Transportation in Humans

Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.

Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.

Fig: Human Heart

Arteries: These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the
heart to different organs. Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because they carry
deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs; where oxygenation of blood takes place.
Veins: These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from
different organs to the heart. Pulmonary veins are exceptions because they carry
oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart. Valves are present in veins to prevent
backflow of blood.
Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.

Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for various
substances in the body. Blood is composed of plasma, blood cells and platelets.
Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is mostly composed of
water. Blood plasma forms the matrix of blood.
Blood Cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and White
Blood Cells (WBCs).
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the presence of
haemoglobin which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and
carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen happens through haemoglobin. Some part of
carbon dioxide is also transported through haemoglobin.
White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play important
role in the immunity.
Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a
defense mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood; in case of an injury.
Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph. Lymph is formed from
the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular spaces in the
tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph vessels and finally returns to the blood
capillaries. Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system.
Double Circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one
cardiac cycle. This type of circulation is called double circulation. One complete heart
beat in which all the chambers of the heart contract and relax once is called cardiac
cycle. The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a normal adult. In one cardiac
cycle, the heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus about 4900 mL blood in a minute.
Double circulation ensures complete segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in warm-blooded animals.

Circulation of Blood through the heart:

Systemic Vein Sinus Venosus Right Auricle Right Ventricle Pulmonary Artery
Lungs Pulmonary Vein Left Auricle Left Ventricle Trunchus Arteriosus
Systemic Circulation

The Human Circulatory System

The circulatory system is the system that transports materials around the body to and
from the cells.
Question? Why do humans need a circulatory system whereas bacteria and simple
organisms do not?
Answer: Because the cells of a complex organism such as a human have many
cells that are far from the outside environment where nutrients would
come from. The system brings the materials to the cells that would not
normally receive them.
Humans have a closed circulatory system: This means that the blood is always
contained in tubes and vessels.
The human circulatory system is composed of the following:
1. Blood Vessels
2. Heart
3. Blood

BLOOD VESSELS
Humans have three types of blood vessels. They are:
a. Arteries
Structure:
o Thick, elastic
o Contain layers of connective, and smooth muscle tissues

o DO NOT CONTAIN VALVES

Function: Carry Blood AWAY from the heart.
Arteries divide to form very small arteries called arterioles.
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b. Veins
Structure:
o Thin and slightly elastic.
o Contain VALVES for one way flow of blood.
Function: return blood TO the heart
Veins divide to become venules.
Medical Alert: Varicose Veins
This is a condition where the valves in the veins of a person
are not working properly and blood seeps back into the vein
causing the vein to become stretched and lose their elasticity.
Result: Sagging veins and lack of blood flow to the heart.
c. Capillaries
Structure:
o Microscopic blood vessels that connect arterioles and
venules.
o Thin walled and narrow
o Blood cells pass through them in single file
Function: Allows material and gas exchange between the body cells and the
blood.

THE HEART
Structure:
o A four chambered muscular organ located in the chest cavity of a
human.
o Made of Cardiac muscle.
o It is Covered by a Pericardium that protects it.
o Pericardium: A tough membrane that surrounds the heart.
Function: Pump blood around the body supplying the cells with nutrients and
removing wastes (CO2) from the cells.
Semilunar Valve
Superior Vena Cava
Aorta
Right Atrium
Left Ventricle
Septum
Inferior Vena Cava
Right Ventricle
Bicuspid Valve
Left Atrium
Pulmonary Artery
Pulmonary Vein

