion of paint. See Section 5.
Corrosion
Thedeteriorationof a metal bychemicalor electrochemicalreaction

with its environment. See Section 4.
Direct extrusion
A process in which a billet in the containeris forced under pressure

through an aperture in a stationary die.
Drift test
A routine samplingtestcarried outon hollow sectionsproducedby
bridge or porthole methods, in which a tapered mandrel is driven

into the end of the section until it tears or splits.
Drawing
The process of pulling material through a die to reduce the size,

change the cross section or shape, or work harden the material.
Etching
Theproductionof a uniform mafl finish by controlled chemical (acid

or alkali), treatment.
Etching test
Thetreatment of a sample using a chemical reagentto reveal the

macro-structureof the material.
Extrusion ratio
The ratio of the cross-sectionalareaof the extrusion container to

that of the extrudedsection (or sections in the case of multi-cavity
dies).
Fillet
A concave junction betweentwo surfaces.
Flutes
Longitudinalconcavecorrugationswith sharpcusps betweenthem

used to break up the surface decoratively.
Free machining An alloy designedto give small broken chips, superiorfinish and/or
alloy
longer tool life.
Full heat
treatment
Solution treatment followed by artificial ageing.

128
Grain growth
The coarsening of the grain structure occurring under certain

conditionsof heating.
Grain size
The mean size of the grain structure usuallyexpressed in terms of

the numberof grains per unit area or as the mean grain diameter.
Hardness
The resistanceof a metaltoplasticdeformationusuallybycontrolled

indentation.
Heat treatable
An alloy capable of being strengthenedby suitable heat treatment.
alloy
Homogenization A high temperature soaking treatment to eliminate or reduce

segregationby diffusion.
Indirect extrusion A process wherebya moving die locatedat the end of a hollow ram
is forced against a stationary billet.
Mean diameter
The sum of any two diameters at right angles divided by two.
Mean wall
thickness
The sum of the wallthickness of tube measureat the ends of any

two diametersat right angles, divided by four.
Mechanical
properties
Those propertiesof a material that are associatedwith elastic and

inelasticreactionwhenforce isapplied,orthatinvolvethe relationship
between stress and strain. These properties are often incorrectly
referred to as physical" properties.
Modulus of
Elasticity
The ratio of stress to corresponding strain throughout the range

wherethey are proportional.Also referredto as "Young'sModulus".
Modulus of
Rigidity
The ratiooftheunit shearstress,inatorsion test,tothe displacement

caused by it per unit length in the elastic range.
Non-heat
treatable
An alloy incapable
Ovality
The departureof the cross section of a round tube, bar or wire from
Percentage
The increase in distance between two gauge marks that results

from stressing the specimen in tension to fracture.
elongation
Physical
properties
of being strengthenedby thermal treatment.
a true circle.
The properties,other than mechanical,that pertain to the physics

of a material;for example, density, electrical conductivity,thermal
expansion.
129
Pitting
Localised corrosion resulting in small pits or craters in the metal

surface. See Section 4.
Porthole die
An extrusion die that incorporatesa mandrelas an integral part of

itsassembly. Bridgeand spider are specialforms of this typeofdie,
which are used to produce extruded hollow products from solid
extrusion billets.
Proof stress
The level of stress used to signify the limit of proportionality

designated at the point of 0.2% strain for aluminium and it alloys.
corrosion
See Section 3.
Quenching
Controlled rapidcooling of a metalfrom an elevatedtemperatureby

contact with a liquid, gasor solid.
Residual stress That internalstresswhich is left in afinished productafterfabrication.

