University of Mysore

Department of Studies in Physics

Spectroscopy, Solid State and

Nuclear Physics Lab Report

NAME,
9th Semester, FIMSc,
Department of Studies in Physics,
University of Mysore.

Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. NAME has satisfactorily completed the course
of experiments in Practical Spectroscopy, Solid State and Nuclear Physics
prescribed by the University of Mysore for the Five Year Integrated Master of
Science in Physics Course in the year 2011-2012.

Date : December 14, 2011

Signature of the teacher incharge

Head of the Department

Name of the candidate : NAME

Reg. No : REGNO
Examination Center : DoS in Physics

CONTENTS

Nuclear Physics

1 Dekatron

2 Energy Resolution of a Gamma ray spectrometer

3 Half Life of Indium

12

4 Mass Absorption Coefficient of Aluminium for -rays

17

II

20

Solid State Physics

5 The Energy Gap of An Intrinsic Semiconductor

21

6 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance of A Thermistor

24

III

27

Spectroscopy

7 Edser-Butler fringes

28

Part I

Nuclear Physics

CHAPTER

1
DEKATRON

The aim of the experiment is to demonstrate the use of a dekatron tube as a counter of
electrical signals. A dekatron tube is a cold cathode gas filled tube with one central anode
and as many as thirty cathodes set on its periphery. The schematic arrangement of the
electrodes in a dekatron tube is shown in Figure. 1.1

Figure 1.1: Electrodes in a Dekatron tube

Expt. 1. Dekatron

1.1

Introduction

A dekatron is designed such that a discharge glow (a visible glow on one of the cathode
pins) moves successively around the circumference of an anode with successive input pulses.
The glowing spot indicates the number of events counted and on the tenth input event, a
transfer pulse is carried to another dekatron tube that counts the tens. A third dekatron
tube can be used to count the hundreds etc...
The dekatron tube contains a single anode, 10 cathodes(K0 , K1 , K2 , . . . K9 ), 10 g1 guiding electrodes and 10 g2 guiding electrodes. Cathodes K1 to K0 are connected together
internally. The cathode K0 is isolated and used as a reference cathode for counting and
as an output terminal. All g1 and g2 guiding electrodes are connected together and held
normally at a positive bias or at zero. The circuit diagram for the dekatron tube as a
counter is shown in Figure. 1.1, below. The circuit operates in the following manner When
270330V

S1

650k
1M

1M

4
g2

8090 V

3
g1
C

1M

k1

7
k0

100 K

Figure 1.2: Dekatron: Circuit diagram

the reset switch S is opened, the electrode K0 becomes most negative and gas discharge
occurs between K0 and the anode (a visible spot appears on the cathode pin K0 ). With
switch S closed and a large negative input pulse applied to the guiding electrodes g1 , the
glow discharge transfers from K0 to K1 . The duration (or width) of the negative pulse
should be about 80 sec to ensure easy transfer. When a delayed negative pulse, which
immediately follows the negative pulse applied to g1 as shown in Figure. 1.1., is applied
to g2 , the glow discharge moves smoothly from g1 to g2 . The subsequent removal of the
negative pulse from g2 transfers the discharge glow to the next closest and most negative
electrode K1 . A glow appears on K1 which is numbered as 1 on the face-plate attached.
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Expt. 1. Dekatron
A second pair of sequential negative pulses moves the discharge glow to g1 , g2 and then to
Input pulse 1

Input pulse 2(delayed)

Figure 1.3: Delayed pulse applied to g1

K1 whereby the glow appears on the electrode K2 which is numbered as 2. Similarly the
process continues for the next subsequent pulses. After 10 pulses, the discharge glow comes
back to the electrode K0 numbered as 0, and gives out an output pulse for the next stage.
The current for the discharge is supplied by the anode voltage and the input negative pulses
are only used to stimulate the movement of the discharge from one cathode to the next. In
the circuit diagram shown in Figure.1.1, a single negative pulse of voltage produces a pair
of sequential negative pulses of suitable magnitude and duration (as shown in Figure. 1.4.)
so as to induce the transfer of the glow to the next cathode.
Across 1M

Across C

Figure 1.4: Dekatron: Sequential negative pulses

In the above circuit the discharge glow moves in the clockwise direction. However, if one
interchange the electrodes g1 and g2 in Figure. 1.1 the negative pulses will be first fed to g2
and then to g1 electrode. Therefore, the glow moves in the anti-clockwise direction when
g1 and g2 are interchanged.

