Unit 1: NOUNS, ARTICLES

A. COUNT & NON-COUNT NOUNS

1. Count nouns
Most nouns are count nouns. They have both a singular and a plural form.
- To make singular words plural, add s. (e.g. pens)
- If the words end in o, s, ch, sh, x add es. (e.g. tomatos, buses, watches, crashes, faxes)
Note: pianos, stereos, videos
- If the words ends in f, fe , chage the f/fe to ves (e.g. wives)
Note: roofs
- If the words end in y, change y to ies (e.g. babies)
- Some irregular words:
o have the same form in singular and plural deer, sheep, fish, fruit
o change totally: men, women, children, people, teeth, feet
We use PLURAL VERBS with nouns that refer to:
We use PLURAL VERBS with nouns that refers to objects with two parts: glasses, pants, pajamas, gloves, shorts
2.

Non-count nouns
Non-count nouns do not have a plural form.
Gas, liquid, metal, material, ingredient
Air, water, silver, paper, sugar
Activities, sports
Gardening, shopping, football, soccer
Subjects
History, mathematics, economics
Languages
Russian, Greek
Abstract nouns
Intelligence, information, advice, knowledge
Collective noun
Luggage, furniture, equipment, traffic

3. Nouns that are both count and non-count nouns

Certain nouns can be used as either count or non-count nouns, but different in meaning

GLASS
PAPER
IRON
HAIR
ROOM
BUSINESS

Count
I want a glass of milk
Im going to buy a paper.
We have bought a new iron.
There is a hair in my soup.
Can I see your spare room?
My father owns a small business.

Non-count
There is some broken glass on the road.
I need some paper to write on.
The gate is made of iron.
Comb your hair before you go out.
There isnt any room for a piano in my house.
Business has been slowly lately.
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GRAMMAR: ARTICLES
USE
For a new item of information
A / AN +
singular
noun

For large whole numbers, fractions, weights, and

distances
For disease
To talk about something again
When a noun is made definite by details following it
When we definitely know what we talk about

With superlatives and ordinals

THE

The only one

Before some adjectives to say about the group in
general
With some place name:
Oceans and seas
-

River
Mountain ranges
Countries

Things in general

No article

Proper names
Meals
Means of transport

Example
e.g. Suddenly I saw a man appeared outside the
window.
e.g. a hundred / a million, a fifth, a half, a kilo, a
meter
e.g. have a headache / a cold / a flu
e.g. I saw a nice picture on the wall. When I went
back, the picture wasnt there anymore.
e.g. That man outside was the man that we were
looking for.
e.g.
- The cheese is in the fridge.
- We buy most of food from the local supermarket.
e.g.
- She is the tallest girl in our class.
- You are the first person Ive talked to in this class.
e.g. People used to believe the moon is a goddess.
e.g. The British really like to drink tea.

- The Black Sea, The Atlanta, The Pacific, The

Mediterranean
- The Nile, The Amazon, The Danube
- The Alps, The Himalayas
- The Netherlands, the Philippines, the United
Kingdom, the United States of America, the
Peoples Republic of China
e.g. Trees are easily damaged by pollution.
Music helps me concentrate when Im
working.
Kate lives in Manchester.
Ive had dinner.
She goes to school by bus every day.

* Fixed expression:
1. We listen to the radio.
BUT
We watch television
2. We play the guitar. (a musical instrument) BUT
We play tennis. (a sport)
3. We go to the cinema, the concert, the theatre
4. My mother is at work. BUT
My mother is at the office.

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QUANTIFIERS

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Unit 2: TYPES OF VERBS

1. VERB FORMS
a. Auxiliaries (will, would, shall, do, does, did) + (NOT) Bare infinitive
e.g. He does not want to go out alone.

b. BE + V-ing / P.P (V3)

e.g. They are discussing the matter in the conference room.
No one was admitted to the seminar without an invitation.

c. HAVE / HAD / HAS + P.P (V3)

e.g. The conference had started thirty minutes before I reached the hall.

