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BUSTAMANTE]

Bullying
Teenage
Pregnancy
Drug Abuse
and Addiction
Bullying

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Bullying is the use of force, threat, or coercion to abuse, intimidate, or aggressively dominate
others. The behavior is often repeated and habitual. One essential prerequisite is the perception, by
the bully or by others, of an imbalance of social or physical power, which distinguishes bullying from
conflict.[1] Behaviors used to assert such domination can include verbal harassment or threat,
physical assault or coercion, and such acts may be directed repeatedly towards particular targets.
Rationalizations for such behavior sometimes include differences of social class, race, religion,
gender, sexual orientation, appearance, behavior, body language, personality, reputation, lineage,
strength, size or ability.[2][3] If bullying is done by a group, it is called mobbing.[4]
Bullying can be defined in many different ways. The UK has no legal definition of bullying,[5]
while some U.S. states have laws against it.[6] Bullying is divided into four basic types of abuse
emotional (sometimes called relational), verbal, physical, and cyber.[7] It typically involves subtle
methods of coercion, such as intimidation.
Bullying ranges from simple one-on-one bullying to more complex bullying in which the bully
may have one or more "lieutenants" who may seem to be willing to assist the primary bully in his or
her bullying activities. Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as peer abuse.[8]
Robert W. Fuller has analyzed bullying in the context of rankism.
A bullying culture can develop in any context in which humans interact with each other. This
includes school, family, the workplace, home, and neighborhoods. In a 2012 study of male adolescent
American football players, "the strongest predictor [of bullying] was the perception of whether the
most influential male in a player's life would approve of the bullying behavior"

Effects

Suicide

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Even though there is evidence that bullying increases the risk of suicide, bullying alone does
not cause suicide. Depression is one of the main reasons why kids who are bullied commit suicide.
[43] It is estimated that between 15 and 25 children commit suicide every year in the UK alone
because they are being bullied.[44] Certain attributes of a person are correlated to a higher risk for
suicide than others such as: American Indian, Alaskan Native, Asian American, lesbian, gay, bisexual
and transgender. When someone is unsupported by his or her family or friends, it can make the
situation much worse for the victim. While some people find it very easy to ignore a bully, others may
find it very difficult and reach a breaking point. There have been cases of apparent bullying suicides
that have been reported closely by the media. These include the deaths of Ryan Halligen, Phoebe
Prince, Dawn-Marie Wesley, Kelly Yeomans, Jessica Haffer,[46] Hamed Nastoh,[47] April Himes,[48]
Cherice Moralez[49] and Rebecca Ann Sedwick

Violence
Bullied students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold carried out the 1999 Columbine High School
massacre. Since then, bullying has been more closely linked to high school violence in general.Serial
killers were frequently bullied through direct and indirect methods as children or adolescents. Henry
Lee Lucas, a serial killer and diagnosed psychopath, said the ridicule and rejection he suffered as a
child caused him to hate everyone. Kenneth Bianchi, a serial killer and member of the Hillside
Stranglers, was teased as a child because he urinated in his pants and suffered twitching, and as a
teenager was ignored by his peers

Positive Development
Some have argued that bullying can teach life lessons and instill strength. Helene Guldberg, a
child development academic, sparked controversy when she argued that being a target of bullying
can teach a child "how to manage disputes and boost their ability to interact with others", and that
teachers should not intervene, but leave children to respond to the bullying themselves. A few
studies have pointed up some potentially positive outcomes from bullying behavior.[54] These
studies have found that with some individuals, as a result of their having been targeted with bullying
behavior, this certain minority of former bullying "targets" have actually experienced being "enabled"
through their experiences with bullying to develop various coping strategies, which included
"standing up for themselves" in ways which acted to "re-balance" former imbalances of power. Such
former bullying targets have reported such things as "becoming a better person" as a result of their
former bullying ordeals.[54] The teaching of such anti-bullying coping skills to "would-be-targets" and
to others has been found to be an effective long term means of reducing bullying incidence rates and
a valuable skill-set for individuals

