1.

Write a report for Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC), the solution

should includes but not limited to:
a. NO and NC Electromagnetic relay
Elecromagnetic relays
Relay is an electrical switch. It opens and closes under control of electric
curent applied. The switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or
close sets of contacts. When a current flows through the coil, the generated
magnetic field attracts an armature, mechanically linked to a moving
contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed
contact.

The contacts are either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed (NC), or
Double Throw (also known as "Form C" or change-over (CO)) contacts.

Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is

activated; and disconnect when the relays is deactivated.

Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is

activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive.

Change-over contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact

and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. Simply
speaking they just switch in-between circuits

b. PLC definitions
A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC, or Programmable Controller) is a
ruggedized, microprocessor-based system which provides factory or plant
automation by monitoring sensors and controlling actuators in real time.

A programmable logic controller, PLC, or programmable controller is a

digital computer used for automation of typically industrial
electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory
assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are used in many
machines, in many industries. PLCs are designed for multiple
arrangements of digital and analog inputs and outputs, extended
temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically
stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example
of a "hard" real-time system since output results must be produced in
response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended
operation will result.
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for
manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed of relays, cam timers,
drum sequencers, and dedicated closed-loop controllers. Since these could
number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating such
facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and
expensive, as electricians needed to individually rewire the relays to
change their operational characteristics.

Digital computers, being general-purpose programmable devices, were

soon applied to control of industrial processes. Early computers required
specialist programmers, and stringent operating environmental control for
temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. Using a general-purpose
computer for process control required protecting the computer from the
plant floor conditions. An industrial control computer would have several
attributes: it would tolerate the shop-floor environment, it would support
discrete (bit-form) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would
not require years of training to use, and it would permit its operation to be
monitored. The response time of any computer system must be fast
enough to be useful for control; the required speed varying according to the
nature of the process.[1] Since many industrial processes have timescales
easily addressed by millisecond response times, modern (fast, small,
reliable) electronics greatly facilitate building reliable controllers, especially
because performance can be traded off for reliability.

In 1968 GM Hydra-Matic (the automatic transmission division of General

Motors) issued a request for proposals for an electronic replacement for
hard-wired relay systems based on a white paper written by engineer
Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of
Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was
Bedford Associates' eighty-fourth project, was the result.[2] Bedford
Associates started a new company dedicated to developing,
manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: Modicon, which
stood for Modular Digital Controller. One of the people who worked on that
project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the "father" of the PLC.[3]

The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, later acquired
by German Company AEG, and then by French Schneider Electric, the
current owner.
One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Modicon's
headquarters in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to
Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired after nearly twenty years of
uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the end of its
product range until the 984 made its appearance.
The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs.

c. Block diagram of PLC

A simplified block diagram of a PLC shown in above Fig. It has three major
units/sections.
I/O (Input/Output) Modules.
CPU (Central Processing Units).
Programmer/Monitor.
The input section converts the field signals supplied by input
devices/sensors to logic-level signals that the PLC's CPU can read.
The Processor Section reads these inputs, Processes the signal, and
prepares the output signals.
The output section converts the logic level output signals coming from
processor section to high level signals and used to actuate various output
field devices.

The programmer/monitor is used to enter the user's program into

memory and to monitor the execution of the program.

d. Processor and power supply

A power supply unit (PSU) converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC

power for the internal components of a computer. Modern personal
computers universally use a switched-mode power supply. Some power
supplies have a manual selector for input voltage, while others
automatically adapt to the supply voltage.

Most modern desktop personal computer power supplies conform to the

ATX specification, which includes form factor and voltage tolerances. While
an ATX power supply is connected to the mains supply, it always provides a
5 V standby (5VSB) voltage so that the standby functions on the computer
and certain peripherals are powered. ATX power supplies are turned on
and off by a signal from the motherboard. They also provide a signal to the
motherboard to indicate when the DC voltages are in spec, so that the
computer is able to safely power up and boot. The most recent ATX PSU
standard is version 2.31 of mid-2008.
The desktop computer power supply changes alternating current from a
wall socket to low-voltage direct current to operate the processor and
peripheral devices. Several direct-current voltages are required, and they
must be regulated with some accuracy to provide stable operation of the

computer. A power supply rail or voltage rail refers to a single voltage

provided by a power supply unit (PSU). Although the term is generally used
in electronic engineering, many people, especially computer enthusiasts,
encounter it in the context of personal computer power supplies.

