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1 Microscopy
unit
metre
decimetre
centimetre
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micrometre
nanometre
picometre
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of length
The light microscope uses a number of lenses to produce an image that can be viewed directly at the eyepiece. Light passes
through a condenser lens and then through the specimen. It then travels through an objective lens and onto the eyepiece lens.
The objective lenses can be rotated to give magnifications of x4, x10, x40 and x100, and the eyepiece lens magnifies it by x10
Light microscopes have a maximum resolution of around 0.2m. A higher resolution can be achieved with the electron
microscope, which generates beams of electron. They can distinguish objects as small as 0.2nm apart. There are two types:
the transmission electron microscope (TEM) produces a 2D image of up to x500,000. The electron beam produces the
image, as it passes through denser parts of the specimen less easily, giving contrast
the scanning electron microscope (SEM) produces a 3D image of up to x100,000. The electrons dont pass through the
specimen, they bounce off, producing a final 3D surface view
Electron micrographs are false-colour micrographs because TEMs and SEMs always produce images in greyscale. The colours
are always added in after using special computer software
Structure
The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell. When stained, it
shows darkened patches known as chromatin. It is surrounded
by a nuclear envelope. This is a structure made of two
membranes with fluid between them. A lot of holes, called
nuclear pores, go right through the envelope. There is a dense,
spherical structure, called the nucleolus, inside the nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) consists of a series of flattened
membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. They are continuous
with the outer nuclear membrane. Rough ER is studded with
ribosomes, smooth ER does not have ribosomes
Function
The nucleus stores the majority of the cells genetic
material. The chromatin consists of DNA and proteins. It
contains the instructions for making proteins. Some of
these proteins regulate the cells activities. When a cell
divides, chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes.
The nucleolus makes RNA and ribosomes. These pass into
the cytoplasm and proteins are assembled at them
Rough ER transports proteins that were made on the
attached ribosomes. Some of these proteins may be
secreted from the cell. Smooth ER is involved in making
the lipids that the cell needs
The Golgi apparatus is responsible for receiving proteins
and modifying them. It receives proteins from the ER and
may add sugar molecules to them. It then packages the
modified proteins into vesicles that can be transported.
Some modified proteins go to the cell surface so they can
be secreted
Mitochondria are the site where ATP is produced during
respiration. ATP is sometimes called the universal carrier
energy as it drives most of the cellular processes
These are the site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Light
energy is used to drive the reactions, in which
carbohydrate molecules are made from carbon dioxide
and water
These contain powerful digestive enzymes which are
there to break down materials.
Function
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in the cell
(where new proteins are made). They act as an assembly
line where coded information (mRNA) from the nucleus is
used to assemble proteins from amino acids
These are used in cell division, they form fibres known as
spindle which move the chromosomes during nuclear
division
they have only one membrane, the cell surface (plasma) membrane, and do not contain any membrane-bound organelles
they are surrounded by a cell wall, although it is made from a different substance to eukaryotic cell walls
many prokaryotes are contained within a capsule which provides protection
they contain ribosomes, but these are far smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
ATP production happens in specially infolded regions of the plasma membrane called mesosomes
their DNA is found loose within the cytoplasm and is in the form of a single loop this loop of DNA is often referred to as
a circular chromosome or bacterial chromosome many prokaryotic cells also contain many smaller loops of DNA called
plasmids (the general area containing the DNA is called the nucleoid)
many prokaryotes have flagella (these are functionally the same as eukaryotic undulipodia, but are internally different)
The basic structure of the membrane consists of a number of arranged phospholipids. This consists
of a phosphate head, which is very hydrophilic (loves water) and two fatty acid tails, which are
hydrophobic (hate water). When mixed with water, the phospholipids arrange themselves in a layer,
so that the water-loving heads are in the water, and the hydrophobic tails stick out:
hydrophobic tail
air
water
hydrophilic head
The bilayer creates a barrier to molecules, and separates the cell contents from
the outside world. However, this simple bilayer is incapable of performing all the
tasks required of the membrane, so there are other components among the
membrane with specific roles
Membranes are permeable to water because water molecules can diffuse across
the lipid bilayer. Membranes which are permeable to only water and some solute
molecules are described as a partially-permeable membrane
glycolipid
channel
protein
phospholipid
bilayer
extrinsic protein
cholesterol
Some phospholipids have carbohydrate chains attached to them: these are called glycolipids. When a protein has a
carbohydrate chain attached to it, it is called a glycoprotein. Glycoproteins are used in cell signalling. The cholesterol provides
mechanical strength giving the membrane stability