Sealing
A treatment applied after anodizing to reduce the porosity of the

surface.
Segregation
Non-uniform distribution or concentrationof impurities or alloying

constituentsthat arises during the solidificationof a billet.
Solution heat
treatment
A thermal treatment
Stabilizing
A thermal treatmentto reduce internalstresses in order to promote
Stepped
extrusion
An extrudedshapewhosecross sectionchangesabruptly in areaat
Stretching
The straightening of extruded and drawn materials by imparting
Tempers
Stable levels of mechanicalpropertiesproduced in a metal or alloy

by mechanical or thermal treatments.
Twist
A winding departure from flatness.
Ultimate tensile
strength
The maximum stress which a material is capable of sustaining in

tension under a gradual and uniformly applied load.
in which an alloy is heated to a suitable

and
held
for
sufficienttimeto allowsolubleconstituents
temperature
to enterintosolid solutionwheretheyare retainedinasupersaturated
state after quenching. See Section 2.
dimensional and mechanical property stability.

intervals along its length.
sufficient permanentextensiontoremove distortion. Specificlevels
of stretching (permanent set) can be imparted to relieve internal
stresses.
130
Waterstains
Superficial surface oxidization due to the reaction of water films

held betweenclosely adjacentmetal surfacessuch as nested angle
sections. The appearancevaries from iridescentin mild cases, to
white, grey or black in more severe instances.
ABBREVIATIONS
*N
E = Young's modulus of elasticity

G = Torsion modulus
r = Radius of gyration
k = End fixity co-efficient
= Slendernessratio
8 = Deflection
Newton
= kiloaramme
gravity
* P = Pascal
= N/m2
= Micron
P = Stress suffix - - tension
c - compression
* iN/mm2 = 1MPa
both terms are used to define stress
levels
131
Page blank
in original
a technical
design guide
LISTOF APPENDICES
No.
Title
PageNo.
APPENDIX 1
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
135
APPENDIX 2
BEAM STRESSAND
DEFLECTIONTABLES
139
PREVIOUS
B.S. DESIGNATIONS
153
COMPARISONOF NATIONAL
SPECIFICATIONS-WROUGHTALLOYS
155
CHEMICALCOMPOSITION
LIMITS AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
159
APPENDIX 3
APPENDIX 4
APPENDIX 5
133
Page blank
in original
APPENDIX 1 - DESIGN CONSIDERATiONS
135
Thefollowing list containsmost potentialconsiderationslikelyto arise in the design of

aluminium extruded products.
ALLOY
TEMPER
MECHANICALPROPERTIES -
0.2% proof stress

Ultimate stress
% elongation
Compressive strength
Axial loading - column length
end fixing
load eccentricity
Shear stress
Bearing stress (jointing)
Surface hardness
Torsion
Fatigue
Stiffness
SECTION DESIGN
- Size, shape and thickness

Production availabilityand section extrudability
Geometric properties
Weight
Tolerance
Value engineering
SURFACEFINISH
Mill
Etched
Shot blasted
Anodised - Natural
Colour (organic)
Colour (metallic)
AAthickness
Protective anodizing
- Colour
Paint
Electrostatic(Powder Spray
or Wet Spray)
Electrophoretic(Wet Dip)
136
JOINING
- Welding
TIG
Filler wire
MIGJ
Gas Welding
Brazing
Rivetingi
Bolting
Screwing
Bearing strength
Choice of fastening material
Screw material and size
Pull out strengths
Corner crimping
Adhesives - Type
Strength
Applicationdetails
FABRICATION
Bending
Alloy and temper

Tooling
Twisting
Necking
Machir;ing -
Springback
Routing
Drilling
Sawing
TEMPERATURE
- Expansion/Contraction
Effect
CONDUCTIVITY
on mechanicalproperties
Heat transfer
Electrical
DURABILITY
Atmospheric
Environment -
Chemical
Substance
Concentration
Temperature
Design of Bi-metallic
connections
Rural
Marine
Industrial
Compatibility -
FIRE
Melting point
Non-combusibility
Non-ignitability
Fire propogation
Surface spread of flame
Structuralresistance
137
Page blank
in original
APPENDIX 2-
BEAM STRESSAND
DEFLECTIONTABLES
139
Stresses
Typeof Beam
GeneralFormulafor
Stress atany Point
Case 1.- Supportedat Both Ends,