1.2

Observation

Construct the circuit shown in Figure. 1.1. Then apply the voltages as shown. Reset the
tube by opening the reset switch S. Check whether 0 coincides with the reset position or
not. Go on varying the capacitance value and apply the negative pulse by pressing the
key S1 , until the glow moves easily. If the glow does not move for the indicated voltages
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Expt. 1. Dekatron
and for any value of C, adjust slightly the voltages and repeat the process. Note down the
values of the following:
1. Anode voltage = 272 V
2. Bias voltage = 85 V
3. Capacitor values = 0.015F to 0.22 F for which the glow moves easily.
Input(pulse No.)
1st pulse
2nd pulse
3rd pulse
4th pulse
5th pulse
6th pulse
7th pulse
8th pulse
9th pulse
10th pulse

Number Indicated by the tube

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

10

Figure 1.5: Graph of pulses versus counts recorded

The tube faithfully records the pulses. Draw a graph ( figure 1.5 ) of input pulses verses
counts recorded.

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Expt. 1. Dekatron

1.3

Results

Demostration of Dekatron as counter is done.

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CHAPTER

DETERMINATION OF ENERGY
RESOLUTION OF A GAMMA RAY
SPECTROMETER FOR 137CS
RADIATION

2.1

Introduction

The wide-scale use of scintillation detectors as gamma ray spectrometers has been made
possible by the availability of large single crystals of NaI(T1) and the development of endwindow photo multipliers with high resolution. Gamma rays interact with the NaI(T1)
crystals by three mechanisms: Photoelectric effect, Compton effect and pair production.
In each of the processes, a portion of the primary photon energy goes into the kinetic
energy of electrons-negative electrons in the photoelectric and Compton processes and both
negative electrons and positrons in pair production. The remainder of the energy goes into
secondary photons. Except when the interaction occurs near the surface and the electron
escapes the scintillator before coming to rest, the kinetic energy of the electron goes into
the production of light. The secondary photons may or may not release further electrons
and thus lose light producing energy to the scintillator. If light is produced, it adds to
that caused by the electrons released in the primary process, and the total light output is
proportional to the primary photon energy E . These separate stages of the interactions
occur so nearly simultaneously compared with the decay time of the phosphor that their
light outputs will not be resolved in time but will show up as a single pulse of light.
In the photoelectric process the secondary photon is an X-ray and because of its low energy
it is absorbed in the scintillator essentially every time. Consequently the photoelectric

Expt. 2. Energy Resolution of a Gamma ray spectrometer

process results in a light pulse of energy proportional to the primary gamma energy except
for the surface effect mentioned above.
In the Compton process a relatively large fraction of the primary energy may go into the
scattered gamma. This depends on the scattering angle and the energy of the primary
gamma.
In pair production an energy equal to twice the rest mass energy of an electron, or 1.02
MeV, is required for producing the pair. Consequently, the total K.E. of the pair is only
E-1.02 MeV. However, when the annihilation of the positron occurs, two 0.51 MeV photons
are produced.
The block diagram of the experimental set up is shown in figure 2.1 NaI(T1) crystal is
mounted on to the cathode of the photomultiplier tube by silicon grease. The high tension
voltage(EHT) is applied to the photomultiplier tube and the low voltage (LV) is applied
to the cathode follower(CF). When gamma rays interact with the crystal, the scintillations
are produced because of the three processes: photoelectric effect, Compton effect and pair
production.
EHT

Photo multiplier

CF

Linear
Amplifier

Pulse Height

Scaler

Analyser

Cs 137

NaI crystal

LV

Figure 2.1: Schematic of the setup

The scintillations fall on the photosensitive cathode of the photomultiplier produce electrons and these electrons are multiplier. The voltage pulses produced at the anode of the
photomultiplier are proportional to the kinetic energies of electrons and/scattered gamma
rays lost in the crystal by three different processes. The voltage pulses from the anode are
fed to the cathode follower(CF) to have the low impedance output pulses. Then the pulses
are fed to the amplifier and then to pulse height analyzer. By keeping the window width
constant and varying the discriminator level of the pulse height analyser, the number of
pulses are counted in the scaler for a given time. The level scheme of Cs-137 is shown in
figure 2.2
A typical gamma ray spectrum of Cs-137 is shown in figure 2.3. The peak which appears
at low discriminator level is due to the K-X rays of Ba, the daughter of Cs-137. The second
peak called the back-scattered peak arises due to the gamma rays which are backscattered
from the surroundings and shield of the source. The main peak is called photo peak. It is due
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Expt. 2. Energy Resolution of a Gamma ray spectrometer