First-generation microcomputer and home computer power supply units

used a heavy step-down transformer and a linear power supply. Modern
computers use switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with a ferrite-cored
high frequency transformer. The switched-mode supply is much lighter and
less costly, and is more efficient, than an equivalent linear power supply.

Computer power supplies may have short circuit protection, overpower

(overload) protection, overvoltage protection, undervoltage protection,
overcurrent protection, and over temperature protection.

Recent power supplies have a standby voltage available, to allow most of

the computer system to be powered off. When the computer is powered
down but the power supply is still on, it can be started remotely via Wakeon-LAN and Wake-on-ring or locally via Keyboard Power ON (KBPO) if the
motherboard supports it.

This standby voltage is generated by a smaller power supply inside the

unit. In older PSU designs, it was used to supply the voltage regulator,
located on the low-voltage side of the transformer, allowing the regulator to

measure output voltages. The regulator controls the switching transistors

insulated by optocoupplers or pulse transfomers. The standby power
source was a small linear power supply with conventional transformer,
which was later changed to a switching power supply, sharing some
components of the main unit due to cost- and energy-saving requirements.

Power supplies designed for worldwide use were equipped with an input
voltage selector switch that allowed the user to configure the unit for use on
local power grid. In the lower voltage range, around 115 V, this switch is
turned on changing the power grid voltage rectifier into a voltage doubler in
delon circuit design. As a result, the large primary filter capacitor behind
that rectifier was split up into two capacitors wired in series, balanced with
bleeder resistors and varistors that were necessary in the upper input
voltage range, around 230 V. Connecting the unit configured for the lower
range to a higher-voltage grid usually resulted in an immediate permanent
damage. When the power factor correction (PFC) was required, those filter
capacitors were replaced with higher-capacity ones, together with a coil
installed in series to delay the inrush current. This is the simple design of a
passive PFC.

Active PFC is more complex and can achieve higher PF, up to 99%. The
first active PFC circuits just delayed the inrush. Newer ones are working as
an input and output condition-controlled step-up converter, supplying a
single 400 V filter capacitor from a wide-range input source, usually
between 80 and 240 V. Newer PFC circuits also replace the NTC-based

inrush current limiter, which is an expensive part previously located next to

the fuse.

e. Programming device

In the field of computer hardware, the term programmer, chip programmer

or device programmer refers to a device that configures programmable
non-volatile digital circuits such as EPROMs, EEPROMs, Flashes, PALs,
FPGAs or programmable logic circuits.
For programming a circuit, it is either inserted into a socket (often ZIF) on
top of the programmer, or the programmer is directly connected by an
adapter to the circuit board (In-System Programming). Afterwards the data
is transferred into the circuit by applying signals to the connecting pins.
Some circuits have a serial interface for receiving the programming data
(JTAG interface). Other circuits require the data on parallel pins, followed
by a programming pulse with a higher voltage for programming the data
into the circuit.

Usually device programmers are connected to a personal computer

through a printer connector, USB port or LAN interface. A software program
on the computer then transfers the data to the programmer, selects the
circuit and interface type, and starts the programming process.

f. Input and output interface

Input-output interface provides a method for transferring information

between internal storage and external I/O devices. Peripherals connected
to a computer need special communication links for interfacing them with
the central processing unit. The purpose of the communication link is to
resolve the differences that exist between the central computer and each
peripheral. The major differences are:

Peripherals are electromechanical and electromagnetic devices and their

manner of operation is different from the operation of the CPU and memory,
which are electronic devices. Therefore, a conversion of signal values may
be required.

The data transfer rate of peripherals is usually slower than the transfer rate
of the CPU, and consequently, a synchronization mechanism may be
needed.

Data codes and formats in peripherals differ from the word format in the
CPU and memory.

The operating modes of peripherals are different from each other and each
must be controlled so as not to disturb the operation of other peripherals
connected to the CPU.

To resolve these differences, computer systems include special

hardware components between the CPU and peripherals to supervise and
synchronize all input and output transfers. These components are called
interface units because they interface between the processor bus and the
peripheral device.