In Different Contexts

Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is any bullying done through the use of technology. This form of bullying can easily go
undetected because of lack of parental/authoritative supervision. Because bullies can pose as
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someone else, it is the most anonymous form of bullying. Cyberbullying includes, but is not limited
to, abuse using email, instant messaging, text messaging, websites, social networking sites, etc.
[62] With the creation of social networks like Facebook, Myspace, Instagram, and Twitter,
cyberbullying has increased. Particular watchdog organizations have been designed to contain the
spread of cyberbullying.[citation needed]

Disability bullying
It has been noted that disabled people are disproportionately affected by bullying and abuse, and
such activity has been cited as a hate crime.[63] The bullying is not limited to those who are visibly
disabled, such as wheelchair-users or physically deformed such as those with a cleft lip, but also
those with learning disabilities, such as autism and developmental coordination disorder.[66][67]
There is an additional problem that those with learning disabilities are often not as able to explain
things to other people, so are more likely to be disbelieved or ignored if they do complain.[citation
needed]

Gay bullying
Gay bullying and gay bashing designate direct or indirect verbal or physical actions by a person or
group against someone who is gay or lesbian, or perceived to be so due to rumors or because they
are considered to fit gay stereotypes. Gay and lesbian youth are more likely than straight youth to
report bullying.[68]

Legal bullying
Legal bullying is the bringing of a vexatious legal action to control and punish a person. Legal bullying
can often take the form of frivolous, repetitive, or burdensome lawsuits brought to intimidate the
defendant into submitting to the litigant's request, not because of the legal merit of the litigant's
position, but principally due to the defendant's inability to maintain the legal battle. This can also
take the form of SLAPPs. It was partially concern about the potential for this kind of abuse that helped
to fuel the protests against SOPA and PIPA in the United States in 2011 and 2012.

Military bullying
In 2000, the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) defined bullying as "the use of physical strength or
the abuse of authority to intimidate or victimize others, or to give unlawful punishments".[69] Some
argue that this behaviour should be allowed, due to ways in which "soldiering" is different from other
occupations. Soldiers expected to risk their lives should, according to them, develop strength of body
and spirit to accept bullying.[70]
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Parental bullying of children

Parents who may displace their anger, insecurity, or a persistent need to dominate and control upon
their children in excessive ways have been proven to increase the likelihood that their own children
will in turn become overly aggressive or controlling towards their peers.[71] The American
Psychological Association advises on its website that parents who may suspect that their own
children may be engaging in bullying activities among their peers should carefully consider the
examples which they themselves may be setting for their own children regarding how they typically
interact with their own peers, colleagues, and children.[72]

Prison bullying
An environment known[by whom?] for bullying is a country's prison service. An additional
complication is the staff and their relationships with the inmates. Thus the following possible bullying
scenarios are possible:
Inmate bullies inmate (echoing school bullying)
Staff bullies inmate
Staff bullies staff (a manifestation of workplace bullying)
Inmate bullies staff

School bullying (bullying of students in schools)

Bullying can occur in nearly any part in or around the school building. Though it may occur more
frequently during physical education classes and activities such as recess. Bullying also takes place in
school hallways, bathrooms, on school buses and while waiting for buses, and in classes that require
group work and/or after school activities. Bullying in school sometimes consists of a group of students
taking advantage of or isolating one student in particular and gaining the loyalty of bystanders who
want to avoid becoming the next target. In the 2011 documentary Bully, we see first hand the torture
that kids go through both in school and while on the school bus. As the movie follows around a few
kids we see how bullying affects them both at school as well as in their homes. While bullying has no
age limit, these bullies may taunt and tease their target before finally physically bullying them.
Bystanders typically choose to either participate or watch, sometimes out of fear of becoming the
next target.
Bullying can also be perpetrated by teachers and the school system itself; there is an inherent power
differential in the system that can easily predispose to subtle or covert abuse (relational
aggression or passive aggression), humiliation, or exclusion even while maintaining overt
commitments to anti-bullying policies.