Cs137 (half life 27 years)

92%(E maximum = 0.51 MeV

8%
Ba*137
0.662 MeV
E max = 1.17 MeV
0.0 MeV
Figure 2.2: Decay scheme of

137 Cs

to the photoelectric effect where almost all the gamma energy is transferred to the electron
and then to the crystal so that the resulting pulse spectrum is a single peak with a statistical
spread. In Compton scattering part of the gamma ray, energy is transferred to an electron
and the corresponding pulse spectrum forms a continuous range up to approximately the
photo peak. When more than one gamma energy is present, the photo peak pulse heights
are in the ratio of energies of gamma rays.
In a gamma ray spectrometry, the spread in the total energy peak is a measure of their
resolution. The resolution is the ability of the gamma ray spectrometer system to distinguish
between the photons of different energies reaching the detector. As shown in the figure 1.5
the ratio of the Full Width at Half Maximum( E) to the energy (E) which corresponds
to the gamma-rays incident on the crystal is the resolution. The resolution depends upon
phosphor fluorescent efficiently, light collection efficiency, photo cathode efficiency, photo
electron collection efficiency, amplifier noise, and photomultiplier noise.

2.2

Procedure

The E.H.T.is set to operating voltage of the photomultiplier. The Cs-137 source is kept in
position. The discriminator level is set at 66th channel. The amplifier gain is adjusted to
get the photo peak approximately at 66th channel. The time is set for one minute or two
minutes. The counts are noted down as shown in the Table below for each channel till we
get the background
Percentage Energy Resolution is
E
100
E

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Expt. 2. Energy Resolution of a Gamma ray spectrometer

2.3

Observations

A graph of counts per minute versus Channel number is drawn as in figure 1.5. The
channel number (say n) where the photo peak occurs corresponds to 662 Kev. Then the
spectrometer is calibrated for energy = 662/n keV. per channel. The Full Width at Half
Maximum, (FWHM) is determined and the resolution E/E is calculated. This calculated
value gives the resolution
5000
4500

Counts per minute

4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

10

20

30
40
50
Channel Number

60

70

80

Figure 2.3: A typical rays spectrum of Cs-137

10 (71.8592 62.6.240)
E
100 =
100
E
662
= 13.95%

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Expt. 2. Energy Resolution of a Gamma ray spectrometer

Channel Number
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42

2.4

Counts per minute

3950
3580
4043
4686
4803
4126
3568
3460
3276
3320
3267
3238
3286
3315
3388
3354
3535
3552
3621
3597
3520
3550
3432
3395
3217
3118
3035
2997
2824
2879
2868
2820
2858
2783
2695
2802
2840
2781

Channel Number
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80

Counts per minute

2833
2792
2839
3009
2875
2900
2870
2656
2389
2182
1968
1743
1519
1426
1446
1421
1456
1636
1779
2097
2724
3402
4105
4771
4946
4824
4240
3459
2862
2415
2054
1656
1222
0664
0262
0098
0030
0023

Results

The energy resolution of the given gamma ray spectrometer is 13.95 %

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CHAPTER

TO FIND THE HALF-LIFE OF

RADIO-ACTIVITY INDUCED IN
INDIUM FOIL BY NEUTRONS

Neutrons which are neutral particles share the honor with protons as building blocks of
nuclei. They cannot be found free in nature because they are unstable; but can be produced
in varieties of nuclear reactions. One of the methods is photo-disintegration i.e. releasing of
neutrons from nuclei by energetic gamma photons. Such a source of neutrons is called (n)
source. For example the source of neutrons that is available in our laboratory is Sb124 -Be
source. This is obtained from B.A.R.C.,Bombay.
Sb 124 m
0.185

0.072
Te 124
2.43

2.32
1.96
1.33
0.603
0

Figure 3.1: Decay Scheme of excited Sb-124

Antimony cylinder is enclosed by a shell of Beryllium metal. This is encapsulated by an
outer stainless steel container. This assembly is then irradiated in the nuclear reactor. With

Expt. 3. Half Life of Indium

the capture of neutrons by Antimony, Sb-124 is produced and the irradiation is allowed till
the desired activity in Sb is reached. Sb-124 which is formed in two excited states in addition
to the ground state is found to follow the decay scheme shown in Figure. 3.1
Sb is beta radioactive and the resulting Te is the source of gamma photons. Though the
product nucleus Te emits gamma, we conventionally call Sb-124 the parent nucleus as the
source of gamma radiation. The source emits gamma photons of energies 0.11, 0.603, 0.63,
0.73, 1.33, 1.36, 1.72, 1.96 and 2.32 MeV.

