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Bonding in Carbon
Carbon, a non-metal with atomic number 6 and mass number 12, occurs in
free as well as in combined form. All living creatures are based on it. Its amount in
the earths crust and in the atmosphere is quite meagre. In earths crust, there is
only 0.02% carbon which is present as minerals and in the atmosphere 0.03%
carbon is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon thus forms a large
number of compounds with itself and with the atoms of other elements; some of
which are studied in this chapter.
In order to overcome this problem, carbon shares its valence electrons with its
other atoms or atoms of other elements.
These shared electrons belong to the outer shells of both the atoms and in this
way, both atoms attain the noble gas configuration. This type of bonding is called
covalent bonding. Thus, the bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron
pair between two same or different atoms are known as covalent bonds.
2
Shared electrons
Examples
O==O
Oxygen molecule
Oxygen atoms
Atomic number of H = 1
It has 1 electron in its K shell and needs 1 more electron
to fill the K shell completely.
Thus, 2 H atoms share each of their electron to form a
molecule of H 2 and thus, each H atom attains the nearest
noble gas configuration of helium (having two electrons
in its K shell). Valence electrons are depicted by using
dots or crosses.
Electronic configuration = 2 , 5
It needs 3 more electrons to attain noble gas
configuration. Thus, 2 nitrogen atoms share 3 each of
their electrons, forming a triple bond of nitrogen
molecule.
H
Hydrogen atoms
Shared electrons
H2 molecule
Shared electrons
Electronic configuration = 2 , 8, 7
H
H
Shared electrons
H
H
HCH
H
H
Cl
Cl
Chlorine atoms
Cl
NN
Nitrogen molecule
Nitrogen atoms
or HH
Atomic number of Cl = 17
Cl
ClCl
Chlorine
molecule
K L
Electronic configuration = 2 , 6
NH
Water (H2O)
H
H
HOH
or O
H
Allotropes of Carbon
Atomic number of C = 6
KL
Electronic configuration = 2 4
Atomic number of O = 8
KL
Electronic configuration = 2 6
Thus, they complete their octet as
O == C ==O
or
Electronic configuration = 2 8 6
So, the valency of each S atom is 2.
S
S
S
S
Crown shaped
S8 molecule
Diamond
General Properties
General properties of diamond are
It is quite heavy.
Diamond structure
Uses
Uses of diamond are
Dies made from diamond are used for drawing wires from
the metals.
Graphite
General Properties
General properties of graphite are
Fullerenes
These are recently prepared allotropic forms of carbon
and were prepared first time by HW Kroto, Smalley and
Robert Curt by the action of laser beam on the vapours of
graphite. Most commonly known fullerene contains 60 C
atoms (C60 ) with smaller proportion of C 70 and traces of
compounds containing even upto 370 carbon atoms.
C60 fullerene was named buckminsterfullerene after
the American architect Buckminster Fuller because its
structure resembled with the framework of domeshaped
halls designed by Fuller for the large international
exhibitions.
Properties
Properties of fullerenes are
Graphite Structure
Uses
Uses of graphite are
Uses
Uses of fullerene are
Check
oint
gas?
2. Name the two properties of carbon which makes it
different from other elements.
3. Why are covalent compounds bad conductor of
electricity?
4. Graphite is a covalent molecule but a good
conductor of electricity. Explain why?
5. Why are fullerene so called?
(i) Catenation
Carbon atoms have a unique ability to form bonds
(single, double as well as triple) with other carbon atoms to
form large molecules. These can arrange themselves in
straight chain, in branched chains or in the form of rings.
This property of self linking of carbons atom through
covalent bonds to form straight chains or cyclic rings of
carbon atoms is called catenation.
Carbon exhibits the property of catenation to maximum
extent due to large C-C bond energy and hence, forms large
number of compounds.
(ii) Tetravalency
Due to the valency of four, carbon is capable of bonding
or pairing with four other carbon atoms or with the atoms of
Organic Compounds
The compounds of carbon except its oxides, carbonates
and hydrogen carbonate salts, are known as organic
compounds. These compounds were initially extracted from
natural substances and was believed that some vital force was
necessary for the synthesis of these compounds (vital force
theory).