Sexual bullying
Sexual bullying is "any bullying behaviour, whether physical or non-physical, that is based on a
person's sexuality or gender. It is when sexuality or gender is used as a weapon by males or females
towards others - although it is more commonly directed at females. It can be carried out to a person's
face, behind their back or through the use of technology."[76]

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Trans bullying
Trans bashing is the act of victimizing a person physically, sexually, or verbally because they
are transgender or transsexual.[77] Unlike gay bashing, it is committed because of the target's actual
or perceived gender identity, not sexual orientation

Teenage Pregnancy

Teenage pregnancy is pregnancy in human females under the age of 20 at the time that the
pregnancy ends. A pregnancy can take place after the start of the puberty before first menstrual
period, but usually occurs after the onset of periods. In well-nourished girls, menarche usually takes
place around the age of 12 or 13. Pregnant teenagers face many of the same obstetrics issues as
other women. There are, however, additional medical concerns for mothers aged under 15.[2] For
mothers aged 1519, risks are associated more with socioeconomic factors than with the biological
effects of age.[3] Risks of low birth weight, premature labor, anemia, and pre-eclampsia are
connected to the biological age itself, as it was observed in teen births even after controlling for other
risk factors (such as utilization of antenatal care etc.).[4][5] Every day in developing countries,
20,000 girls under age 18 give birth.[6] This amounts to 7.3 million births a year.[7] And if all
pregnancies are included, the number of adolescent pregnancies is much higher.

Effects
According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Pregnancies among girls less than 18
years of age have irreparable consequences. It violates the rights of girls, with life-threatening
consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health, and poses high development costs for
communities, particularly in perpetuating the cycle of poverty.[12] Health consequences include not
yet being physically ready for pregnancy and childbirth leading to complications and malnutrition as
the majority of adolescents tend to come from lower-income households. The risk of maternal death
for girls under age 15 in low- and middle-income countries is higher than for women in their twenties.
[13] Teenage pregnancy also affects girls education and income potential as many are forced to drop
out of school which ultimately threatens future opportunities and economic prospects.[14]

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Several studies have examined the socioeconomic, medical, and psychological impact of pregnancy
and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors,
such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth.
Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who
can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to
continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.[15]

Mother
Teen birth rates internationally, per 1000 girls aged 1519, (2008). United States and United
Kingdom have some of the highest teenage pregnancy rates in the developed world. Being a young
mother in an industrialized country can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop
out of high school.[17] However, recent studies have found that many of these mothers had already
dropped out of school before becoming pregnant, but those in school at the time of their pregnancy
were as likely to graduate as their peers.[18] One study in 2001 found that women who gave birth
during their teens completed secondary-level schooling 1012% as often and pursued post-secondary
education 1429% as often as women who waited until age 30.[19] Young motherhood in an
industrialized country can affect employment and social class. Less than one third of teenage
mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the
government for assistance.[20] The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete
high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.[17] One study found that, in 1988,
60% of teenage mothers were impoverished at the time of giving birth.[21] Additional research found
that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought social assistance within the first five years of their
child's life.[17] A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the United Kingdom found that only 11% received
a salary, while the remaining 89% were unemployed.[22] Most British teenage mothers live in
poverty, with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.[23] Teenage women who are
pregnant or mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers

