PHYSICS - SCRIPT

1. Physics and physical measurement

1.1 UNITS
Size of the universe: 91 billion light years ~ unknown
Age: years
Mass: gram kilogram lbs oz
Diameter of an atom: 0.5 nm = 1*10-10 m
Any number of subatomic a nucleus: 10-15 ~ U
Particles carrying a change quarks: not measurable (1*10-18 m) (10-30 kg)
Planck lenght: 1.6 * 10-35
Speed of light in vacuum: 3*108 m/s
Diameter atom:nucleus = 100,000:1
Mass proton:electron = 2000:1
SI System
Meter
Kilogram
Kelvin
Second
Ampere
Mol mass
Candela

m
kg
K
s
A
mol
cd

Lenght
Mass
Temperature
Time
Electric current
Amount of mater
Luminous intensity

Derived SI units
Velocity
Acceleratium
Newton
Joule
Watt
Pascal
Hertz
Volt
Ohm
Prefixes
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Hecto h 102
Deca da 101
Deci d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro 10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
Fento f 10-15

v
a
N
J
W
Pa
Hz
V

Distance/time
Velocity/time
Force*distance
Work/time
Force/area
Frequency
Potential difference
Resistance

ms-1
ms-2
kgms-2 = N
kgm2s-2 = Nm
kgm2s-3 = Js-1
kgm-1s-2 = Nm-1
s-1
kgm2s-3A-1 = Js-1A-1
kgm2s-3A-2 = Js-1A-2

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1.2 VECTORS AND SCALES
Scales measurement of magnitude
Vector measurement of magnitude and direction

Commutative law: a + b =c =b + a

Additive law: ( a + b )+ c =a +( b + c )

ax=|a|cos
ay=|a|sin
2
2
Pithagora's law: |a|= ax + ay

Body resting at a table

Horse pulling cart

Tracking a body

Aeroplane

Golden rule of mechanics: F1l1=F2l2

Clothesline:

Stepladder:

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2. Mechanics
2.1 KINEMATICS study of motion
a) Uniform motion (rest)
Speed (scalar) = distance/time
Velocity (vector) = displacement/time
v=

s
t

best equation for speed

b) Non-uniform motion
Acceleration change in velocity/time
v
vector a= t

ms-2

v
*special case where uniform acceleration exists a= t
uniformly accelerated motion: initial v =
final v =
v =utat

1
s=ut + a t 2
2
-

acceleration due to gravity: a = g = 9.81 m/s2

1
s= g t 2
free fall
2

Uniform/non-uniform motion DIAGRAMS:

a) UNIFORM DIAGRAMS
1. motion at constant velocity
constant velocity
slope is vx
2. motion at constant acceleration
slope ax
parabola

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b) NON-UNIFORM DIAGRAMS
1. Position

2. Velocity
3. Acceleration

Free fall in a vacuum all bodies arrive at the same time, acceleration decreases as an
inclined plane, gravity is independant from velocity at a system
Due to the magnus effect (drag) a projectile launched at 30 will result in the furthest
range:

Without drag maximum range is achieved at 45

Low pressure enviroment blood cooking because air bubbles build up in vessels

* motion graphics: - distance/time = instantaneous displacement

- velocity/time = instantaneous velocity
- acceleration/time = instantaneous acceleration
v =at v=a

2s 2
2s
v2
v 2=a2 a=
a
a
2s

1 2
2s
2 2s
s= a t t = t=
2
a
a

2.2 FORCES AND DYNAMICS

a) Force, weight, mass
Force F pull or push; vector; in Newtons; types (friction, normal, tension, air,
Weight W pull of gravity on a body towards Earth; vector; measured in Newtons
(W = mg)
Mass m amount of matter in a body; scalar; in kilograms
Newtons Laws
1. A body at rest, or is moving will continue to move in a straight line with constant
velocity
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force
3. If a body A exerts a force on a body B, the body B exerts an equal and opposite
force on body

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b) BALANCED FORCES
Translational balance body is in equilibrium
Balloon: fixed at ground/lifting at constant v
up thrust/buoyancy = weight + tension/air resistance
c) NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION (second law)
F = ma
Inertial reference frame Fnet = 0

d) Momentum:
p = mv (in kgms-1)
p = mAv
conservation of momentum
collision/explosion m1v1 + m2v2 = m3v3
e.g. jumping from a boat, billards, rocket

e) Impulse
change in momentum p of a body
p=F t=m v
force = rate of change of momentum

F= p/ t

f) NEWTON'S THIRD LAW

F BA=
F BA
Forces are equal
Static friction keeps an object from slipping
Kinetic friction is opposite the direction of motion
g) Gravitational force
Force exerted from a particle to another
Newton's universal law of gravitation:
m 1m2
F=G
2
G = 6.67 * 10-11 m3kg-1s-2
r