In 1828, synthesis of urea, by German chemist Friedrich
Wohler accidently when he was trying to prepare
ammonium cyanate by heating ammonium sulphate and
potassium cyanate, gave death below to this theory.
(NH4 ) 2 SO4
Ammonium sulphate
2KCNO
Potassium cyanate
2NH4 CNO + K 2 SO 4
Ammonium
cyanate
Potassium
sulphate
Urea
(compounds of carbon
except oxides, carbonates
and bicarbonates)
Hydrocarbon Derivatives
(compounds obtained by replacing
one or more H of hydrocarbons by
any other atom or groups of atoms)
e.g., CH3Cl (methyl chloride),
CH3OH (methanol), etc.)
Hydrocarbons
(compounds having
carbon and hydrogen only)
Saturated
(having only single bonds)
e.g., C2H6 (ethane)
H H
H
H, CH4 (methane)
H
H
Homocyclic
(have cycle of
only C atoms)
Alicyclic
(does not have
benzene ring)
e.g., CH
2
CH2
H2C
(Cyclopropane)
Heterocyclic
(have atleast one atom
other than carbon as a
part of the ring).
Aromatic
(have benzene ring)
e.g.,
C C H (furan)
O
(benzene)
CH3 (toluene)
H
Unsaturated
(having atleast one double or
triple bond alongwith single bonds)
Alkenes
(have atleast one
double bond)
e.g., ethene (C2H4)
H
H
C C
H
H
Alkynes
(have atleast
one triple bond)
e.g., ethyne (C2H2)
H C C H
Hydrocarbons
All the carbon compounds which contain only carbon
and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. Their main sources
are petroleum (or crude oil) and natural gas.
On the basis of types of bond present (only single or
double or triple bond alongwith single bonds),
hydrocarbons are divided into two classes.
Saturated Hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbons in which all the carbon atoms are
connected by only single bonds are called saturated
hydrocarbons or alkanes or paraffins.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Those carbon compounds in which atleast one double or
triple bond (or multiple bond) is present alongwith single
bonds, are called unsaturated compounds.
These compounds generally burn with sooty flame due
to their incomplete combustion. These are highly reactive
and generally undergo addition reaction (which are
discussed later in the chapter).
Unsaturated compounds further divided into following two
classes
(i) Alkenes or Oleffins
Those carbon compounds which have atleast one double
bond alongwith single bonds are called alkenes. (A double
bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons
between the two carbon atoms).
General formula of these compounds is Cn H2n .
For example, if an alkene have two carbon atoms, its
formula is C 2H22 = C 2H4 (ethane).
(ii) Alkynes
Those unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or
more triple bonds alongwith the single bonds are called
alkynes. (A triple bond is formed by the sharing of three
pairs of electrons between two carbon atoms).
General formula of these compounds is Cn H2n 2 .
For example, if an alkyne have two carbon atoms then its
formula is C 2H222 = C 2H2 (ethyne). If there are 3 carbon
atoms in the alkyne then its formula must be
C3 H23 2 = C3 H 4 .
[I step]
CC
[I step]
H
[II step]
H
Isomerism
H
C
H
H
H C
H H
H H H H
CC
CC
or
HC
H
C
C
H C C C C
H and H C C C C
H H H
H H H
or
Functional Groups
Benzene (C 6H6 )
H
H
H H H H
Examples
Cyclohexane (C 6H12 )
H
H
H
H
H
or
C ==O
O
C
O
C ==OH
Representation
with alkyl group
Family
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Ketone
Carboxylic acids
ROH
O
R C H
O
R C R
O
R C OH
NH2
O
Amines
Ethers
RNH2
ROR
X
NO2
Halogen
Nitro group
RX
RNO2
Step 2
functional group
Similarly,
CH3 C CH3 Propanone
14243
14243
Alkyl group
Alkyl group
or dimethyl ketone
Homologous Series
A series of compounds in which hydrogen in a carbon
chain is replaced by the same functional group, is called
homologous series.