TOTAL LOAD W
fjfjjfijf4
Points
Stress at centre,
UniformLoad
StressesatCritical
If
s=-
cross-section is
constant, this
maximumstress.
2
Betweeneachsupport Stress at centre,
andload,
Case 2.- SupportedatBoth Ends,

Loadat Center
S= -
If
2Z
is the
cross-section
constant, this
maximumstress.
is
is the
For segmentof length

Loadatany Point
a,
5=-x
ZI
Stressat load - wa
If
cross-section is
For segmentof length constant, this

maximumstress.
b,
ab1

TwoSymmetricalLoads
TId
w
Way
Between each support

andadjacentload,
s=
-z
Between loads,
140
is the
Stress at each load,

andatallpointsbetween,
Wa
Deflections
GeneralFormulafor Deflection atany Point
at CriticalPoints
Deflections
Maximumdeflection,at centre,
W(I-)
V3
24E11 '12x(I-x)J
El
384
Betweeneach supportandload,
Maximumdeflection,atload, WI3
4BEl (312-4x2)
For segmentoflength a,
6E11
(I2--b)
For segmentoflength b,
4E7
Deflectionatload, Wa2b2
3E II
Let a be the length of the shorter segment
and b of the longer one. The maximum
deflectionisin the longersegment,at
(12-v2-a2)
bv'jj
Betweeneach supportandadjacentload,
Maximumdeflectionat centre,
y=
Way
v=
Betweenloads,
"
Wa
- 6E I f3a (I a) x2)
'312-4a2)
Deflectionatloads
Wa
6E1 (3v(I-v)-a21
141
= v1, and is
(3/-4a)
Stresses
Typeof Beam
Case 5.- Both EndsOverhanging

SupportsUnsymmetrically,
UniformLoad
GeneralFormulafor
Stressatany Point
L2ZL
Foroverhangingendof
lengthd,
S=
=1
C2Lx
d2X(!X)}
2(/-d-c)
Points
Stress at support next

Foroverhangingendof
endoflength c,
length c,
Wc2
w X(c-u)2
s
2ZL
Criticalstressbetween
isat
supports
Betweensupports,
/2 c2- d2
X
2/
TOTAL LOADW
w
2! d-c)
Stressesat Critical
2ZL
W
andis
2)
2ZL (C2- X7
Stress at supportnext
endoflengthd,
Ld2
If
2ZL
cross-section
is
constant, the greatest of

these three is the
maximumstress.
If x,>' the stress is
2 - c2
zero at points
on both sides of x =Xr
.f
Case 6..- Both EndsOverhanging
Supports, Loadatany Point
ba
Between
(a+b=I)
Between supports:
For segmentoflength
a,
s=_x
ZI
For segmentoflength
b,
S7f
Way
Beyondsupportss=o.
142
Stress atload,
7i
Wa!)
If cross-section is
constant, this is the
maximumstress.
Defiections
GeneralFormulafor Deflectionatany Point
Deflections
at CriticalPoints
For overhangingend of length c,

Wv
Deflectionatend c,
24E1L (21(d22c2)
i-6c2u-u2(4c-u)-13J
24E1L (21(d2 2c2)3c3-13J
Betweensupports,
Deflectionatend d,
Wx (I -x) I'
24E1L x(I-9+I2--2(d2c2)
24E1L (21(c2 2d2)3d3-131
fd c2(Ix)J}
Thiscase is socomplicatedthatconvenient
generalexpressionsforthe critical deflections
betweensupportscannotbeobtained.
For overhangingendoflength d,
)24EILt2+2c)
6d2w-w2(4d-w)-13J
Between supports, same as Case 3. For
overhangingend oflength c,
y=
Wabu
For overhangingend oflength d,
Between supports,same asCase 3.
Deflectionatend c,
Wabc
Deflectionatendd,
+
6EII (I a)
y = - WaLw (1 a)
143
Stresses
Type of Beam
General Formulafor
Stress at any Point
Case 7.- Both Ends Overhanging

Supports, Single Overhanging
Load
Stressesat Critical
Points
Between load and

Stress at support
adjacent support,
adjacentto load,
WC
W(c - U)
Between supports,
Wc S=
z
If
cross-section is