Two compared masses can't have the same mass

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h) Gravitational field
Gravitational field around a single point is a radial field

Kepler's law (based on observation)

Elliptical orbit of a planet about the sun

Kepler's third law

Parameter of circular motion is the period [T]
2 r
v= T

GM
R

v=

4 2 r3
T =
GM
2

Derived from Newton's ideas

v2 4 2 r
2
a=
2 r
Gravity, second law, angular acceleration
r
T
2.3 WORK,ENERGY AND POWER
a) Physical work
Work force times the disturbance moved in the direction of force
W = Fs (in J = Nm) (scalar F in N)
Pulling a body W=Fcos(a) no friction
Force against extension of a stretched spring F = kx
1 2
Elastic potential energy W = 2 k x

Work can also be determined by area under a graph

b) Kinetic work

1
2
Ek = mv
2

When Ek is a function of momentum Ek = p2m-1

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c) Potential energy
Energy that a body has in a force field
In case of vertical height E p =mg h
d) Conservation of energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed from one form to another
1
2
2 m v =mgh
e) Collisions
Elastic momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
Inelastic momentum is conserved, but kinetic is not
f) Power (scalar)
A measure how fast work is done or how quickly energy is converted
Power work per time (rate of work) (in watts) W = Js-1
g) Efficiency
Ratio how much work, energy, power we get out of a system compared to input
2.4 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
a) Motion in a circle
Body is constantly changing directions (even at constant speed, velocity must change)
If direction/velocity is changing then the body must be accelerating
Centripetal acceleration
Moves towards center
v2
a=

v =2 r /T

a=

a 2 r
T2

Centripetal force F = mv2/r

Car driving in a circle (friction)

planets

A particle's position is described by distance [r] and angle []

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A particle moves with angular velocity

b) Definition of angular velocity and angular acceleration

360 = 2
2
Angle s/r
2 r
= =2 f
v=
T
Angular velocitiy
T
v =r

=angle/T

Angular acceleration
Friction force does not work because it is always perpendicular to the car's
displacement
v2 4 2 r
2
a= 2 r
r
T
Uniform Circular Motion
Non-uniform circular motion
Angular acceleration = d/dt
Radial acceleration = v2/r = 2/r
c) Torque and momentum of inertia
Torque (M) force times perpenticular distance from axis to the line od action of the
force (in Nm)
Inertia of a rotating body depends on amount and distribution of mass
Momentum of inertia I = mr2 (in kgm2)
Angular momentum I = mr2 (kgm2rads-1)
Rotational energy I2
TRANSLATION
Displacement: l1x
Velocity: v = s/t
Acceleration: a = v/t
Mass: m
Force: F = ma
Impulse: Ft = mv = mv
Kinetic energy: Ek = mv2

ROTATION
Angular dispacement: s/r
Angular velocoty: = v/r = 2/T
Centripetal acceleration: a = v2/r
Momentum of inertia: I = mr2
Turque: M = Fr = Ia
Angular momentum: I = mr2
Rotational energy: E = I2 = mr22

Small particle reaches the ground first

Because momentum of inertia depends both
mass and mass distribution
Mass concentrated at the center smaller moment of inertia

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Mass concentrated around the - longer moment of inertia (more energy)
Potentional energy for interaction of two atoms

Energy at different satellite positions 2 masses gain kinetic energy as separation

between them decreases

2.4 Fluids
a) Hydrostatics
i.
Density
Water (kg/L); air (g/L); Hg (13.g kg/L) measured by m/v
ii.
Pressure
Pascal, atm, torr
Measurement of the atmosphere via mercury barometer; open-tube . manometer
iii.
Pascal's principle
Explains hydrostatic paradox, communicating tubes, hydraulic press
States that pressure exerted anywhere in a confoched incompressible fluid is
transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid
iv. Archimede's principle
Explains swimming, diving, sinking, cartesian river
Hydrostatic paradox

Hydraulic lift

Pressure in liquid is only determined by height

Buoyant Force
Arieses because fluid pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is larger than at the top
Swimming
If a mass weights more the body of water it is in it will sink

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If a mass weights less than the body of water it displaces it'll float

Neutral buoyancy mass of object = mass of displacement

Pressure measurement important for diagnostics in medicine
Blood pressure during one cycle of a heartbeat
Peak pressure systolic pressure (120)
Base pressure diastolic pressure (80)

b) Hydrodynamics

i. Conditior
Ideal fluid: steady flow
Laminas and turbulent
Incompressible
Non-viscous
ii. The equation of conductivity
Flow through a tube with different cross-section areas
A 1 v 1= A2 v 2