2. INTRANSITIVE or TRANSITIVE VERBS?

ABIDE BY

ACCOUNT FOR

PROCEED WITH

OBJECT TO

AGREE WITH

APOLOGIZE TO

REFER TO

PARTICIPATE IN

BENEFIT FROM

COMPETE WITH

RELY ON

REFRAIN FROM

CONSENT TO

CONTRIBUTE TO

SUBSCRIBE TO

RESPOND TO

DEAL WITH

DEPEND ON

SYMPATHIZE WITH

SUCCEED IN

INSIST ON

GRADUATE FROM

THINK OF

TALK ABOUT

INTERFERE WITH

WAIT FOR

NOTE
WRONG

CORRECT

WRONG

CORRECT

APPROVE FOR

APPROVE

ENTER INTO

ENTER

ACCOMPANY WITH

ACCOMPANY

APPROACH TO

APPROACH

ATTEND AT

ATTEND

EXPLAIN ABOUT

EXPLAIN

ALERT TO

ALERT

INSPECT INTO

INSPECT

CONTACT TO

CONTACT

PROVIDE WITH

PROVIDE

ANSWER TO

ANSWER

LEAVE FROM

LEAVE

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DISCUSS ABOUT

e.g.

DISCUSS

MENTION ABOUT

MENTION

REACH AT

REACH

RESEMBLE WITH

RESEMBLE

VISIT TO

VISIT

We proceed ( proceed with) our work after a two-week break.

Mr. Shell insists ( insists on) the freshest produce for his restaurant.
Mr. Jenson himself answered to ( answered) the phone when I called the police.

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Unit 3: PASSIVE VOICE

1. STRUCTURES
e.g. A car hit the man. The man was hit by a car.

PRESENT SIMPLE
People speak English here.
English is spoken here.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
They are painting the house.
The house is bening painted.
PRESENT PERFECT
I have cleaned the room.
The room has been cleaned.
PAST SIMPLE
They robbed the bank.
The bank was robbed.
PAST CONTINUOUS
We were doing homework at 6pm last night.
Homework was being done at 6pm last night.
PAST PERFECT
I had checked everything before I got home.
Everything had been checked before I got home.

AM / IS / ARE + P.P
AM / IS / ARE + being + P.P

HAS / HAVE + been + P.P

WAS / WERE + P.P

WAS / WERE + being + P.P

HAD + been + P.P

Note: Verbs with 2 objects

give, lend, offer, promise, sell, send, take sth TO sb
buy, keep, make, prepare, save sth FOR sb
In active or passive sentences, we can say in 2 ways
e.g.
Peter gave Karen a present. = Peter gave a present to Karen.
Karen was given a present. = A present was given to Karen.

2. ACTIVE SENTENCES WITH A PASSIVE MEANING

DESERVE / REQUIRE / WANT / NEED + V-ing
e.g.

The old closet needs painting. = The closet needs to be painted.

Ms. Lee deserves promoting. = Ms. Lee deserves to be promoted.

3. PASSIVE VOICE OF CAUSATIVE VERBS

Active
e.g.

have sb do sth

Passive

have sth done

I have them paint my kitchen I have my kitchen painted.

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Unit 4: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

I. SUBJECT are separated

(c) Cross out the (shortened) relative clause

Example:

The girl who stands next to two big plants is my sister.

The girl standing next to two big plants is my sister.

II. VERBs coming BEFORE the SUBJECTs

III. SUBJECTS THAT ALWAYS TAKE SINGULAR VERBS

1. 1. Indefinite Pronouns Subjects

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2. 2. Words for Amounts

3. Plural-looking nouns (subjects, diseases)

IV. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

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V. COMPOUND SUBJECTs

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Unit 5: TENSES CONDITIONAL

I. TENSE
1. PRESENT SIMPLE
Form: S + is / am / are

S + V(s/es)

S + is / am / are NOT

S + do / does NOT + V

Is / Am / Are + S

Do / Does + S + V ?