Characteristics of a Homologous Series
Step 3
Root word
No. of
C atoms
Root
word
(C )
Meth
(C
(C )
Eth
(C )
Hept
(C3 )
Prop
(C8 )
Oct
(C4 )
But
(C9 )
Non
(C5 )
Pent
10 (C10 )
Dec
Hex
Prefix/Suffix
Example
Alcohol
Suffix -ol
C3H7 OH Proanee+ol
Propanol
Aldehyde
Suffix -al
CH3CHO Ethanee+al=
Ethanal
Ketone
Suffix -one
CH3COCH3 - Propanee+one
Propanone
Carboxylic
acid
Halogen
Prefix -chloro,
bromo, etc.
CH3Cl - Chloromethane
C2H5Br - Bromoethane
10
Functional
Group
Prefix/Suffix
Double bond
(alkenes)
Triple bond
Suffix -ene
Example
H H
H
HC C==C
H
H
- Propene
H
Suffix -yne
(alkynes)
HC
CC H
H
- Propyne
Check
oint
All the carbon compounds burn in oxygen and yield carbon dioxide
and water vapour. Heat and light are also released during this process.
This reaction is called combustion.
CH4 + 2 O 2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat + Light
Further, once carbon and its compounds ignite, they keep on burning
without the requirement of additional energy. Thats why these
compounds are used as fuels.
Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean flame due to their complete
combustion whereas, unsaturated hydrocarbons give a yellow flame with
lots of black smoke as they do not undergo complete combustion.
Oxidation
Oxidation is a process of intake of oxygen and removal of
hydrogen. Reagents used for this purpose are alkaline KMnO4 + heat or
acidified K 2Cr2O7 + heat.
For example,
O
Alkaline KMnO4
+ heat
propene (C3H6 ).
ethanol
+ heat
2 7
acetic acid
(ethanoic acid)
(C 5H12 ).
[O]
[O]
Addition Reactions
according to IUPAC.
(i) CH3CH2CH2COOH
H
(ii) H C C ==O
H H
(iii) CH3 OH
Substitution Reactions
Flame
sunlight
CCl 4 + HCl
Since coal and petroleum have nitrogen and sulphur in small amounts
thats why they play an important role in causing pollution (air pollution).
Some solid and liquid fuels like coal and charcoal do not
vaporise on heating. Such fuels burn without producing
a flame. They just glow red and give out heat.
Sugar Molasses
Ethanol.
Physical Properties
Physical properties of ethanol are
Chemical Reactions
(i) With sodium Hydrogen is evolved
Sodium
is called esterification.
(Sodium ethoxide)
Acid
conc.H2 SO 4 .
hot concentrated
H2SO4
160C
CH3 C OCH 2 CH 3
Ethene
Uses
Uses of ethanol are
H 2 O
Ethanol
Ester
Ethyl alcohol
Sodium acetate
+ H2O + CO2
2CH3 COOH + Na 2CO3 2CH COONa
3
+ H2O + CO2
(iv) Reaction with a base
CH3 COOH + NaOH CH3 COONa + H2O
Heat
(Sodium
hydroxide)
+ Glycerol
Soap
Sodium
(Salt of fatty acid)
(An alcohol)
Na+ Water
Hydrophilic
part (Tail)
part (Head)
Hydrophilic
Heads
Hydrophobic
tails
Scum
Here,
R = C17 H35 or C15 H31
Charged ends of detergents do not form insoluble
precipitates withthe magnesiumandcalciumions inwater.
Hence, they are effective in hard water. Thus, detergents
are used as cleansing agents in case of hard water.
Detergents are useful in making shampoos and
products for cleaning clothes but their main disadvantage
is that these are generally non-biodegradable.
Advantages of Detergents Over Soaps
Check
oint
ll
ne
2.
3.
4.
(i) Catenation
5.
H
(ii) Tetravalency
If n = 5
The formula of alkyne is C5H2 5 2 = C5H10 2 = C5H8 .
n-pentane
H H
H
H
(ii) HC C C C H
H H
H
HC H
H
iso -pentane or 2 -methylbutane
CH
H
H
2,2-dimethyl propane or neo-pentane
4.
