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3 AUTHORS:
Giulio Antonini
Antonio Orlandi
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639
I. INTRODUCTION
HE use of parallel conductors to guide electrical signals
from one point to another has a long history dating back
to the early days of the telegraph [1][11]. The mathematical
model of such a system, widely known as transmission line (TL)
model, has been studied and used in a large variety of fields of
electrical engineering, ranging from the transmission of electric
power to the propagation of undesired electromagnetic effects
such as crosstalk in high-density high-speed electronic systems.
Prof. C. R. Paul had the vision to develop a systematic approach and a unitary view of the TL model and to its generalization, the multiconductor transmission line (MTL) model [12].
Looking back at his scientific and didactic career, it is clear
that the logical and well thought-out form of his concepts, since
the beginning, has made the readers learning process much
easier [13].
Starting from the general properties of the transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode of propagation, he derived the TL equations using several approaches that show his mastery of integral
equation techniques, of matrix algebra, and of the properties
of the linear and nonlinear systems applied to electromagnetic
theory [14]. His derivation makes easy an objective classification of MTLs based on the medium in which they are placed
along with the restrictions on the use of the TEM model [15].
He provided the derivation of the MTL equations along with
the general properties of the per-unit-length (p.u.l.) parameters
in those equations [16], [17]. He discussed the derivation of
the p.u.l. parameters of inductance, capacitance, resistance, and
conductance for MTL [18], [19]. His approach was either analytic (when the problem allows a closed-form solution) or based
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Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
become [12]
arbitrary incident field, such that generated by a nearby lightning
strike or a radar pulse, is also included as a possible excitation
source. The MTL equations are obtained by assuming the TEM
mode of propagation of the fields, associated with the induced
voltage and currents on the line, where the electric and magnetic
field vectors lie in the transverse xy plane that is perpendicular
to the lines z-axis. In other words, there are no components of
the electric and magnetic fields that are directed along the lines
z-axis.
Under this assumption of a TEM field structure, the line voltages can be uniquely defined as the line integral in the transverse
plane of the transverse electric field intensity vector Et from one
conductor to the other [12] as
E t (x, y, z) dl
(1)
Vi (z, t) =
c i (x,y )
where ci (x, y) is a closed contour in the transverse xy plane encircling the ith conductor. Other higher order non-TEM mode
field structures can exist if the line cross section is electrically
large, i.e., a significant portion of a wavelength [12]. Hence,
the following TL model requires the existence of only the
TEM mode, and therefore, the cross-sectional dimensions of
the line such as wire separations must be electrically small, i.e.,
much less than a wavelength, = v/f [12]. Under the TEM assumption, a z length of the line is characterized by the p.u.l.
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2 in which the external voltage
and current generators are not considered. The MTL equations
I(z, t) = GV (z, t) C
V (z, t).
z
t
(3a)
(3b)
V (z) = RI(z)
(4)
z
I (z) = GV (z) jC V (z)
(5)
z
where the n n p.u.l. impedance and admittance matrices are
= R + jL
Z
(6a)
Y = G + jC.
(6b)
denotes the
Here, the carat over a quantity, e.g., V and I,
complex-valued frequency-domain phasor quantities, and =
2f.
When considering lossy lines in inhomogeneous medium surrounding the conductors, the solution of the MTL (3) becomes
challenging when frequency-dependent effects, like the skineffect and polarization losses in dielectrics, need to be modeled.
Conductor losses at higher
frequencies are functions of the
square root of frequency f due to the skin effect [12].
Frequency-dependent losses are easily represented in the frequency domain. The frequency-domain MTL equations in (6)
become
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V (z) = Z
z
(f ) V (z) j C(f
)V (z).
I (z) = G
z
(7a)
d2
V m = T1
V ZY T V V m
dz 2
(13a)
(7b)
d2
I m = T1
I Y ZT I Im .
dz 2
(13b)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11a)
d
I (z) .
I (z) = Y Z
dz 2
(11b)
(12a)
I = TI Im
(12b)
(14)
mi
in Vmi and Im
i denotes backward-traveling waves, i.e., waves
traveling in the z-direction. The physical voltage and current
spatial distribution can be recovered through (12) as
z
z
(16a)
e
+
V
e
V (z) = TV V +
m
m
z
z
I (z) = TI I+
.
(16b)
+ I
me
me
Actually, of the 4n expressions only 2n are really independent. Indeed, the voltage spatial distribution can be recovered
from the current distribution through the second Telegraphers
+
(17a)
L I (L) .
V (L) = V L + Z
(17b)
in 2n unknowns I+
m and I m .
III. TIME-DOMAIN ANALYSIS OF MTLS
One of the nonideal aspects that was negligible in the past
in slower speed systems is the skin-effect impedance of the
interconnect conductors of the system. This is manifested as an
increase in the resistance of those conductors as the square root
of frequency as the current concentrates closer to the conductor
surfaces. In addition, a portion of the magnetic flux internal to
the conductors gives rise to an internal inductance that decreases
as the square root of frequency. The effective conductivity of the
dielectric surrounding the conductors also exhibits a frequency
dependence, which is primarily due to polarization loss. This
adds another loss factor which, depending on the dielectric and
the frequency range, may or may not be negligible. A large
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as
Zint (s) I (z, s) Zint (t) I (z, t) .