Silouette of a pregnant teen

Teenage motherhood may actually make economic sense for young women with less money, some
research suggests. For instance, long-term studies by Duke University economist V. Joseph Hotz and
colleagues, published in 2005, found that by age 35, former teen moms had earned more in income,
paid more in taxes, were substantially less likely to live in poverty and collected less in public
assistance than similarly poor women who waited until their 20s to have babies. Women who became
mothers in their teens freed from child-raising duties by their late 20s and early 30s to pursue
employment while poorer women who waited to become moms were still stuck at home watching
their young children wound up paying more in taxes than they had collected in welfare.[26] Eight
years earlier, the federally commissioned report "Kids Having Kids" also contained a similar finding,
though it was buried: "Adolescent childbearers fare slightly better than later-childbearing
counterparts in terms of their overall economic welfare. According to the National Campaign to
Prevent Teen Pregnancy, nearly 1 in 4 teen mothers will experience another pregnancy within two
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years of having their first.[28] Pregnancy and giving birth significantly increases the chance that
these mothers will become high school dropouts and as many as half have to go on welfare. Many
teen parents do not have the intellectual or emotional maturity that is needed to provide for another
life. Often, these pregnancies are hidden for months resulting in a lack of adequate prenatal care and
dangerous outcomes for the babies.[29] Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to
have a closely spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the
level of education of the young woman or her parents and increases if she gets married.[30]

Child
Early motherhood can affect the psychosocial development of the infant. The children of teen
mothers are more likely to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, predisposing them to many
other lifelong conditions.[31] Children of teen mothers are at higher risk of intellectual, language, and
socio-emotional delays.[29] Developmental disabilities and behavioral issues are increased in
children born to teen mothers.[32][33] One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely
to stimulate their infant through affectionate behaviors such as touch, smiling, and verbal
communication, or to be sensitive and accepting toward his or her needs.[32] Another found that
those who had more social support were less likely to show anger toward their children or to rely
upon punishment. Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been
noted, with many of them being more likely than average to fail to graduate from secondary school,
be held back a grade level, or score lower on standardized tests.[17] Daughters born to adolescent
parents are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.[17][35] A son born to a teenage mother
is three times more likely to serve time in prison.[36]

Other family members

Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger
sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of education and employment
and more likely to accept human sexual behavior, parenting, and marriage at younger ages; younger
brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of non-marital and early births, in addition to being
more susceptible to high-risk behaviors.[37] If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the
children, they have an increased risk of getting pregnant themselves.[38] Once an older daughter
has a child, parents often become more accepting as time goes by.[39] The probability of the younger
sister having a teenage pregnancy went from one in five to two in five if the elder sister had a baby
as a teenager

Causes

General

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In some societies, early marriage and traditional gender roles are important factors in the rate
of teenage pregnancy. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often
seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility.[48] The average marriage age
differs by country, and countries where teenage marriages are common experience higher levels of
teenage pregnancies. In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in
traditional rural communities than cities.[50] The lack of education on safe sex, whether it is from
parents, schools, or otherwise, is a cause of teenage pregnancy. Many teenagers are not taught
about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before
they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality.
In societies where adolescent marriage is less common, such as many developed countries, young
age at first intercourse and lack of use of contraceptive methods (or their inconsistent and/or
incorrect use; the use of a method with a high failure rate is also a problem) may be factors in teen
pregnancy.[52][53] Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned.[53]
[54] In an attempt to reverse the increasing numbers of teenage pregnancies, governments in many
Western countries have instituted sex education programs, the main objective of which is to reduce
such pregnancies and STDs. Countries with low levels of teenagers giving birth accept sexual
relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.
[55]

Sexuality
In most countries, most men experience sexual intercourse for the first time before their 20th
birthdays.[56] Men in Western developed countries have sex for the first time sooner than in
undeveloped and culturally conservative countries such as Sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia. In a
2005 Kaiser Family Foundation study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have
sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were
moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didnt really want to do".
Several polls have indicated peer pressure as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.

Role of drug and alcohol use

Inhibition-reducing drugs and alcohol may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity. If so, it is
unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or
whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. Correlation does not
imply causation. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking them to teenage pregnancy are
alcohol, cannabis, "ecstasy" and other substituted amphetamines. The drugs with the least evidence
to support a link to early pregnancy are opioids, such as heroin, morphine, and oxycodone, of which a
well-known effect is the significant reduction of libido it appears that teenage opioid users have
significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their non-using, and alcohol, "ecstasy",
cannabis, and amphetamine using peers.