Uses:
1. Express a habit or often repeated action. Eg. She goes to work from 9 to 5 every day.
2. Express general truth.
Eg. Water boils at 1000C.
3. Talk about future scheduled events.
Eg. The course begins next Monday at 2 p.m.
Common time expressions:
-

Adverbs of frequency: usually, always, never, often, seldom, rarely, sometimes, often
Every (day / week )
Once (a week), twice (a day), three times (a year)

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Form: S + is / am / are + V-ing

S + is / am / are NOT + V-ing

Is / Am / Are + S + V-ing?

Uses:
3. Express an action in progress.
Eg. She is typing the letter for him.
4. Express an action that is occurring at present, but is temporary
Eg. John is living in Paris, but he will move soon.
5. Talk about an action around noun.
Eg. I am dating with a beautiful girl these days.
6. Talk about the near future
Eg. I am leaving for Hanoi tomorrow.
Common time expressions:
-

At the moment = at present

Currently, now, right now
Look!
Watch out! = Look out!

Eg. Look! A hot girl is crossing the road.

Eg. Look out! A car is coming behind you.

3. PRESENT PERFECT
Form: S + has / have + V3

S + has / have not + V3

Has / Have S + V3

Uses:

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1.

Talk about an event that began in the past and continues up to now.
Eg. He has lived here for 3 years.
2. Talk about an event that was completed in the past, but the specific time of the event is not known.
Eg. I have seen that movie before.
3. Talk about an event that was completed in the past just a short time ago.
Eg. I have just had dinner.
Common time expressions:
-

for (with a period of time)

- already
since (with an exact point of time)
- so far = up to now
ever
- over / for / in the last / past few years
never
- recently / lately
yet
- just
It is the first / second time
Superlatives
e.g. You are the most beautiful girl I have seen.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Form: S + has / have + been + V-ing

S + has / have + been NOT + V-ing

Has / Have S been V-ing?

Uses: The same as Present Perfect

Present Perfect: emphasizes the result answer the question How many (times)
Present Perfect Continuous: emphasizes the activity, duration -> answer the question How long
E.g. I have seen it twice.
I have been reading it all day.

I have read 20 pages of the book.

I have been working here for 5 years.

5. PAST SIMPLE
Form: S + was / were

S + V(-ed / V2)

S + was / were NOT

S + did NOT + V

Was / Were + S

Did + S + V ?

Uses: Talk about a complete past action

Eg I visited my aunt yesterday.

Common time expressions:

-

last (week, year, night)

yesterday
ago
the other day
those days
at / in / on + past time

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6. PAST CONTINUOUS
Form: S + was / were + V-ing

S + was / were not + V-ing

Was / Were + S + V-ing?

Uses:
1.

Talk about an activity that was in progress at a specific point of time in the past.
Eg. I was studying while my mother was cooking dinner.
2. Talk about a past action which was in progress when another past action happened.
Eg. I was taking a bath when the door bell rang.

7. PAST PERFECT
Form: S + had + V3

S + had + V3

Had + S + V3?

Uses: Talk about a past action which happened before another past action or before a point of time in
the past.
e.g. The Titanic had received many warnings before it hit the iceberg.
She had been driving around the city before 5 p.m last night.

8. FUTURE FORM

9. FUTURE CONTINUOUS
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Form: S + will + be + V-ing

S + will be not + V-ing
Will + S + be + V-ing?
Uses: Talk about an event or action that will occur over a period of time at a specific point in the future.
Eg. I will be teaching English 4 at 10 a.m. tomorrow.

10.

FUTURE PERFECT

Form: S + will + have + V3

S + will have not + V3
Will + S + have+ V3?
Uses: Talk about an event or action that will be completed before another event or time in the future.
Eg. We will have finished the exam by the time class ends tomorrow

11.

FUTURE TIME in Present tenses

II. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

First conditional

A possible thing in future

IF + S + (should) + V, S + will + V
e.g. If I have free time, I will drop by your house tomorrow.