5.
(i) Alcohol
(ii) Chloro
(iii) Aldehyde
(iv) Carboxylic acid
(v) Triple bond (alkyne).
H
H
HC
Check Point
1.
3.
(iii)
Check Point
1.
2.
Nickel
3.
4.
5.
Ester
CH2COOR
CH2OH
CH2COOR
CH2OH
---- KMnO4------Heat------->
CH3COOH
Hence, alkaline KMnO4 or Acidified K2Cr2O7 oxidized alcohol into ethanoic acid
Ethanol is highly inflammable and catches fire readily. This is why during oxidation it should never
be heat directly on a burner. It should be heated on a water bath
2. Q. How can we convert unsaturated hydrocarbon into saturated hydrocarbon?
Ans: By the addition reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbon with halo atom in the presence of catalyst.
HC=CH +H2 -------------Ni--------5700 K------> Ch3-CH3
R2C=CR2 + H2
+ Na -------------> C2H5ONa + H2
6. Q. What happens when few drops of Conc.H2SO4 is added to Solution of Ethanoic acid and
Ethanol?
Ans: A substance with fruity smell is formed called Ester.This reaction is known as Esterification
C2H5OH + CH3COOH ------H2SO4------> CH3COO C2H5 (Ester or, Ethyl Ethanoate)
7. Q. What types of flame produce by burning of Benzene, Nepthline and Camphor?
Ans: Smoky flame due presence of excess carbon content.
8. Q. What is Gasol?
Ans: The mixture of petrol with alcohol up to 20% is known gasol.
9.Q. Why Acetic acid is called glacier acid?
Ans: Acetic acid freezes at 290K in cold weather and form crystals.This is why acetic acid is called
glacier acid.
11. Q. Why does melting and boiling points of the member of Homologous Series increase
gradually ?
Ans: The number of carbon atoms in the molecule of the member of Homologous Series increases
gradually .Van der Waals dispersion forces will be very small for a molecule like methane but will
increase as the molecules get bigger. Therefore, the boiling points of the alkanes increase with
molecular size(increase in no. of c atom)
12. Q. Why does the viscosity of the member of Homologous Series increase gradually?
Ans: The viscosity increases as relative molecular mass and size increases.
13. Q. Why alkanes cannot dissolve in water but is soluble in organic solvent?
Ans: This is because alkane does not release a sufficient amount of energy to break the hydrogen
bonds in water. Therefore, the alkane does not dissolve.
14. Q. Why doesnt soap form micelles in ethanol as they form in water?
Ans: In organic solvent like ethanol, soap is completely soluble, hence no micelle is not formed
15. Q. What is observed on adding 5% solution of alkaline potassium permanganate solution
drop by drop to some warm ethanol taken in testube. Write the name of the compound formed
during chemical reaction.
Ans: When a 5% solution of alkaline potassium permanganate solution is added drop by drop to
some warm ethanol taken in a test tube, magenta colour of alkaline potassium permanganate
disappears and ethanol has been changed to carboxylic acid.
The reaction is as follows. CH3 - CH2OH
16. Q. How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid on
the basis of a chemical property?
Ans: we take alcohol and a carboxylic acid in two separate test tubes. Add sodium hydrogen
carbonate in both the test tubes. The test tube, from which the effectiveness evolves, contains
carboxylic acid. The effervescence is due to the evolution of carbon dioxide gas. However, from test
tube containing alcohol there is to effervescence, because no carbon dioxide gas is produced there.
17. Q. A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane?
Ans: This is due to the greater surface area in contact.
18. Q. Why do Alkanes stable and less reactive than alkenes ?
Ans: This is because saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds which are very stable and
difficult to break. On the other hand, unsaturated hydrocarbons contain pie bonds, which can be
easily broken as they are more strained.
19. Q. How can you check which one is saturated butter or vegetable oil?
Ans: Butter contain saturated compound where as cooking oil contain unsaturated compound. If
Alkaline KMno4 added to both, pink color of KMno4 disappear in cooking oil but remain in pink in
butter.