Channel proteins allow the transport of certain substances through the membrane, because some molecules are too large, or
are polar (charged), and so cannot pass directly through the membrane: only uncharged (non-polar), small molecules can
diffuse directly over the membrane itself. Carrier proteins actively transport some substances across the membrane. Also
present might be enzymes and coenzymes, or receptor sites. Receptor sites allow hormones to bind with the cell so that a
cellular response can be carried out
When an animal cell is placed in a solution of low solute concentration, it bursts open (it is haemolysed)
When a plant cell is placed in a solution of low solute concentration, it swells (it is turgid)
When an animal cell is placed in a solution of high solute concentration, it shrinks and wrinkles (it is crenated)
When a plant cell is placed in a solution of high solute concentration, it shrivels (it is plasmolysed)
D: Active Transport
Active transport is a method of transport which is active. It uses energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Active transport uses carrier proteins like those in facilitated diffusion. However, active transport involves the movement of
molecules against the concentration gradient, such as when a molecule needs to be moved from inside the cell to outside the
cell, even though there is a higher concentration of that solute outside the cell. It is also faster and more efficient than diffusion
molecule being actively transported
The energy used in the process changes the shape of the transport protein as the molecule slots into it. The fact that the shape
changes, rather than has pores on both sides mean the movement is from one side to another only
Exocytosis
G1 indicates the first growth stage, this includes making new proteins and organelles
S indicates synthesis, each chromosome is duplicated to have two chromatids
Next, the cell checks itself to ensure it has correctly copied each chromosome, if not, the cycle is abandoned
G2 indicated the second growth stage, the enlargement of the developing cell
Here we have the second checkpoint where the cell checks its progress is correct
M is nuclear division mitosis where the cell eventually undergoes the events involved in cellular division
The outer letters M and I represent the stages of mitosis and interphase (the stage the cell is at the rest of the time)
centromere
chromatid
Before a cell divides, the DNA of each chromosome must be replicated. Two replicas are
produced. Each is an exact copy of the original and they are held together at a point
called the centromere. Each chromosome consists of a pair of sister chromatids, which
are genetically identical
chromosome
1.11 Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of cellular division where two daughter cells are produced. The daughter cells are genetically-identical to each
other and the parent cell
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
Stage 6
1.12 Meiosis
Meiosis is the type of division concerned with sexual reproduction. During this process, the daughter cells contain only half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell, and daughter cells are genetically-different
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two cell nuclei from two individuals. Each cell contributes half of the genetic
information (genome), so each one has been produced to contain half of the chromosomes as its parent. These sex cells (which
are haploid contain half the chromosomes) are called gametes, and are described as n (parent cells being diploid - 2n)
Meiosis only happens in the gonads (sex organs). Most adult cells contain 46 chromosomes, which are homologous, so
containing the same genes but different alleles (versions of a gene). During meiosis, only one chromosome from each
homologous pair is copied into the daughter cell
Neutrophil (phagocyte)
Sperm cell
Structure
Function
No nucleus
Lobed nucleus
Undulipodium
Many mitochondria
Palisade cell
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) and neutrophils (phagocytes) by no means have the same function, yet they each begin with the
same set of chromosomes, so each are potentially capable of becoming the same cell. All blood cells are produced from
undifferentiated stem cells in the bone marrow. The cells destined to become erythrocytes lose their nucleus, mitochondria,
Golgi body and rough ER. They become packed full of haemoglobin and become biconcave discs. Those to become neutrophils
keep their nucleus, and it becomes lobed. Their cytoplasm appears granular due to the lysosomes containing enzymes
Organs
A collection of tissues working
together to perform a
particular function. Examples
include the leaves of plants
and the liver in animals
Organ systems
Made up of several organs
working together to perform an
overall life function. Examples
include the excretory system and
the reproductive system
There are four main tissue types in animals: epithelial, muscle, nervous and connective tissue
Epithelial tissues form sheets which cover surfaces most organs have this tissue. Squamous (pavement) epithelia cover many
surfaces including the cheeks, alveoli and blood vessels. Individual cells are smooth, flat and very thin, they all fit closely
together. Their thinness allows for rapid diffusion. Ciliated epithelia have cilia. The cells which have the cilia waft rhythmically
to move material along the surface (e.g. moving the egg along the oviduct). Also present among ciliated epithelia are goblet
cells which secrete mucus. The mucus traps dirt and microbes, and the cilia move it upwards in breathing tubes
In plants, meristem cells (undifferentiated cells, like stem cells) are produced only in meristem areas. These are the root, shoot
tips and a ring around the stem or trunk. Meristem cells can differentiate into cells which become part of the transport tissues
(either xylem or phloem)