(I x)
maximum stress.
Stress is zero at other
Between unloadedend support.
andadjacentsupport, s
= 0.
Case 8.- Both Ends Overhanging
Supports, Symmetrical Overhanging
Loads
Between each load

and adjacentsupport,
s=
Stress atsupports and

at all points between,
--(c-u)
Wc
Between supports
S=
W
Wc
Case 9.- Fixed at One End,
If cross-section is
maximum stress.
Stress at support,
Uniform Load
W
thi-2
TOTAL LOAD W
-WI
If
cross-section is

maximumstress.
144
Deflections
General Formulafor Deflection
Deflectionsat Critical Points
at any Point
Between load and adjacent support,
Wu
all
Wcx
(a + I)
Maximum upward deflection is at
Between supports,
Y=
!.1
3EI
Deflectionat load,
(3cu-u22c!)
x=042265I, and
(I-x)(2I-x)
Wc12
15.55E1
Betweenunloadedendandadjacentsupport, Deflectionat unloaded end,
y=
Betweeneach load and adjacent support,

=
WcId
Wc/w
Deflections
(3c(I + U) - u2]
Between supports,y
-W-
at loads,
Deflection at center,
2E1 (I-x)
6EI
(2c + 3/)
Wa!2
The above expressions involve the usual approximationsof the theory of flexure, and hold
only for smalldeflections. Exact expressionsfor deflectionsofany magnitudeare as follows:
Between supports the curve is circle ofradius

__________
Deflectionat centre,
/r - /
2
r=E
Wc
y = V'r2 1/412
/2 (l/2 I-
2-
y= 24E1!
-'--f2! + (2!- x)2]
Maximumdeflection,at end, WI3

8E1
145
x)2
Stresses
Type of Beam
General Formulafor
Stress at any Point
Case 10. - Fixed at One End, Load
Stress at support,
at Other
s=
wI(
Stresses at Critical
Points
-y (i-x)
If
cross-section is

maximum stress.
Case 11. - Fixed at One End,

IntermediateLoad
Between support and

load,
S
wI
Beyondload, s = o.
Case 12. - Fixed at OneEnd,
If
cross-section
is

maximum stress.
Maximumstress at
Supportedat the Other, Uniform Load
TOTAL LOAD W
Stress at support,
wi
point of fixture,y
Stress is zero at
S1)r/4Ix)
2Z1
=V4L
Greatest negative
stress isatx=6/.Iand
146
WI
Deflections
General Formulafor Deflectionat any Point
(3!-x)
Deflectionsat Critical Points
Maximumdeflection,at end,
Betweensupport and load,
Y=
Deflections
(31-x)
at load,
WI3
Maximumdeflection,at end,
Between unloadedendandadjacentsupport,
WI2
y=
(3v -I)
(2! 3b)
Maximumdeflection is at x = 05785I,
and is
=
W2 (I -x)
48E
(31- 2x)
Y?I_
185E
Deflection at center,
192E
Deflection at point of greatest negative

stress,
147
atX=
us
WI3
187E1
Stresses
Type of Beam
General Formulafor
Stress at any Point
Stressesat Critical
Points
Between point of
Maximum stress at
Supportedat the Other, Load at Center fixture and load,
point offixture, 3 14'!
16 Z
s= w
lix)
Stress is zero at
w
Between support and
x= 3 I
-(3I-
load,
16
s=_T

Supported at the Other, Load at
32Z
of
2(n-mx)
Between support and

load,
Wab(/b)
2/2
s=
a2
w[i--(sI-a)]
Greatest
-Wa 2v
2(3Ia)
positive
stress, at point offixture,
/2
V.P(J)
Wb
s=
n=aI(Ib)
Wv
Between point
fixture and load,
any Point
m_(Ia)(I+b)+a/
Greatest negative
stress at center, 5 Wi
Greatest negative
stress, at load,
Wa2b
2Z13
(3!- a)
If a <0.5858 I, the first