Need for I/O interface

Peripherals are electromechanical devices.But CPU and Memory are

electronic devices. Therefore conversion of signal values may be required.

Data codes and formats in peripherals differ from the word format in CPU
and memory.
Data transfer rate of peripherals are slower than CPU, So synchronization
may be needed.
The operating modes of peripherals are different. So they must be
controlled so as not to disturb the operation of other peripherals that are
connected to CPU.

g. input and output devices wiring.

One of the many advantages to using a PLC/PAC is the simplicity of the I/O
wiring.
I/O devices are wired to I/O points on a fixed I/O unit and to I/O modules in
a modular unit. Input devices such as switches, pushbuttons and sensors
are wired to input module points and output devices such as indicator
lights, solenoids and motor starter coils are wired to output module points.
I/O modules can accept Acv, DCV or a combination of ACV and DCV. Most
modern automation systems use DCV I/O, therefore we will focus on DCV.
DC voltage has a polarity. We already know that current flow is from
negative to positive. This current flow is also referred to as electron flow
and is also the current that is measured when making measurements with
a meter.
There is also another current flow. This current flow is called 'conventional
current' and is the current flow that solid state physis use. This current
flows from positive to negative. When electrons flow from one atom to
another they leave a hole behind on the atom that they leave. If you could
watch the electrons moving from atom to atom, the electrons would be
moving in one direction (negative to positive) and the holes would look like
they are moving in the opposite direction (positive to negative).

DCV I/O module polarity is referenced using the terms sink and source.
The terms are derived from conventional current flow, but we will explain
sink and source in terms of electron flow.
Why should we care what direction current is flowing? Mechanical
switches, indicator lamps and solenoids don't care what polarity the current
is flowing. But sensors such as photoelectric, inductive and capacitive
proximity sensors are also wired to PLC/PAC I/O modules. These sensors
are solid state, using diodes and transistors in their internal workings.
These devices require current to be flowing in the right direction.

2. Write a report for PLC ladder diagram programming, the solution should
includes but not limited to:

2.a) The different between PLC physical ladder diagram and PLC programmed ladder
diagram
A ladder diagram is a symbolic and schematic representation of both the process
hardware and process control. It is called ladder because all the devices are connected
across the supply lines making it looks like a ladder. Each parallel connection is named as
Rung and it can contain many inputs but only one output. The physical ladder diagram
made of switches and relays which are connected to devices to give desired output. The
programmed ladder diagram is made of electronic gates such as AND gate and NAND
gate.

PLC physical ladder diagram

Figure 5: Example of ladder diagram

PLC programmed ladder diagram
The first, and still most popular programming language, is ladder logic. Using examples, the
language is developed from the electromechanical relay system-wiring diagram.

Figure 6: Ladder diagram, Truth table and Logic gate

\
2.b) Types of relay use in ladder diagram

Input relays - (contacts)

Internal utility relays - (contacts)
Counters relay
Timers relay
Output relays - (coils)

 Data storage
Analogue model
User interface input
Networking modules

2.c) NO and NC relay in ladder diagram

Figure 7: Symbol of NO and NC relay in ladder diagram

2.d) Input relay, output relay, internal relay, timer relay and counter relay

INPUT RELAYS-(contacts): These are connected to the outside world. They

physically exist and receive signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not
relays but rather they are transistors. These inputs are called discrete or logic inputs.

INTERNAL UTILITY RELAYS-(contacts): These relays do not receive signals from

the outside world nor do they physically exist. They are simulated relays and are what
enables a PLC to eliminate external relays. There are also some special relays that are
dedicated to performing only one task. Some are always on while some are always off.
Some are on only once during power-on and are typically used for initializing data that
was stored.

COUNTERS: These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and
they can be programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down
or both up and down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed.
Some manufacturers also include high-speed counters that are hardware based. We can
think of these as physically existing. Most of the time these counters can count up,
down or up/down.

TIMERS: These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and
increments. The most common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and
both retentive and non-retentive types. Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.

OUTPUT RELAYS-(coils): These are connected to the outside world. They physically
exist and send on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or
triacs depending upon the model chosen.

References
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_5.html
http://www.amci.com/tutorials/tutorials-what-is-programmable-logic-controller.asp