Volume and mass flow rate

1 v 1 A 1=2 v 2 A 2

iii. Bernovlli's equation

1 2
1
P1+ v 1+ gh 1=P2+ v 22+ pg h 2
2
2

3. Thermal physics
3.1 Thermal concepts
a) Particle model of matter
Elements
Compounds/molecule
Mole (Avogadro's number) 6.022 * 1023 atoms/mole
Three states of matter solid (s) [molecules in position], liquid (l) [molecules can
move], gass (g) [low forcess between molecules]
b) Internal energy
Conservation of energy
Friction molecules move faster enhanced internal energy

c) Temperature
Scalar quality
Determines the direction of heat flow
Difference btween
Heat transfer thermal energy flow

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Temperature units
Celsius
Fahrenheit
Kelvin

TF = 9/5 TC + 32
TK = TC + 273 (TK = 0, absolute zero)

3.2 Thermal properties of Matter

a) Thermal capacity [c]
Amount of heat Q needed to raise its temperature
Depends on size and material of body
E.g. calorimeter
b) Specific heat capacity
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of material for 1C
c = Q/mt (in J(kgC)

c) Change of state or phase

Melting
freezing;
vaporization
condenzation
Fix points phase change occurs at constant temperature
Evaporation only occurs at the surface a liquid (fastet moving particles leave the
surface)
Evaporation can be increased by: surface increase, blowing across surface, rasing T
(by increasing steam pressure)
Boiling point steam pressure equals air pressure

d) Specific latent heat of a material

Amount of heat required to change state of 1kg of a material without changing the
temperature
L = Q/M fusion and vaporization and reverse
e) Thermal Quantity Measured by meathod of mixtures
Performed in the lab
3.3 Kinetic model of an Ideal Gas
a) Ideal gas law (mechanical model)
Molecules are: very small, elastic, spherical, identical, moves with constant velocity
Microscopic theory of gases
Kinetic theory of gases

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Bromnian motion
Random motion of particles

Internal energy of a system (total mechanical energy)

U = N ( mv2)
Boyle's law
PV = 2/3 U
Temperature of a gas related to speed kinetic energy
Pressure of a gas
Molecules bouncing off the surrounding walls
Direction/velocity is always changing
More molecules higher force
P = F/A pressure
In pascal (1 Pa = 1N/m2)

b) Property of a gas
Reduction of volume incease of pressure at constant T isotherm
Temperature increases speed of molecules increases increase of pressure
Isochor
Isobar -

Doing work on gas

Push the piston of a pump: - more collisions, higher momentum, higher kinetic energy
- increased temperature
Gas doing work
Flexible wall wall is pushed away
Gas does work energy from kinetic energy
Increased temperature
Boyle's or Mariotte's law other factors that pertain to a mess of gas in a
Ideal gas equation
pV = nRT.... R = 8.314 J/mol*K
c) Absolute zero an the Kelvin scale
Particle model of water particles stop moving, practically no energy
Convinient quantities to know volume of gas at constant pressure
-- pressure of a gas at constant volume - contant
volume gas thermometer
Entropy

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Increasing order
Decreasing entropy
Decreasing probability

increasing randomness
increasing entropy
increasing probability

Order out of chaos (thermodynamics)

Second law predicts that order will evolve towards disorder and randomness which
leads to simplicity states that order turns to disorder, information is lost not gainded,
system runs down
Only applies for isolated systems

Heat transfer mechanisms

Conduction by direct conduct

Convection air current influences an object
Radiation e.g. energy from a lamp
Evaporation fast molecules leaving the surface of a liquid

4. Simple harmonic motion and waves

4.1 Kinematics
a) Oscillations (harmonic)
Cycle
Equillibrium position
Amplitude
Time period T
Frequency f (1/s = 1 Hz)
Angular frequency = 2f (one rev per sec. = 2 /s)
e.g. forces on a mathematical and physical pendulum
forces on a body floating in water and pushed to harmonic motions
Oscillation takes place about an equillibrium point
Simple harmonic motion occurs when a linear resorting force arts to return a system to
an equillibrium position
If there is no friction or dissipation, kinetic and potential energy will transfer to one
another, total mechanical energy, is considered (E = k + U) in a damped syste,
energy decays exponentially

b) Graphical analysis and description of oscillators

Mass on a spring
- displacement time graph
x ( t )=x o cost
- velocity time graph
v ( t )=v o sint

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- acceleration time graph
a ( t )=a0 cost
c) Harmonic circular motion
Ball moving in a circle
- horizontal displacement
x ( t )=x 0 cos
- horizontal velocity
v ( t )=v 0 sin= xo sin
- horizontal acceleration
a ( t )=2 x o cos = 2 x

4.2 Forced oscillations

a) Damping
Displacements in the graphs for different energy charges
Standing waves
Resonance and exaples
Phase and phase difference