isthe maximumstress. If
a = 0.5858!, the two are

equal and are
wa2(31-a)
5.83Z
a
0.5858 I, the
second is the
2I
If
maximum
stress.
Stress is zero atX
Case 15. - Fixedat Both Ends,
Maximum stress at
WI
ends,
Uniform Load
TOTAL LOAD W
s=
Will x x 21
Stress is zero at
x=0-78871 and at
x=O.2li31
Greatest flegativewi
stress, atcentre, -
148
Deflections
General Formulafor Deflectionat any Point
Deflections
Between support and load,
W2
(9!- lix)
96E
I,
at Critical Points
Maximumdeflectionisatv=0.4472
and is
WI3
107.33E
Between supportand load,

Deflectionat load,
Wv
i_
768
!tV
El
96E1
(312-5v2)
Between point of fixture and load,
Deflectionat load,
Wx2b
12E1/3 (3n-mx)
Betweensupport and load,
Wa2v
If
(3! + b)
a < 0.5858 1, maximum deflection is
between load and support, at
v=!/andis
1312b-v2(3!-a)J
12E1/3
Wa3b2
12E113
21b
Ifa=0.58581, maximumdeflectionisatload
and is
6E1
WI3
1Oi.9E I
Ifa>0.5858!,maximumdeflectionisbetween
load and point of fixture, at
2n
and
Wbn3
'53EIm2I3
Maximumdeflection,at centre,
Wx2
24E1! (/-x)2
384E1
149
Stresses
Typeof Beam
GeneralFormulafor
Stress atany Point
Case 16.- Fixedat Both Ends,
Stressesat Critical
Points
Stress at end next

segmentoflength a,
Loadatany Point
Wab2
For segmentoflength
a,
Wab2
Wab
/2
s=
3(aI-x(I2a)]
r2
Stress at end next

segmentoflength b,
Wa2b
Z12
Maximum stress is at
Forsegmentoflength end
b,
Tb2(/2)
Wa2(/2;f
fT
next
shorter
segment.
32(bI V(I+ 2b)j
Stress is zero for
a!
I2b
Greatest negative
stress,
atload
2Wa2b2
---patCenterof Each
TOTAL LOAD ON EACH SPAN,W
J'I-j)
(I/i)
2Z!
Case 18. -
ContinuousBeam,with
TwoEqualSpans, EqualLoads
atCenterofEach
w
Maximum stress at
WI
pointA,
Case 17. - ContinuousBeam,with

TwoEqualSpans, EqualLoads
-_____
Stress is zero at
x=4I
--
Greatest negative
stressisatx=5/5! and
is,_ 9 WI
Maximumstress at
Between point A and
3
WI
A,
point
load,
s=
j-(3I-llx)
Between point B and

load,
5iT
150
Wv
16
Stress is zero at
X
Greatestnegative
stressatcenterof span
5
WI
----r
Deflections
GeneralFormulafor Deflectionatany Point
Deflections
atCritical Points
Wa
Deflectionatload,
For segmentoflength a,
2b2
(2a(I-x)I(a-x)]
For segmentof length b,
Letb bethe length ofthelongersegmentand

aoftheshorterone.
The maximum deflection is in the longer
segment,at
2N
V1
= Wv2a2 (2b (I- v) + I(b - v)J
6EJ/3
and is
I(I 2b)2
2Wa2b3
3E
Maximum deflectionisatx=0.5785!, and is

WI3
185E1
- Wv2(I-)
48EII
Deflectionatcenterofspan,
'3/ - 2Xi
Deflectionatpointofgreatestnegative
stress, atx
BetweenpointA andload,
is
WI3
187E1
Maximumdeflectionis at v=0.4472!, andis
W
y= -j.(9I-11x)
WI3
107.33E1
Betweenpoint Bandload,
=
WI3
192EI
Deflectionatload,
wv
9J(3I 2-5v2)
151
L !!
El
768
Page blank
in original
a technical
design guide
APPENDIX3- PREVIOUSBS DESIGNATIONS
153
PREVIOUS B.S. DESIGNATIONS