Ba Disc

Sb Metal

Be Cup

SS cup

Figure 3.2: Capsule is kept at center of cylindrical paraffin block to thermalize neutron
The binding energy of the last neutron in Beryllium is 1.66 MeV. So 1.72, 1.96 and 2.32
MeV gamma photons can release neutrons from Beryllium nuclei in the following nuclear
reaction
+ 4 Be9

8
4 Be

+ 0 n1 + Energy.

Neutrons produced in this reaction are not mono energetic because

1. Three gamma components will release neutrons
2. A gamma photon before interacting with Be nucleus may undergo Compton collisions
with electrons and thereby the energy of the neutron produced will be altered
3. The product nucleus and the emitted neutron may be at different angles with respect
to the direction of incident photon causing the energy spread in neutrons,
4. Neutrons produced in Beryllium will undergo elastic collisions with light Beryllium
nuclei before coming out of the shell which again contributes for the energy spread.
So, in such a (-n) source of neutrons we can speak of maximum energy and mean energy
of neutrons. Maximum energy of neutrons = 68 keV and mean energy = 35 keV. The
strength of Sb-124 at the time of preparation was one curie i.e., 3.7 1010 gamma photons
of particular energy were emitted per second and the neutron output was 10 neutrons per
second. Half life of the source is = 60 days. Hence, the present activity is lower than this.
This capsule is kept at the center of a cylindrical paraffin block in order to thermalize the
neutrons.
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Expt. 3. Half Life of Indium

Neutrons being electrically neutral can easily enter a nucleus causing nuclear reaction or
can be captured in a nucleus forming its isotope. It can also be scattered elastically or
inelastically. Each process is characterised by the probability of its occurrence and this
probability is measured in terms of a quantity known as cross section. Indium-115 has
high cross section for the absorption of slow neutrons. Natural Indium of atomic number of
49 and mass number of 115 is the most abundant isotope. This is radioactive with respect
to beta emission having a very long life of 6 1014 years. We will not be able to detect
such low activity. But In115 after absorbing a neutron becomes In116 . In116 is formed at
two energy levels In116 and In116 m depending upon the available energy of neutrons. Both
the levels decay by beta emission. Half life of the first state is 13 seconds hence it dies
down very quickly whereas In116m state has a measurable half life of 53.93 minutes. Decay
scheme available in The Nuclear Handbook edited by O.R.Frisch is reproduced here.
In116m

In116

2.76
2.50
2.36
2.09
1.27
0.00

Figure 3.3: Reported decay scheme of indium

99.99% pure Indium foil is irradiated by neutrons for about 70 minutes (slightly more than
one half life). The G-M counting unit is switched-on and the voltage is set at its operating
value. G-M tube is well shielded by lead. Background counts are taken for about half an
hour and Cpm(background) is calculated. Let this be n .
Timer is adjusted for 60 seconds. After the irradiation time, the foil placed on the source
holder is kept close to the window of the G-M tube. Noting down the time of start the
counts are taken for one minute. Experiment is repeated with an interval of five minutes
and observations are noted in the tabular column nb = 25 Cpm
Half life of beta activity can be found by two methods.
1. Graphical method
2. Method of Least squares using the equation
P
P P
n x i y i x i yi
slope =
P
P
n x2i ( xi )2
The half life is given by
T1/2 =

0.693
slope

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Expt. 3. Half Life of Indium

The Counts per minute found experimentally refers to the activity of Indium foil at a known
time. The activity at any time t is given by
n(t) = n(0)et
Therefore,
log n(t) = log n(0) 0.4343t
If ln(Cpm) is plotted against t [elapsed time] we get a straight line whose slope = 0.4343
Slope =

(0.4343 0.693)
T1/2

Therefore
T1/2 =

(0.4343 0.693)
Slope

Each Counts per minute has an error given by equation below, and points are plotted on
the graph with their associated errors. Then the slope of the best fit straight line is found
and T1/2 calculated.
nt = (Nt nb )

p
Nt nb

The error in T1/2 is found by finding the maximum and minimum value of the slope by
drawing straight lines which includes the maximum or minimum variation in the individual
points.