Second conditional

Third conditional

An unlikely thing at
present

IF + S + simple past, S + would / could/ should/might + V

An unlikely thing in the

past

IF + S + past perfect, S + would/could/ should/might + have

+ V3

e.g. If I were you, I would accept her offer.

e.g. If I had met you last night, I would have given you his
phone number.

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Mixed conditional

An imagined event in the

past with the present
result

e.g. If it had not snowed last night, the road would not be
slippery now.
If John had followed my advice, he wouldnt be in such a
difficult situation now.

Omission of IF

III. SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS

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Unit 6: TENSES CONDITIONAL

A. GERUND is used:
1. As the subject or the object of a sentence
Ex: - Skiing can be dangerous.
- I enjoy cooking.
2. After prepositions
Ex: - Hes bad at talking to girls.
4. After certain verbs or phrases:
ADMIT
DELAY

3. After the verbs GO when talking about activities

Ex: - I often go swimming every day.
- She often goes fishing on Sundays.

IMAGINE

MENTION

AVOID

DENY

IMAGINE

MISS

BE USED TO

ENJOY

ITS NO GOOD

POSTPONE

CANT HELP

FEEL LIKE

ITS NO USE

PRACTICE

CANT STAND

FINISH

ITS WORTH

SUGGEST

CONSIDER

HAVE DIFFICULTY

KEEP

SPEND TIME

5. After some special expressions

a. SPEND / WASTE time/money + V-ing John spends most of his time studying TOEIC.
I wasted a lot of time watching TV.
b. SIT / STAND / LIE + place + V-ing John sat at his desk writing a letter.
I stood there wondering what to do next.
She is lying in bed reading a novel.
c. FIND / CATCH + sb + V-ing When I walked into my office, I found Peter using my telephone.
Getting home, I caught a thief looking through my desk drawers.

B. BARE INFINITIVE is used:

1. After modal verbs
Ex: - He should get married to her immediately.
2. After the verbs LET MAKE WOULD RATHER
Ex: - I let my son go out for 2 hours only.
- Her teacher makes her a lot of homework.
- Hed rather not shop for computers until they are on sale.
C. GERUNDS or INFINITIVES: Some verbs can be followed by Gerunds or Infinitives with no change in
meaning
BEGIN
BOTHER
CONTINUE
HATE
LIKE
LOVE
START
Ex: - He begins playing/to play the piano.
- It started raining/to rain as soon as we left the house.

* Some verbs can be followed by Gerunds or Infinitives with some changes in meaning
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1. FORGET
2. REMEMBER
Ex: - Hes forgotten meeting you before.
Ex: - She remembers leaving water for the dog.
- I forgot to say where I was going.
- I hope she remembers to leave water for the dog.
FOR GET + gerund = not remember a past action
REMEMBER + gerund = recall doing sth in the past
FORGET + to inf = forget, then fail to act
REMEMBER + to inf = recall, then act
3. GO ON
4. STOP
Ex: - They went on watching TV.
Ex: - The lesson was boring; so they stopped listening.
- They went on to watch TV.
- Talking quietly, they stopped to listen her words.
GO ON + gerund = continue doing sth
STOP + gerund = finish, quit doing sth
GO ON + to inf = finish one thing and start
STOP + to inf = finish one action in order to do
another
another
5. REGRET
Ex: - I regret telling him about my problem.
- I regret to say that youve failed your test.
REGRET + gerund = have second thoughts about a past
action
REGRET + to inf = feel bad about what you are going to
say or do
6. TRY
Ex: - Try studying without TV on.
- Try not to worry.
TRY + gerund = experiment
TRY + to inf = make an attempt to do
sth

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Unit 7: PARTICIPLES
I. PARTICIPLES that MODIFY NOUNS

II. PARTICIPLES to EXPRESS OPINIONS and FEELINGS

III. PARTICIPLES in REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES

- If it has the active meaning, use PRESENT participles.
e.g. Employees (who are) requesting vacation time should turn in their forms.
- If it has the passive meaning, use PAST participles.
e.g The invitations (which were) sent last Monday will arrive soon.
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Unit 8: PRONOUNS

Reflexive pronouns
We use a reflexive pronoun:

To emphasize the person or thing we are referring to:

e.g. Kendal itself is quite a small town.