Vegetable Oil + H2
----Ni--------> CH3 - CH3
20. Q. What's the difference between cracking and pyrolysis?
Ans: Pyrolysis : The decomposition of a compound on heating in absence of air is known as
pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is used on a massive scale to turn coal into coke for metallurgy, and fractional
distillation
Cracking: The breakdown of large organic compounds by use of a catalyst and low temperature to
form fewer different compounds is called Cracking.
C22H46 ---> C11H24 (an alkane) + C11H22 (an alkene)
21. Q. What do you mean by Intra and Inter molecular dehydration of Ethanol?
Ans:
(a) Intra molecular dehydration:
Ethanol, when heated with excess conc. H2SO4 at 443 K undergoes intra molecular dehydration (i.e.
removal of water within a molecule of ethanol).
CH3CH2OH -------Conc.H2SO4/443K-----> CH2 = CH2 +H2O
(b) Inter molecular dehydration :
When excess of alcohol is heated with conc. H2SO4 at 413K two molecules condense by losing a
molecule of water to form ether (i.e. removal of water from two molecules of ethanol).
C2H5- OH + C2H5HO -------Conc.H2SO4/413K----> C2H5-O-C2H5 (Diethyl ether)+H2O
22. Q. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?
Ans. When ethanol is oxidised, hydrogen is removed from its molecule and oxygen is added so as to
form ethanoic acid. Thus, conversion of ethanol into acetic acid is an oxidation reaction.
23. Q. A mixture of ethyne and oxygen is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of
ethyne and air is not used?
Ans: Ethyne is un saturated carbon compound and burns in air with a sooty flame, because the
oxygen from air is insufficient to burn the carbon completely. Thus, pure oxygen is used which
completely burns carbon and hydrogen and produces a very hot flame.
24. Q. How will you distinguish between alcohol and carboxylic acid experimentally? (V. Imp.)
Ans. Take two test tubes A and B and place about 1 g of sodium carbonate in them. Pour alcohol in
test tube A and carboxylic acid in test tube B. Shake the contents of the test tubes.
The test tube in which a brisk effervescence takes place, with the liberation of a colourless
gas (CO2) is carboxylic acid. The test tube in which no reaction takes place is alcohol.
25. Q. Unsaturated hydrocarbons show addition reactions but not saturated hydrocarbons?
Ans: In saturated hydrocarbons all the four bonds of carbon are fully utilised and no more hydrogen
or other atoms can attach to it. Thus, they can undergo only substitution reactions not addition
reactions.
26. Q. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of physical and
chemical properties?
Ans. Physical properties :
(a). Ethanol has a sharp bitter burning taste, whereas ethanoic acid has a sour taste.
(b) On cooling ethanol does not freeze, but ethanoic acid freezes.
Chemical Properties :
(a) Ethanol gets dehydrated by conc. sulphuric acid, but ethanoic acid does not get dehydrated by
conc. sulphuric acid.
(b) Ethanol does not displace hydrogen with zinc or magnesium, but ethanoic acid displaces
hydrogen with zinc or magnesium
27. Q. Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons burn
with a sooty flame. Why?
Ans. This is because saturated hydrocarbon has high percentage of hydrogen than that of unsaturated
hydrocarbons
28. Q. Why is the reaction between methane and chlorine considered as a substitution
reaction.?
Ans: reaction between methane and chlorine is considered as a substitution reaction since the
hydrogen atoms of methane are replaced by chlorine atoms.
29. Q. How would you bring about the following conversions? Name the process and write the
reaction involved. (a) ethanol to ethene (b) propanol to propanoic acid.
Ans. (a) By the dehydration of ethanol in the presence of concentrated H2SO4
CH3 CH2 OH --------- Hot conc. H2SO4 CH2 = CH2 + H2O
(b) By the oxidation of propanol using oxidising agent such as alkaline KMnO4.
CH3 CH2 CH2 OH ---Alk. KMnO4 + Heat - CH3 CH2 COOH
Na+
33. Q. Why are soap not effective as a cleaning agent in hard water?
Ans: Hard water contains sodium and magnesium ions. Soap form precipitate with these ions and
thus thrown out of the solution.