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Expt. 3. Half Life of Indium

3.1
Ti
K
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
2700
3000
3300
3600

Observations
Ni
0
4282
8264
12119
15656
19047
22200
25132
27837
30513
32916
35081
37172

Tf
K
60
360
660
960
1260
1560
1860
2160
2460
2760
3060
3360
3660

Nf

Nf cpm

N c = N t bb

ln Nc

880
5115
9075
12848
16347
19686
22809
25682
28370
31030
33367
35506
37580

880
833
811
729
691
639
609
550
533
517
451
425
408

852.7
805.7
783.7
701.7
663.7
611.7
581.7
522.7
505.7
489.7
423.7
397.7
380.7

6.7484
6.6917
6.6640
6.5535
6.4978
6.4162
6.3659
6.2590
6.2259
6.1937
6.0490
5.9856
5.9420

500

1000

ln Nc +

Nt + nb

ln Nc

6.7831
6.7274
6.6997
6.5919
6.5761
6.4575
6.4084
6.3039
6.2716
6.2403
6.0993
6.0487
5.9953

6.8
6.7
6.6
ln (cpm)

6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
6
5.9
0

1500

2000 2500
T (secs)

3000

3500

4000

Figure 3.4: Graph of ln (cpm) versus T

3.2

Results

The half-life Indium foil by graphical method is 50.16165 minutes.

9th Semester: Spectroscopy, Solid State and Nuclear Physics Lab Report

Nt + nb

6.7124
6.6546
6.6270
6.5135
6.4985
6.3731
6.3216
6.2119
6.1780
6.1449
5.9960
5.9428
5.8856

6.9

5.8

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CHAPTER

MASS ABSORPTION
COEFFICIENT OF ALUMINIUM
FOR -RAYS

Electrons of energies up to several MeVs interact with matter mostly by the emission of
electromagnetic radiation and elastic or inelastic collisions with atoms. They loose energy
in the process. The relative importance of these processes varies strongly with the energy
of the incident electrons and also with the nature of the material. At high energies [above
10 MeV] the energy lose is predominantly by radiation emission (bremsstrahlung) and at
low energies through inelastic collisions.
All particles from a radioactive source are not emitted with the same energy. They have
an energy spectrum ranging from zero up to a maximum value which is characteristic of the
emitter. The maximum energy of the particles determines the greatest range that the
radiation will have in matter. But the average particle energy is more representative of
the spectrum as a whole.
Mono energetic electrons known as conversion electrons and auger electrons are produced
by the radioactive decay processes distinct from that which give rise to the continuous
spectrum. Conversion electron emission which often competes with gamma ray emission is
due to non radiative interaction with inner shell electrons of the atom.
The passage of continuous particles from a radiative source through the matter is characterised by an exponential variation of their number with the thickness of matter transversed.
The number of transmitted electrons N in a thickness t of the absorber, is given by the

Expt. 4. Mass Absorption Coefficient of Aluminium for -rays

following expression.

N = N0 e(t)

(4.1)

Where, expressed in cm2 /gm is the mass absorption coefficient, t is the absorber thickness
in gm/cm2 and N0 is the incident intensity. When the thickness of the absorber is increased,
the absorption curve drops linearly and finally merges to the background intensity. The end
of the absorption curve corrected for the background intensity represents the true range R.
Different types of empirical formulae (Katz and Penfold, Kalil and Birkoff etc.) have been
proposed for the variation of range with the end point energy E0 . The mass absorption
coefficient is also dependent in a unique way on Eo .
A useful empirical relation for the mass absorption coefficient of aluminium is given by

17
E01.14

(4.2)

and Eo is the end point energy of the spectrum of the source.

The purpose of the present experiment is to determine the mass absorption coefficient
for aluminium for Tl-204 rays using a GM-counter [Tl-204 is a 98% emitter (2% EC),
with a half life around 4 years and E0 = 0.766 MeV ].

4.1

Procedure

The operating voltage is set at +450V. The background counts are determined for 10
mins.
The given Tl-204 source is placed on the source holder and the counts recorded for a
suitable time.
The aluminium absorbers are introduced between the source and the detector as close
to the detector as possible. The counts are determined for a suitable time. The results
are tabulated as shown in table 1.