I baked the bread myself.

She mended the car herself

As a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the verb.
e.g. I am teaching myself to play the piano.
Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.

Warning
But we use personal pronouns, not reflexives, after prepositions of place...
He had a suitcase beside him.
and after with when it means "accompanied by":
She had a few friends with her.

BY + Reflexive pronoun when we want to show that someone did something alone and/or without any
help
e.g. She walked home by herself.

I prepared the whole meal by myself.

Indefinite pronouns
To say about something unspecific: use another / other(s)

ANOTHER + Singular Noun

Eg: I was fired. I would find another job soon.
OTHER + Plural Noun = OTHERS Eg: These books are boring. Give me other books (others).

To say about something specific: use the other(s)

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THE OTHER + Singular Noun

Eg: I have two brothers. One is a doctor; the other is a teacher.
THE OTHER + Plural Noun = THE OTHERS
Eg: There are five books on the table. I dont like this book. I like the other books (the others).

Notes:
-

EACH OTHER or ONE ANOTHER? when two or more people do the same thing.

Eg. Peter and Mary helped each other. (Peter helped Mary. Mary helped Peter)

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Unit 9: ADJECTIVE, ADVERBS,

COMPARISON
1. ADJECTIVES

A. Forms
-ic
-ible
-ed
-less
-ial
-ous

energetic
possible
bored
hopeless
industrial
generous

-ate
-ical
-y
-ory
-ish
-able

moderate
logical
cloudy
compulsory
sluggish
comfortable

-ing
-ile
-al
-ly
-ive
-ful

Interesting
hostile
mechanical
costly
attractive
colorful

B. Uses

2. ADVERBS

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3. CONFUSABLE ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

B. Changes in meaning when adding ly to an adjective to form an adverb

close
free
high
near
wide
e.g.
1.
2.

closely
freely
highly
nearly
widely

deep
hard
late
short
most

deeply
hardly
lately
shortly
mostly

They sat close together. (=near)

I sat and watched everyone closely. (=carefully)

Children under five travel free. (=without payment)

EU citizens can now travel freely between

member states.

3.

I am not very good at jumping high.

This is a highly paid job. (very, at a high level)

4.

A bomb exploded somewhere near.

The bottles nearly empty. (=almost)

5.

Open your mouth wide.

The idea is now widely accepted. (=by many

people)

6.

He stood with his hands deep in his pockets.

He tried to breathe deeply to keep calm.

7.

He always studies hard.

Theres hardly any tea left. (=almost no)

8.

The products were delivered late.

Lately, Ive been redecorating the house.

9.

Id never let you go short of anything. (lack)

She arrived shortly after that. (=not long)

10.

You are the most interesting person in this class.

The sauce is mostly cream. (=mainly)

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4. COMPARATIVE & SUPERLATIVE

1. Comparison of Adjectives
ADJECTIVE FORM
Only one syllable.
e.g: light, neat, fast
Two syllables, ending
in -y, - er, -ow, -le
e.g.: happy, narrow,
gentle, clever
Other two syllables or
more
e.g.: modern,
interesting, beautiful

COMPARATIVE
Add -er: lighter, neater, faster

SUPERLATIVE
Add -est: lightest, neatest, fastest

Change y to i, then add -er: happier,

narrower, cleverer

Change y to i, then add -est: happiest,

narrowest, gentlest, cleverest

Use more before the adjective: more

modern, more interesting, more beautiful

Use most before the adjective: most

modern, most interesting, most beautiful

2. Comparison of Adverbs
- When an adjective has the same form as the adjective, it also has the same comparative and superlative forms.
e.g. early, fast, hard, high, late ( earlier, faster, harder, higher, later _ the earliest, the fastest, the hardest, the
highest, the latest)
-

When an adverb ends in ly, use more and most

e.g. beautifully more beautifully, the most beautifully

Irregular adjectives / adverbs
Irregular Adjective

Irregular Adverb

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

good

well

better

the best

bad

badly

worse

the worst

far

far

farther

the farthest

little

little

less

the least

many / much

much

more

the most

3. Other comparison

AS + adj/adv + AS: when two people/things are similar in some way

e.g. She is as tall as her brother. He doesnt run as fast as his cousin.