(PROPERTIESIN IMPERIAL UNITS)
OLD
NEW
B.S.
B.S.
TEMPER
NUMBER NUMBER OLD NEW
50 MM
ON
4.5
8.5
14
T5
7.1
9.7
IF
T6
10.4
12.0
7.5
12
TB
14
7.8
12.4
14
TF
16
16.5
19.1
TB
T4
HE9
TE
HE9
6063
% ELONG
12
HE9
ULT.
STRESS
TONS/IN2
6.5
HE9
0.2 %
PROOF STRESS
TONS/IN2
HE3O
HE3O
1
6082
HE3O
E91E
6101A
TF
T6
11.3
13.3
BTRE6
6463
TF
T6
10.4
12.0
HE15
2014A
TB
14
15.3
24.7
10
TF
T6
24.7
29
6063A
TB
T4
6.0
10.0
12
6063A
TE
15
10.4
13.3
6063A
IF
16
12.6
15.3
HE15
Thesedesignations
andproperties
areforguidanceonly. All orders are manufactured
to the existing British Standards alloy numbers and tested in metric units.
154
APPENDIX 4-
COMPARISON OF
NATIONALSPECIFICA11ONS
155
Page blank
in original
01
Al Cu 4Mg 1
2024
Si Mn
144054
Al
Cu 451 Mn
Pb
N61
H20
H9
H30
AIM5IS1Cu
Al Mg 0.5 Si
AISi I Mg Mn
55565
6061
6082
2L95;L160;L161; L162
Al Zn 6Mg Cu
7075
DTD 5025: 5104A: 50945
7014
Hi7
DTD0I3O:5120A
7010
Al Zn 4.5 Mg
E6
6463
7020
916
6101A
6063
1452
1451
Al Mg 3.6
5454
5554
N4
Al Mg 2
5251
145
N8
Al Mg 4.5 Mn
5083
5154A
N6
51Mg 5
50565
1441.
Al Mg
142
4047
5005
N21
N31
4043
3105
N3
3.4335
3.4365
A-Z 5G U
3.2315
3.3537
3.3525
33547
3.3555
A-Z 5 G
A-SG M0.7
A-CSUC
A-G 2,5 MC
A-G 2 M
A-C 4.5 MC
A-C 0.6
A-S 12
A-S 5
3.0505
3,0515
Mn
Al Zn Mg Cu 1.5
Al Zn Mgi
UN13735
UN17791
UN13571
UN13569
UN16170
Granges
SM 6958
144212
Mg
Zn 45Mg
0.5
Zn 6Mg Cu
Al
Si
Sil Mn
Al Mg
Al
Mg 2.7 Mn
Al Mg 5
Al Mgi
Mg 21 Mn
144104
144140
144106
Al Mg 2
UN17789
UN13575
UN17790
U14l13576
UN15764
UN13568
Mg 2 Mn 0.3
Mg 4.5 Mn
Al Mg Si
Al
Al
Al
Al Mg 5
Al Mn 0.5 Mg 0,5
Al
Al
1318
1316
2024
2017A
20145
2011
1350
V95
6063
7075
7020
7014
7010
6463
6101A
6082
6061
AD3I
55565
5554
5454
0201
5154A
5083
50585
5005
4547
4043
3105
3103
AD3
AMG3
AK4-1
26185
3103
A-U2GN
Al Mn
Al Cu 4Mg 1.5
Al
Bi
2117
UN13577
LJN13583
144338
Al Cu 6
2031
Al Cu Mg 0.5
Al Cu Mg2
UN13SO1
144355
H16
Cu
AlCuMgi
Al
UN16362
A-U 20
3.1305
3,1355
3.1325
3,1255
Al Cu Si Pb
E-Al99,S
A-U2N
A-U4GI
A-U4G
A-U4SG
3.1655
A-U 5 Pb Bi
E-Al
26185
1080A
10505
InternationalNumber
2218
Al Mn
AK8
USSR
7L25
2117
Li 10
A199.0
A199,5
Switcerland
1200
3.0257
A5/L
144010
144004
144007
Sweden
1199
UN13567
Italy
A4
Al99
A199 5
A99
3.0205
3.0255
WantGermany
WerkstottNumber
DIN Designation
2218
H12
3L86
2031
Cu 2 Mg
AICu 4Mg Si
20175
Al
H15
Al Cu 4Si Mg
2014A
2L 97, 2L 98, L 109,