4.2

Calculations

Background counts/10 mins = 297 Background counts per minute = Nb = 29.7

We know from equation(6.1) that

lnN = lnN0 t
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(4.3)
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Expt. 4. Mass Absorption Coefficient of Aluminium for -rays

Absorber no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Thickness
(gm/cm2 )
0
7.2
16.2
25.2
32.5
43.2
49.5
58.5
65.7
74.7

Transmitted counts / min

Mean

N=M-N

ln N

33282
27840
23853
20889
18082
15914
13726
12176
10737
8875

33084
27658
23832
20934
18216
15826
13672
12059
10730
8823

33060
27634
23808
20910
18192
15802
13648
12035
10706
8799

9.437
9.229
9.054
8.901
8.747
8.597
8.437
8.319
8.204
8.026

32964
27691
23694
20947
18285
15813
13735
11949
10710
8816

33307
27444
23949
20967
18290
15750
13554
12052
10744
8777

ln N

3.072
3.038
3.009
2.984
2.957
2.932
2.904
2.884
2.864
2.833

Table 4.1:
This represents a straight line. Hence, ln N is plotted verses t (mg/cm2 ). A straight line
as shown in the graph is obtained.
The slope of this straight line yields the value of for the aluminium in cm2 /mg. This
is multiplied by 1000 to get the value of in cm2 /gm. Alternatively, a linear regression
procedure is also used to determine the slope of the best fit straight line and reported.

4.3

Results

1. by graphical method = 18.00 cm2 /gm

2. by empirical formula = 23.48 cm2 /gm
It is found that the measured value of compares well with the empirical value.

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Part II

Solid State Physics

CHAPTER

THE ENERGY GAP OF AN

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

5.1

Procedure

The given semiconductor(Germanium) is dipped inside a beaker containing oil and is connected to a multimeter. The selector knob on the multimeter is turned to Ohms and the
range is kept at 20 k. The bulb of the thermometer is kept close to the semiconductor.
The oil in the beaker is heated till the temperature of about 80 C is reached. Then as
the oil bath cools, the resistance R of the semiconductor is read for every 5 decrease in
temperature starting from about 80 C. A graph of log R versus 1/T is drawn. A straight
line is obtained. Its slope is determined. Then the energy gap of the semiconductor is
calculated using the equation(3). The slope of the straight line is to be calculated by the
method of least-squares.

5.2

Theory

The chief intrinsic semiconductor materials used in the semiconductor industry are germanium and silicon. Semiconductors are electronic conductors with values of electrical
resistivity at room temperature in the range 10 to 10 ohm-cm, which lies between the resistivity of a good conductor and insulator. At absolute zero, the vacant conduction band
is separated from the filled valence band by an energy gap, E . As the temperature is increased, the electrons are thermally excited from the valance band to the conduction band
and positively charged holes are created in the valence band. The electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band both contribute to electrical conductivity
(when an electric field E is applied). If Z(E) represents the density of states and F(E) is

Expt. 5. The Energy Gap of An Intrinsic Semiconductor

the Fermi function, then the number of electrons in the conduction band is given by
n = Z(E)F (E)dE

(5.1)

Since the Fermi level is roughly midway between the bottom E of the conduction band and
the top E of the valence band, the Fermi function F(E) decreases strongly as one moves up
the conduction band. Near the bottom of conduction band, the expression for conductivity
is given by
= (const)e(E/2kT )

(5.2)

= (const)e

(5.3)

But, 1/s = resistivity, resistance (R), and hence Equation(1) can be written as
R = const exp(E/2kT )

(5.4)

Taking log on both sides of the equation (2) we get,

1n(R) = 1n(const) + E/2kT

(5.5)

A graph of log R versus 1/T is plotted. The slope of this graph is E/2k Hence E can be
calculated, using the expression E = 2k x 2.303 x slope

5.3

Precautions

1. After recording every 2 or 3 readings make sure that the zero setting of the multimeter
is alright.
2. Just before recording every R and corresponding T stir the oil with a glass-rod.