LESS/THE LEAST + adj/adv:

e.g. This book is less interesting than the one I read last week.

(? Times) + AS adj/adv + AS

e.g. This book is twice as expensive as mine.

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Unit 10: PREPOSITIONS

A. IN:
1. Time

2. Place

in + year, century, era (in 2006, in the 19th

century, in the 1970s)
in + month, season (in January, in the summer)
in + part of the day (in the morning)
Note: at dawn, at noon, at night

3. Other uses

in + place (in the world, in Korea)

in + oceans, continents (in the Pacific, in Asia)
in + neighborhood/suburb

4. Idiomatic expressions

in + language (in English)

in + newspaper, magazine (in the newspaper)
Note: on TV, on the radio

in my opinion
in the future / past
in the end

in front of
in the middle of
in general

in + means of transport (in the car, taxi)

Note: on the bus/plane/train, by taxi

in detail

in particular

in person
in stock
in print

B. ON:
1. Time

2. Place

on + date (on October 8, on the morning of

October 8, on that day)
on + day (on Friday)
3. Idiomatic expression

on foot
on vacation

on a business trip
on duty

on the other hand

on purpose

C. AT:
1. Time

in time
>< out of stock
>< out of print

on + street (on Wall Street)

on + space, surface (on the floor, on the wall)

on sale
on a diet
on air

on leave
on time
on strike

2. Place

at + an exact time (at 7:30, at the beginning of

this month)

at + address (at 123 Wall Street)

at + an exact position (at the station, at work, at
the airport)

at most / least
at random
at present / the moment

3. Idiomatic expression

at best
at risk
at times

at first / last
at table
at the same time

at rest
at a low price
at work

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D. BY:
1. By + means of transportation, payment

by taxi

by credit card

2. By chance

I met him by chance while walking on the street

3. By = no later than

The work must be done by the end of this week.

E. FOR: for + Noun -> a purpose
for free
for good
for rent / sale
for the sake of

F. OTHERS:
1. DESPITE / IN SPITE OF + Noun

Despite campaigns about the dangers of

excessive drinking, most countries still see a
steady increase in the number of alcoholics.

2. BECAUSE OF / DUE TO / OWING TO + Noun

THANKS TO

3. EXCEPT (FOR) + Noun

EXCEPT THAT + Clause
ASIDE FROM / BARRING + Noun

+ Noun

Due to the heavy traffic along the main road, the

workshop administrator was more than 30
minutes late.
Thanks to a strong economic recovery this year,
a lot of companies were able to avoid filing for
bankruptcy.

4. WITHOUT / BUT FOR + Noun

Without the sunlight, plans may wither or die

But for the rain, we would have had a nice
holiday.

Delivery is free for all dishes on the menu, except

for the items noted below.

5. BETWEEN + 2 plural nouns

AMONG

+ plural nouns

There is a close correlation between the wealth of a country and the health status of its people.
The teacher is popular among students because he has a sense of humour.

6. CONCERNING / REGARDING + Noun

WITH REGARD TO / WITH RESPECT TO / WITH REFERENCE TO

+ Noun

Eric has written an insightful memo concerning the third quarter report.
With respect to your enquiry, I enclose an explanatory leaflet.

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Unit 11: CONJUNCTIONS

COORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS
AND

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

Joins 2 similar ideas

BUT / YET

Joins 2 contrasting ideas

OR

Johns 2 alternative ideas

SO

Shows that the second idea is the

result of the first one

FOR

Shows the reason

NOR

Joins 2 negative ideas

They moved to Ho Chi Minh city in 2001, and they have

been living in District 8 since then.
John is outgoing, but his twin brother is rather quiet.
He is talented, yet he is not very popular.
We can increase overtime working, or we can take on new
staff.
We can increase the tying error just in time, so we did not
offend our customer.
She goes cycling every morning, for it helps her stay
healthy.
Rocky does not like fast food, nor does he enjoy
vegetables.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
BOTH AND + plural verb

EXAMPLE
Both my mother and my sister are here.