2RCOO Na+
+
Mg2+ ---------------> (RCOO)2 Mg
+
2Na+
34. Q. Alkanes (both alkanes and cycloalkanes) are virtually insoluble in water, but dissolve in
organic solvents. However, liquid alkanes are good solvents for many other non-ionic organic
compounds. Give reason.
Ans: Van der Waals forces do not release a sufficient amount of energy to compensate for the energy
required to break the hydrogen bonds in water. The alkane does not dissolve.
In most organic solvents, the primary forces of attraction between the solvent molecules are Van der
Waals - either dispersion forces or dipole-dipole attractions. Therefore, when an alkane dissolves in
an organic solvent, the Van der Waals forces are broken and are replaced by new Van der Waals
forces. The two processes more or less cancel each other out energetically; thus, there is no barrier to
solubility.
35. Q. What is the difference between Oxidation and combustion?
Answer: Combustion is the complete oxidation of organic compound into carbon dioxide and water
molecules in presence of oxygen gas while oxidation is the addition of oxygen in a organic
compound or with an element the loss of electron from an atom or ion is also oxidation.
Hence, all Oxidation reactions are not combustion reaction but all combustion reactions are
Oxidation. Oxidation reaction does not involve heat where as combustion reactions do.
36. Q.Why does Ethanoic acid called glacial acetic acid?
Ans. On cooling, pure Ethanoic acid is frozen to form ice like flakes. They look like glaciers, so it is
called glacial acetic acid.
37. Q. A mixture of ethyne and oxygen is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of
ethyne and air is not used?
Ans. Ethyne has only two hydrogen atoms and two carbon atoms in its molecule. It burns in air with
a sooty flame, because the oxygen from air is insufficient to burn the carbon completely. Thus, pure
oxygen is used which completely burns carbon and hydrogen and produces a very hot flame
38. Q. What is functional group ? need more to know
Ans: Functional group may be defined as an atom or group of atoms or reactive part which is
responsible for the characteristic properties of the compounds.
The chemical properties of organic compounds are determined by the functional groups while their
physical properties are determined by the remaining part of the molecule.
The general formula of alcohol is R-OH where R is an alkyl group and OH is the functional
group.
The general formula of aldehydes is R CHO where R is an alkyl group or hydrogen atom and
CHO is the functional group
The general formula of ketone is R-CO-R where R and R are alkyl groups and C=O is the
functional group
The general formula of acid is R-COOH where R is a hydrogen atom or alkyl group and COOH
is the functional group.
The general formula of esters is R-C=O- OR where R and R are alkyl groups and C=O OR is the functional group
39. Q. Why is graphite a good conductor of electricity?
Ans: Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. Its structure is the main reason for this property.
Each carbon atom in graphite is directly linked to only three carbon atoms through covalent bonds.
Therefore, out of the four valence electrons in a carbon atom, only three are used for bonding and the
fourth is relatively free and can move from one carbon atom to the other. These free electrons make
graphite a good conductor of electricity.
40. Q. (a) Differentiate between soap and detergent.
(b) Explain why, soaps form scum with hard water whereas detergents do not
Ans:
(a)Difference between soap and detergent:
Soap
(i) sodium salt of long chain carboxylic acid.
(ii) Soaps are biodegradable
(iii) Not suitable with hard water
Detergent
(i) Ammonium or sulphate of long chain of carboxylic acid.
(ii) Not biodegradable
(iii) Working well in hard water
(b) In hard water, due to the presence of Ca +2 and Mg +2 ions, soaps form insoluble salt. This
Precipitate is called scum.
Detergent does not show this property as its charged end does not react with Ca+2 and Mg+2
ions
41. Q. How does soap clean the clothes?
Ans: When dirty clothes are mixed with water and soap, the ionic part of the soap being water
attractive, dissolves in water whereas the hydrocarbon part of the soap being water repellent unites
with the oil or greese part. When dirty clothes are rinsed with water, the dirt particles attached with
the soap molecules, dissolve in water and come out. In this way, clothes become clean.
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