Lack of contraception

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Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing
pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.[58][62]
Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government of
the United Kingdom set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage
Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although
falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1000 women. Young women often think of contraception
either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily
influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and
the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for
example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and
in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide
pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure. In the
United States, according to the 2002 National Surveys of Family Growth, sexually active adolescent
women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than older women to use contraceptives (18% of
1519-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% for women aged 1544).[64] More than 80% of
teen pregnancies are unintended.[65] Over half of unintended pregnancies were to women not using
contraceptives,[64] most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use.[65] 23% of sexually
active young women in a 1996 Seventeen magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex
with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 PARADE poll claimed it was
embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor. In a 2012 study, over 1,000
females were surveyed to find out factors contributing to not using contraception. Of those surveyed,
almost half had been involved in unprotected sex within the previous three months. These women
gave three main reasons for not using contraceptives: trouble obtaining birth control (the most
frequent reason), lack of intention to have sex, and the misconception that they "could not get
pregnant." In a study for The Guttmacher Institute, researchers found that from a comparative
perspective, however, teenage pregnancy rates in the United States are less nuanced than one might
initially assume. Since timing and levels of sexual activity are quite similar across [Sweden, France,
Canada, Great Britain, and the U.S.], the high U.S. rates arise primarily because of less, and possibly
less-effective, contraceptive use by sexually active teenagers.[67] Thus, the cause for the
discrepancy between rich nations can be traced largely to contraceptive-based issues. Among teens
in the UK seeking an abortion, a study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same
for teens as for older women. In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate.
Inexperienced adolescents may use condoms incorrectly, forget to take oral contraceptives, or fail to
use the contraceptives they had previously chosen. Contraceptive failure rates are higher for
teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users. Long-acting contraceptives such as
intrauterine devices, subcutaneous contraceptive implants, and contraceptive injections (such as
Depo-Provera and Combined injectable contraceptive), which prevent pregnancy for months or years
at a time, are more effective in women who have trouble remembering to take pills or using barrier
methods consistently.

Drug abuse and Addiction

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Many people do not understand why or how other people become addicted to drugs. It is often
mistakenly assumed that drug abusers lack moral principles or willpower and that they could stop
using drugs simply by choosing to change their behavior. In reality, drug addiction is a complex
disease, and quitting takes more than good intentions or a strong will. In fact, because drugs change
the brain in ways that foster compulsive drug abuse, quitting is difficult, even for those who are ready
to do so. Through scientific advances, we know more about how drugs work in the brain than ever,
and we also know that drug addiction can be successfully treated to help people stop abusing drugs
and lead productive lives. Drug abuse and addiction have negative consequences for individuals and
for society. Estimates of the total overall costs of substance abuse in the United States, including
productivity and health- and crime-related costs, exceed $600 billion annually. This includes
approximately $193 billion for illicit drugs,1 $193 billion for tobacco,2 and $235 billion for
alcohol.3 As staggering as these numbers are, they do not fully describe the breadth of destructive
public health and safety implications of drug abuse and addiction, such as family disintegration, loss
of employment, failure in school, domestic violence, and child abuse.

What Is Drug Addiction?