NOT ONLY BUT ALSO + V

NOT ONLY BUT AS WELL + V
(the subject that is closer to the verb will determine
whether the verb is singular or plural)

Not only you but also I am interested in this matter.

She not only sings well but also dances beautifully.

NEITHER NOR
EITHER OR
(the subject that is closer to the verb will determine
whether the verb is singular or plural)

Neither John nor his colleagues want to do the task.

Either you or your teacher is correct.

TYPE OF
ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE

SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTION

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

Adverbial clause of
concession

ALTHOUGH, (EVEN)
THOUGH, WHEREAS,
WHILE

show opposition

Although shes small, shes very strong.

John is short, whereas Mary is tall.

Adverbial clause of
reason

BECAUSE, AS, SINCE,

NOW THAT

show a
cause/effect
relationship
between ideas

I lost my job because I was often late.

Since I have no money, I cant go to the
movie.

Adverbial clause of
result

SOTHAT,
SUCHTHAT

The coffee is so hot that I cannot drink it.

It was such a good book that I couldnt
put it down.

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Adverbial clause of
purpose

Adverbial clause of
condition

Adverbial clause of
time

SO THAT, IN ORDER
THAT, FOR FEAR THAT,
LEST
IF, UNLESS, WHETHER
(OR NOT), PROVIDING,
IN CASE, IN THE EVENT
THAT
AFTER, BEFORE,
WHEN, WHILE, SINCE,
UNTIL, AS, AS SOON
AS, ONCE, WHENEVER,
EVERY TIME (THAT), BY
THE TIME (THAT)

Adverbial clause of
place

WHERE, WHEREVER

Adverbial clause of
manner

AS, AS IF, AS THOUGH

express a
purpose

I am going to cash a check so that I can

buy my textbooks.
I am telling you this lest you should make
a mistake.

present possible
conditions

If it rains, I will stay at home.

show time
relationships

After she graduates, she will get a job.

show place
relationships
show the
manner in which
sth happens

I will go whenever you tell me.

Everything went on as we had planned.
He spoke as if he were a learned man.

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Unit 12: RELATIVE CLAUSES

1. CASES OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Pay attention to the noun it replaces to decide whether to use it as the subject, object, or in
the possessive case.
Noun
Subjective case
Possessive case
Objective case
People
WHO
WHOSE
WHOM
Things, animals
WHICH
WHOSE / OF WHICH
WHICH
People, things, animals
THAT
_
THAT
Noun + that / which
WHAT
_
WHAT
+ Verb
+ Noun
+ Subject + Verb
a. WHO / WHICH
e.g. The man who lives across the street is a good neighbor.
San Francisco is a city which attracts a lot of tourists.

b. THAT
e.g. Our sales department will be unable to process

c. Relative pronouns in non-defining relative clauses Dont use THAT

e.g. My best friend, who works for a florist, always sends me flowers on my
birthday.

2. USE of WHAT
WHAT is used to begin a noun clause and functions as the subject, object, or complement.
e.g.
What he said was unbelievable.
I dont understand what John is talking about.
This is just what she wants.

3. RELATIVE ADVERBS
A Relative adverb replaces the more formal structure of preposition + which in a relative clause.

Antecedent Noun / Pronoun

Time + date
Place
Reason
Method

Subjective case
WHEN
WHERE
WHY
HOW

Preposition + which
AT / IN / ON + WHICH
AT / IN / ON + WHICH
FOR WHICH
THE WAY IN WHICH

a. WHEN
e.g. Ill never forget the day when I met you.
= Ill never forget the day on which I met you.

b. WHERE
e.g. The building where he lives is very old.
= The building in which he lives is very old.
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c. WHY
e.g. Please tell me the reason why she was disappointed.
= Please tell me the reason for which she was disappointed.

d. HOW
e.g. He told us how he met his girlfriend.
= He told us the way in which he met his girlfriend.