Thus, substituting the approximation into (20) gives
1
Zint (s) I (z, s) = AI (z, s) + B sI (z, s)
s
A. Skin-Effect Modeling
I (z, t ) d .
+ B
(t )
0
When conductor losses need to accurately model the skineffect, the MTL equations in the Laplace domain are given by
(19)
The impedances of conductors are, in general, nonlinear functions of frequency. Conductors of a circularcylindrical cross
section (wires) can be characterized exactly in the frequency
domain if a symmetric current distribution over the cross section is assumed, i.e., proximity effects of nearby conductors
are ignored [12]. At low frequencies, the current is uniformly
distributed over the conductor cross section. This gives rise to
a dc p.u.l. resistance rdc and a portion of the p.u.l. inductance
due to magnetic flux internal to the conductor, li,dc . At higher
frequencies, the current crowds to the conductor surface and
asymptotically approaches a value equivalent to the current being uniformly distributed over an annulus at the surface of thickness equal to a skin depth, = 1f . Thus, the high-frequency
resistance
increases as f and the internal inductance decreases
as 1/ f . A commonly used approximation of the skin-effect
Z int (s) = A + B s.
(20)
The corresponding frequency-domain result is obtained by
substituting s j giving
Z int (j) = A + B j = A + B f (1 + j) . (21)
Hence, we may interpret this approximation as
1
A = Rdc , B f = Rhf , Li,hf = B.
2 f
(24)
(22)
(25)
0
0
(m +1) t
n
1
n +1m
d
F
=
mt
m =0
=
n
F n +1m Z0 (m)
(26)
m =0
where
(m +1)
Z0 (m) =
m
1
d.
(27)
z
n +3/2m
n +1/2m
Z0 (m) Ik
Ik
B
t m =1
n +1
(28a)
Vk +1 Vkn +1
t 1 n +1/2
n +1/2
Vkn +1 = Vkn
Ik
.
(28b)
C
Ik 1
z
These are then solved in a leap frog fashion.
Unfortunately, the convolution in (28) requires storage of
all past values of the currents. Pronys method can be used to
approximate Z0 (m) as
(m +1)
Z0 (m) =
m
1
ai eb i m .
d
=
i=1
p
(29)
Ik
p
z
F 1 B
ni
t
i=1
n +1/2
n 1/2
+ eb i ni 1
Ik
ni = ai eb i Ik
(30)
(32a)
(32b)
(33a)
(33b)
Np
Rn ep n t + d (t)
Y dl (f ) = G (f ) + jC (f ) .
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(35)
n =1
(36)
n (s)A2n n (z) n (z )
(37)
n =0
with
(38)
2 (s) = Z (s) Y (s)
1
n 2
n (s) = 2 (s) +
U
(39)
L
n
z
(40)
n (z) = cos
L
and A0 = 1/L, An = 2/L, n = 1, . . . , .
Finally, the spectral representation of the impedance matrix
Z(s)
is generated as
V (0, s)
Z
I (0, s)
Z
= 11 12
(41)
V (L, s)
I (L, s)
Z 21 Z 22
where
22 =
11 = Z
Z
2 (s) +
n =0
12 = Z
21 =
Z
n =0
2 (s) +
n 2
L
n 2
L
1
U
1
U
A2n Z (s)
(42a)
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PZ
RZ
Z (s) = R0 + sL0 +
s
pZ
q =1
Y (s) = G0 + sC 0 +
PY
q =1
RY
s pY
(44a)
(44b)
(45a)
(45b)
where A
pp , B
pq , C
q p , D
q q , p is the
number of states, and q is the number of ports. In the case under
analysis, the impedance matrix representation is used, and thus,
the input and output vectors correspond to port currents i (t) and
port voltages v (t) respectively; such matrices can be directly
obtained by the knowledge of poles and residues according to
standard realization techniques [28].
Greens function approach has also allowed development of
the sensitivity analysis of MTLs in presence of nonlinear terminations in both the time [31] and frequency domains [32] as well
as the plane-wave-coupling to multiconductor transmission lines
[33]. It has been adopted to generate parametric macromodels
of lossy and dispersive MTLs and their sensitivity [34], [36],
and to obtain a macromodel of nonuniform TLs [35].
Another method which allows us to identify a rational model
of the impulse response of a linear system and, in particular,
of a TL, is the Pade method. Such a technique tries to match
the measured or simulated frequency-domain data to a transfer
function H (s) in a rational form [37]. An important problem
with the Pade method is the expansion of H (s) about s = 0
to generate its moments. The accuracy of the obtained H (s)
representation decreases as we go away further from s = 0 in
the s = + j plane. Other expansion points can be added to
improve the accuracy [38]. It is to be pointed out that, at least for
the case of TL, the method based on Greens function permits to
compute the poles more carefully because they are identified by
L( )d( )
(46a)
C( )d( )
(46b)
+ j L I(
) =
d
E2 (
) l2 (
)
dI(
)
Vs (
) = 0
+ j C
0
d
(47a)
(47b)
h+s/2
Ex (x, 0, 0)dx
(v )
0
(50a)
VSL =
hs/2
Ex (x, 0, 0)dx
0
s
Ex x, sin(L ) , Lz dx
2
0
=
hcos( L )s/2
s
Ex x, sin(L ) , Lz dx
2
0
(v )
VSR
h+cos( L )s/2
(50b)
In (46)(50), L is the length of the wires in the TWP, Lz =
pL /(2) < L is the total distance the TWP extends along the
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