DTO 5100A
EC1
Al Cu 6 Di Fb
1E
2011
1350
1C
1200
A199
AS
IA
A199-5
1080A
1199
A5
lB
A199-S
1OSOA
Franca
FormerNF
FormarBS
Designation
Alloy Type as Depicted

by Old ISO Number
BS and
International
Page blank
in original
APPENDIX 5-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
LIMITS AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
159
Page blank
in original
a)
'1
0_to
0.35
0.20
0.40
0.35
7020
0.10
0.45-
1.001.40
0.50
0.200.60
0.450.90
0.05-
0.401.20
005
0,40-
090
0.601.20
090
0,50-
0.35
0,10-
0.10
025
005
035
120
0.90
0.04-
0.80-
0.401.00
075
0.10
0.15
0.05
0.35-
0.10
0.60
Chromium
Manganese Magnesium
0.10
5.00
4.00-
0,25
005
0.20
015
0_ia
0.25
0_is
Zinc
Nickel
( INDIVIDUAL PERCENTAGE VALUESOF CONSTITUANTSARE MAXIMUM

(2) ALL MECHANICALPROPERTIESARE TYPICAL.
BARS
(3) TEMPER T6510 APPLIES ONLY TO CONTROLLEDSTRETCHINGOF SOLID
5 00
3.90-
0,50
0.500.90
20i4A
060
0,20-
0.20
0.40
030-
6101A
0.15
0.50
0.70130
6082
6463
0.05
035
070
0.10
0.15-
atO
0.150.40
060
0.60
0.20-
080
0.10
Coppe
0.70
030
0,40-
0.10-
060
0.30-
iron
Smlioon
0.30-
6063A
6063
6061
6060
Material
designation
008-0.25
Zr Ti
0.20
Zr eTi
0.15
.
-
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.15
0_to
'
Other
restrictions Titanium
________
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.05
0,05
0.05
0.05
005
Each
0.15
0,15
0,15
0.10
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
Total
Rent
Rem.
Rent.
Rem.
Rem.
Rent
Rent.
Rem.
Rent.
Aluminium
T4
T6
T65i0
T6
T4
T4
T6
T6
T5
T6
T65t0
20
20
75
25
25
200
150
20
150
200
20
75
50
50
190
280
230
250
250
230
370
435
420
390
150
78
170
300
340
370
435
480
465
435
370
390
390
125
185
200
(100)
190
170
270
295
310
280
'
-
150
200
230
(100)
130
120
150
195
150
280
190
190
120
145
90
160
190
70
70
110
160
130
150 120
200 100
6 230
20 255
ISO 270
200 240
205
200
25
25
25
200
200
150
200
25
150
205
75
150
itS
iSO 240
150
Mm.
strength
Max,
5.65 'JSo
(rrrin.(
On
-
-
170
140
12
10
7
7
8
8
7
ii
ii
16
tO
10
8
8
S
(13)
16
13
16
8
8
14
8
8
6
(13)
16
13
15
16
16
8
8
N/mm' N/mm' N/mm' %
proof
stress
(mm.)
150 60
150 100
150 150
mm
20
7S
150
150
150
T4
iSO
T4
T5
T6
l,
150
5 -
mm
T5
T6
T4
T65i0
T6
T4
T4
T5
T6
(bar) or
thickness
(tube!
section)
and mechanical properties 1 of heat-treatable Aluminium alloy bars, extruded round tube and sections
(Figures in parentheses refer to the notes at the end of this table)
Chemical composition limits
10
8
10
14
9
8
7
(12)
14
14
12
7
7
7
7
14
(12)
13
14
(mn.)
On
50 mm
Page blank
in original
Aluminiumextrusions are used in a wide variety of engineering