4. WH-QUESTION WORD
This is used to emphasize the idea.

a. WHOEVER
e.g. Whoever wants to come is welcome.
= Anyone who wants to come is welcome.

b. WHICHEVER
e.g. There are ten flights to San Francisco every day. We can take whichever fits in best with our
schedule.
= There are ten flights to San Francisco every day. We can take anything that fits in best with
our schedule.

c. WHATEVER
e.g. He always says whatever comes to his mind.
= He always says anythings that comes to his mind.

d. WHENEVER
e.g. You may leave whenever you want.
= You may leave at any time that you want.

e. WHEREVER
e.g. You can go wherever you want to go.
= You can go any place that you want to go.

f. HOWEVER
e.g. The students may dress however they please.
= The students may dress in any way that they please.

5. REDUCTION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS

ANTECEDENT NOUN + (RELATIVE PRONOUN + BE) + PRESENT / PAST PARTICIPLE

e.g.

Employees (who are) requesting vacation time should turn in their forms.
The invitations (which were) sent last Monday will arrive soon.

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Unit 13:
1. Negative expressions:

NEVER

RARELY

INVERSION
SELDOM

BARELY

Eg. Never have we read such a good book.

Seldom have I seen such a beautiful view.
Rarely did he pay anyone a compliment.
Barely did we have time to get the train.

HARDLY

NO SOONER

SCARCELY

Eg. Hardly / Scarcely had we sat down at the table, when the phone rang.
No sooner had we sat down at the table than the phone rang.

2. After phrases ONLY:

ONLY AFTER / WHEN / THEN / IF + S + V

ONLY BY + Noun / V-ing + Auxiliary V + S + V

E.g. Only then did I understand the problem.

Only by hard work can you pass the exam.
Only after the film started did I realize that Id seen it before.

3. Conditional sentences:
E.g SHOULD you have any questions, please feel free to contact me. (Type 1)
WERE I in your shoes, I would make a formal complaint. (Type 2)
WERE she to find out the truth, she would kill you.
HAD I known it was her birthday, I would have bought her a gift. (Type 3)

4. Prepositional phrases of place:

E.g. On the table LIES my textbook.
On the doorstep WAS a bunch of flowers.

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5. Special phrases:
a. After exclamations with HERE and THERE
E.g. Here comes the winner!
There goes all our money!
b. NOT ONLY + Auxiliary V + S + V + BUT ALSO + S + V
E.g. Not only did he write the text but he also selected the illustrations.
c. UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES + Auxiliary V + S + V
E.g. Under no circumstances should you lend Paul any money.
d. ... (Negative form), NOR + Auxiliary V + S + V
E.g. She doesnt like them and nor does Jeff.
e. SO / NEITHER + Auxiliary V + S
E.g. I am so hungry. So am I.
I like apples. So does he.
I dont like bananas. Neither does he.

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Unit 14:CAUSATIVE
1. HAVE , GET :

VERBS

Active form: HAVE / GET sb + BARE INF

Passive form: HAVE / GET sth + Past Participle

E.g. Mary has John wash the car. Mary has the car washed (by John).

2. MAKE, FORCE, LET: MAKE sb + BARE Inf =

LET sb + BARE Inf =
E.g. The teacher makes us do exercise.
She doesnt want to let them go.

FORCE sb + To-inf
ALLOW sb + To-inf

3. NEED, PREFER, WANT, WOULD LIKE, ORDER + sb/sth + Past Participle = Need, prefer sth to be done
E.g. Be careful! I dont want them (to be) broken.
I would like my car (to be) serviced.
*Note:
We need the house redecorated.
The house needs redecorating.

4. FEEL, HEAR, SEE, WATCH + sb/th + Past Participle

E.g. - I havent heard the piece played before.
- I heard her called Toni. (passive meaning; = she was called Toni) and
- I heard Sue call Toni. (active meaning; = Sue called Toni)

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