5.4

Observations

The data collected is tbulated as in the table below (table 5.1)

The graph of ln R versus (1/T ) is plotted as in the figure below (figure 5.1)
Slope of the graph = 542.161
Eg = 2.303k slope 2

= 2.303 1.38 1023 542.161 2

= 3.3446 1020 J
= 0.215eV

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Expt. 5. The Energy Gap of An Intrinsic Semiconductor

Temparature, T
(K)
305
310
315
320
325
330
335
340

Voltage, V
(volts)
1.96
1.95
1.93
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.70
1.66

Current, I
(mA)
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24

Resistance, R
(k)
8.166
8.125
8.041
7.708
7.500
7.316
7.083
6.916

(1/T)
(K1 )
0.00327
0.00322
0.00317
0.00312
0.00307
0.00303
0.00298
0.00294

ln R
9.007
9.003
8.992
8.950
8.922
8.897
8.865
8.841

Table 5.1:
9.04
9.02
9
8.98
ln R

8.96
8.94
8.92
8.9
8.88
8.86
8.84

2.9

2.95

3.05
3.1
3.15
3
(1/T ) 10 K1

3.2

3.25

3.3

Figure 5.1: Graph of ln R versus (1/T )

5.5

Results

The energy gap of the given semiconductor is 0.215 eV

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CHAPTER

DETERMINATION OF
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF
RESISTANCE OF A THERMISTOR

6.1

Introduction

Thermistors are thermally very sensitive resistors which are a two terminal semiconducting
device. Thermistors usually exhibit negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.e., the
resistance decreases with increase of temperature. In this experiment the resistance of a
thermistor at various temperatures is determined, using a multimeter.

6.2

Theory And Formulae

Thermistors being semiconducting materials, there is a small energy gap between the valence and conduction band. At absolute zero of temperature semiconductors act as perfect
insulators. However, with increase of temperature more and more number of electrons from
valence band get excited to conduction band resulting in decrease of resistance with increase
of temperature. The equation governing the variation of resistance R of a thermistor with
temperature may be written as
R = ae(b/T )

(6.1)

where a and b are constants depending upon the size and mode of mounting and upon
the thermistor material respectively. The temperature coefficient of resistance is given

Expt. 6. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance of A Thermistor

by
1
=
R

6.3

dR
dT

b
T2

(6.2)

Experimental arrangement and Procedure

The thermistor is tied to the bulb of a 0 100 C thermometer is immersed in water in a

beaker, on a heater. The two leads of the thermistor are connected to the multimeter. The
resistance at room temperature is recorded. The water is heated to 80 C. The resistance
at various temperatures while heating and cooling is recorded and tabulated.
The current is kept constant at 5mA.
A graph of log R versus 1/T is plotted. Slope of this graph gives the value of b and the
intercept on y-axis [for a (0,0) origin]gives value of a. Hence the temperature coefficient of
resistance = b/T 2 at temperature t of interest can be calculated. The slope of this
graph can also be calculated using the least square technique.

6.4

Precaution

The thermistor should not be heated beyond 85 C.

Note:
1. Typically the value of a is about -0.06K , i.e. -6% per degree Kelvin. (for metals a is
about +0.003K, some 20 times smaller). However, a tolerance of + 20% in the value
of a is stated by the manufacturer.
2. Thermistors are made from semiconducting oxides, usually Fe 0 and MgCr 0 . They
are available in rod, disc and bead forms with appropriate connecting leads. Most
thermistors have negative coefficients of resistance (NTC types) but types with positive coefficients (PTC types) are also made.

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Expt. 6. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance of A Thermistor

6.5
T
K
205
300
305
310
315
320
325
330
335
340
345
350

Observation
Voltage
(heating) (cooling)
V
V
0.587
0.587
0.510
0.510
0.478
0.440
0.431
0.387
0.382
0.350
0.349
0.318
0.316
0.291
0.284
0.260
0.255
0.250
0.226
0.223
0.205
0.205
0.190
0.187

Resistance
(heating) (cooling)

117.4
117.4
102.0
102.0
95.0
95.0
86.0
86.0
76.4
76.4
69.8
69.8
63.2
63.2
56.8
56.8
51.0
51.0
45.2
45.2
41.0
41.0
38.0
38.0

log R
(average)

1/T 103

4.762
4.624
4.515
4.399
4.289
4.188
4.102
3.988
3.921
3.795
3.713
3.624

3.39
3.33
3.28
3.23
3.17
3.13
3.08
3.03
2.99
2.94
2.90
2.86

Table 6.1:
8.4
8.2
8

ln R

7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
7
6.8

2.9

2.95

3.05

3.1
(1/T)