and architectural applications. As a strong, light, non-corrosive
material which can be extruded into complex shapes, aluminium
provides the solution
to a whole range of design problems.
This concise technical guide provides the reader with the
information necessary to design effectively with aluminium

extrusions.
It presents brief details on the extrusion
process,
outlines aluminium's material specifications and mechanical

properties and covers such design considerationsas conductivity,
temperature, fabrication and finishing. The book also contains
specific guidance on design procedure, including worked
examples, and concludeswith an extensiveglossary.
"It's a true working manual...a
must for every
drawing office which uses or might use

aluminium extrusions"
Chris Rand, Industrial Technology magazine
"A valuable document...four star rating out of
fve"
Andy Pye, Design Engineering magazine
"A much needed source of reference"

Roy Woodwarci,Aluminium Industry magazine
Published by The Shapemakers the information

Aluminium ExfrudersAssociation
Aluminium
arm of the
UK

Aluminium Extrusions Technical Design Guide

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Aluminium Extrusions Technical Design Guide

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a technical design guide

Forfree, objectiveadviceon allmatters relating to aluminium

technical design guide

PUBLISHED BY THE SHAPEMAKERS

Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Ltd

Reprinted August 1994

PREFACE to the 1994 reprint by Howard Spencer

Part 1: Code of Practice for Design

= overall resistance factor

Codeof Practice for Design

These are available from:

Aluminium is a highly versatile, light and strongmaterial whichcanbe produced in a

The Shapemakers was established by the Aluminium Extruders Association

Forreasonsofclarity, onlysix alloys have been incorporated intothemainbody of

CARE AND CONTROL

a technical design guide

SECTION 1 - PRINCIPLESOF EXTRUSION

Extrusion of a Hollow Section

Thick to Thin Transitionsin

Standard Section Types

Shape Factor Value

Toleranceson Diameter of Round

Toleranceson Widths Across

List of Tables (contd.)

Toleranceson Diameter or Width

Toleranceson Wall Thicknesses

Toleranceson Open End of

Tolerances on the Outside

Toleranceson Length for All

Toleranceon Twist for Extruded

Ram cross head

Fig. 1.1 - The Direct Extrusion Process

Afterextrusionthe section is guided downthe table by a puller on to a slatted moving

Fig. 1.2 - The DifferingOperatingPrinciplesof Directand Indirect Extrusion

Some caution must be exercised, howeverwherethin hollowsections are required in

Fig. 1.3 - Extrusionof a Hollow Section

With lowvaluesof 7or under,there isvery littleworkingofthe materialduringextrusion.

The resistanceof a sectionto extrusioncan be influencedby the shapefactor. This is

Table 1.1 - Shape FactorValues

The sizeofanextrudedshape is determinedbythediameterof thecircumscribingcircle

Table 1.2 - A Guideto Minimum Thickness

Values for 6082 should be increasedby 25%

The extrusionprocess will toleratevariations in sectionthicknessbut it is importantto

incorporatedin most sections. This is a useful methodof introducingpressurehinges

Fig. 1.4 - Thick to Thin Transitionsin

Fig. 1.5 - PressureHinge

Fig. 1.6 - Slot Aspect Ratios.

Fig. 1.7 - Standard SectionTypes

In line with most productionmethods,tolerancesare necessaryto cover variationsin

Alltolerancesshouldbe measuredat 160G. This isparticularlysignificantforthelength

There is no laid-downstandardfor the surface smoothnessor texture of mill finished

Plus and minimum toleranceson

Table 1.4 - Tolerances on Width Across Flatsof Hexagonal

Barfor theManufactureof Nuts & Bolts

Width across flats

Tolerance on width across flats

Table 1.5 - Tolerances on Diameter of Round Bar in the

Table 1.6 - Tolerances on Diameter or Width Across Flats of Bars

width across flats

Tolerances (see notes 1 and 2)

NOTE 1: Tolerances in this table apply to solid materialsother than:

Table 1.7 - AngularTolerances for Extruded Regular