Addiction is a chronic, often relapsing brain disease that causes compulsive drug seeking and use, despite
harmful consequences to the addicted individual and to those around him or her. Although the initial
decision to take drugs is voluntary for most people, the brain changes that occur over time challenge an
addicted persons self-control and hamper his or her ability to resist intense impulses to take drugs.
Fortunately, treatments are available to help people counter addictions powerful disruptive effects.
Research shows that combining addiction treatment medications with behavioral therapy is the best way
to ensure success for most patients. Treatment approaches that are tailored to each patients drug abuse
patterns and any co-occurring medical, psychiatric, and social problems can lead to sustained recovery
and a life without drug abuse.
Similar to other chronic, relapsing diseases, such as diabetes, asthma, or heart disease, drug addiction
can be managed successfully. And as with other chronic diseases, it is not uncommon for a person to
relapse and begin abusing drugs again. Relapse, however, does not signal treatment failurerather, it
indicates that treatment should be reinstated or adjusted or that an alternative treatment is needed to
help the individual regain control and recover.

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What Happens to Your Brain When You Take Drugs?

Drugs contain chemicals that tap into the brains communication system and disrupt the way nerve
cells normally send, receive, and process information. There are at least two ways that drugs cause
this disruption: (1) by imitating the brains natural chemical messengers and (2) by overstimulating
the reward circuit of the brain. Some drugs (e.g., marijuana and heroin) have a similar structure to
chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, which are naturally produced by the brain. This
similarity allows the drugs to fool the brains receptors and activate nerve cells to send abnormal
messages. Other drugs, such as cocaine or methamphetamine, can cause the nerve cells to release
abnormally large amounts of natural neurotransmitters (mainly dopamine) or to prevent the normal
recycling of these brain chemicals, which is needed to shut off the signaling between neurons. The
result is a brain awash in dopamine, a neurotransmitter present in brain regions that control
movement, emotion, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. The overstimulation of this reward system,
which normally responds to natural behaviors linked to survival (eating, spending time with loved
ones, etc.), produces euphoric effects in response to psychoactive drugs. This reaction sets in motion
a reinforcing pattern that teaches people to repeat the rewarding behavior of abusing drugs. As a
person continues to abuse drugs, the brain adapts to the overwhelming surges in dopamine by
producing less dopamine or by reducing the number of dopamine receptors in the reward circuit. The
result is a lessening of dopamines impact on the reward circuit, which reduces the abusers ability to
enjoy not only the drugs but also other events in life that previously brought pleasure. This decrease
compels the addicted person to keep abusing drugs in an attempt to bring the dopamine function
back to normal, but now larger amounts of the drug are required to achieve the same dopamine high
an effect known as tolerance. Long-term abuse causes changes in other brain chemical systems
and circuits as well. Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that influences the reward circuit and the ability
to learn. When the optimal concentration of glutamate is altered by drug abuse, the brain attempts to
compensate, which can impair cognitive function. Brain imaging studies of drug-addicted individuals
show changes in areas of the brain that are critical to judgment, decision making, learning and
memory, and behavior control. Together, these changes can drive an abuser to seek out and take
drugs compulsively despite adverse, even devastating consequencesthat is the nature of addiction.

Why Do Some People Become Addicted While Others Do Not?

No single factor can predict whether a person will become addicted to drugs. Risk for addiction is
influenced by a combination of factors that include individual biology, social environment, and age or
stage of development. The more risk factors an individual has, the greater the chance that taking
drugs can lead to addiction. For example:

Biology. The genes that people are born within combination with environmental influences
account for about half of their addiction vulnerability. Additionally, gender, ethnicity, and the
presence of other mental disorders may influence risk for drug abuse and addiction.
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Environment. A persons environment includes many different influences, from family and
friends to socioeconomic status and quality of life in general. Factors such as peer pressure,
physical and sexual abuse, stress, and quality of parenting can greatly influence the occurrence

of drug abuse and the escalation to addiction in a persons life.

Development. Genetic and environmental factors interact with critical developmental stages
in a persons life to affect addiction vulnerability. Although taking drugs at any age can lead to
addiction, the earlier that drug use begins, the more likely it will progress to more serious abuse,
which poses a special challenge to adolescents. Because areas in their brains that govern
decision making, judgment, and self-control are still developing, adolescents may be especially
prone to risk-taking behaviors, including trying drugs of abuse.

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