3.15

3.2

3.25

3.3

Figure 6.1: Graph of ln R versus (1/T )

6.6

Result

The temperature coefficient of resistance of the given thermistor at 300 K is = 0.0235 K1

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Part III

Spectroscopy

CHAPTER

TO DETERMINE THE
WAVELENGTHS OF LINES IN THE
SPECTRUM OF SODIUM USING
EDSER-BUTLER FRINGES

7.1

Theory

When a very thin parallel film of air of thickness t formed between 2 half-silvered glass
plates is placed in white light at normal incidence, maximum amd minimum intensity of
transmission occur for wavelengths given by

2t = n

(7.1)

2t = (2n + 1)

(7.2)

and

If the light from the plates enters a spectrometer, the spectrum consists of a large number of
bright and dark bands corresponding to the wavelengths given by Equations (4.1) and (4.2).
This type of spectrum is known as a channeled or banded spectrum. The bands are also
called the EDSER- BUTLER(EB) fringes or the fringes of equal chromatic order(FECO).
If 0 ,1 ,...r ,...m be the wavelengths of successive bright EB fringes of order numbers n,

Expt. 7. Edser-Butler fringes

n+r,...n+m, then from Eq.4.1

2t = n = (n + 1)... = (n + m)

(7.3)

where n is the number of bright or dark Edser-Butler fringes lying between 0 and m .
The wavelength corresponding to the r bright fringe counted from is given by

r (n + r) = n0

(7.4)

If the number m of fringes between the known wavelengths 0 and m be found, r can
be calculated. An identical result holds for dark bands. Both bright and dark bands are
bands of constant frequency difference.

7.2

Apparatus required

A CD spectrograph whose focussing is known.

The Edser-Butler plate which consists of a thin film of air held between two parallel
half-silvered glass plates mounted vertically on a base. To set the plates for parallelism
three screws are arranged triangularly behind one of the glass plates. A metal cover
with circular window encloses the plates. The base is provided with levelling screws.
EB plate is used in conjunction with the spectrograph. An incandescent bulb provides
the continuous(white) radiation.
A sodium vapour lamp is used for sodium radiation.

7.3

Procedure

Check the focus setting of the spectrograph. Align the EB plate, an incandescent lamp and
the sodium vapour lamp (see under alignment of spectrograph and source). Reduce the
slit width to get narrow spectral lines be observing with a lens. Keep the camera shutter
in close position. load the cassette in the dark room amd slide it on the camera-carriage.
Move the dark slider up and leave it in that condition. Prepare a table of exposures as
follows:
Move the casette to the first position. Expose the film for the EB fringes with the smaller
slit height. Remove the EB plate and the incandescent lamp with their positions marked
on the table(with chalk). Next, expose for the sodium light with longer slit height. Repeat
for other positions of the cassette. At the end of all the exposures, move the dark slider
down. Remove the casette and take it into the dark room. The film is developed, fixed,
washed and dried.
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Expt. 7. Edser-Butler fringes

7.4

Calculations

Select a good set of exposures. Identify two spectral lines of sodium at the two ends of the
spectrum and assume their wavelengths 0 and m . Take 0 and m to be the wavelengths
of the EB-spectrum bands which are nearest to these sodium lines. Count the total number
m of EB bands between the 0 and m bands. To determine the wavelength r of any
desired sodium line, count the number r of EB fringes that lies between 0 and the EB line
nearest to r , and use Eq.4.4 with EB-fringes and calculate the wavelengths of Brass/Hg.
Assumed 0 = 529.252nm
Assumed m = 587.562nm
Number of fringes in between 0 and m = 44 and therefore n = 262.537
Sl. No.

Number of EB fringes
between 0 and r

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1
6
10
11
16
17
18
21
31

Wavelength Calculated

Wavelength Standard

Difference

A
5272.43
5174.27
5098.33
5079.69
4988.50
4970.50
4952.94
4900.53
4733.58

A
5215.20
5153.24
5105.40
5016.61
4810.31
4721.16
4704.60
4680.14
4651.13

57.23
21.03
07.07
63.38
178.19
249.34
248.34
220.38
82.45

Table 7.1: Wavelengths of Na - calculated versus standard

7.5

Result

The wavelengths of lines in sodium spectrum is determined using Edser-Butler fringes. The
calculated wavelengths are compared with the standard values of respective wavelengths.

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