Tricuspid Valve
Chordae Tendonae

Functions of Heart Structures

1. Inferior/Superior Vena Cava: Returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium
from the body.
2. Right Atrium: Thin walled chamber of the heart that receives
deoxygenated blood from the body.
3. Tricuspid valve: Controls the flow of blood entering the right ventricle from
the right atrium.
4. Right Ventricle: Muscular chamber that pumps blood TO the lungs.
5. Semilunar Valves: Valves that control the flow of blood out of the heart.
6. Pulmonary Arteries: Arteries that carry blood TO the lungs.
7. Pulmonary Veins: Veins that bring blood to the heart from the lungs.
8. Left Atrium: Thin walled chamber that receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs.
9. Left Ventricle: Thick walled chamber that pumps blood out of the heart and
to the body.
10. Aorta: Large artery that carries blood away from the heart and to all
parts of the body.
11. Septum: A wall of muscle that separates the left side of the heart from
the right side. This prevents the mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
12. Chordae Tendonae: Control the opening and closing of the Tricuspid and
Bicuspid (Mitral) valves.
13. Bicuspid Valve: A valve that controls the flow of blood from the left atrium to
the left ventricle.

Blood Flow through the Heart

Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right Atrium via the Inferior and
Superior Vena Cava (e). Here the blood is passed through the tricuspid valve to the
right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts and forces blood up through the
Semilunar
valves and out through the left and right pulmonary arteries. This brings blood to the
lungs to be oxygenated.
Oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the heart via the left and right pulmonary
veins to the left atrium. The blood is passed to the left ventricle through the bicuspid
valve. The left ventricle contracts and pushes blood through the Semilunar valves and
out through the aorta to the body.

THE HEARTBEAT CYCLE

The human heartbeat occurs in two main stages.
These two stages are: a. Diastole
b. Systole
Diastole The stage where the heart is Relaxing
During this stage the A-V valves (bicuspid, tricuspid) are open and the semilunar
valves close. The ventricles fill with blood.

Systole The stage where the heart is Contracting

During this stage the ventricles contract. This causes the A-V valves to close and the
semilunar valves to open. Blood is forced out through the semilunar valves to the lungs
and body.

The LubDub sound of the Heartbeat

The LubDub sound of the heartbeat is caused by the closing of the hearts valves.
Lub Sound -- caused by the closing of the A-V valves (tricuspid, bicuspid).
Dub Sound -- caused by the closing of the semilunar valves.
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CONTROL OF THE HEARTBEAT

The heart is caused to beat regularly by a structure called the Sinoatrial Node (S - A
node) or the PACEMAKER.
How it happens
An electrical impulse from the brain is received by the S-A node(pacemaker) in the right
atrium. The SA node sends a signal to the A-V node (atrioventricular node) in the
right ventricle. This electrical impulse causes the heart (ventricles) to contract.
The pacemaker controls the heartbeat for a human from the time they are born until
they die or the pacemaker gives out.
Q. What happens if the pacemaker gives out?
A. The persons heart will stop beating because the ventricles are not receiving
electrical impulses causing them to contract.
A person whose pacemaker gives out can get an artificial one inserted into their chest.

CONTROL OF THE HEART RATE

The heart rate (speed) at which the heart beats is controlled by two nerves.
Medulla Oblongata (Sometimes called the Cardioaccelerator nerve):
Nerve in the brain that causes the heart to speed up when needed.
Vagus nerve: Nerve in the brain that causes the heart to slow down when
needed.
The medulla sends a message to the SA node to cause an impulse to be sent to the AV
node causing the heart to contract more or less in an attempt to set the heart rate.

BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood Pressure: A measure of the pressure blood exerts on the walls of blood
vessels.
Q. How is blood pressure measured?
A. Blood pressure is measured using a blood pressure cuff or
Sphygmomanometer.
It measures the pressure in an artery while the heart is contracting (systolic
pressure) and the pressure while the heart is resting (diastolic pressure). A
simple fraction is calculated using the following formula:
Blood Pressure = Systolic Pressure

Diastolic Pressure
For example: A person with a pressure 120/80 means that the person has a
pressure of 120 while the heart is contracting and 80 when the heart is relaxing.
P.S. Normal blood pressure is different for each person but is usually around 120/80.
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DIVISIONS OF CIRCULATION

There are two types of circulation that happen in the human organism.
1. Pulmonary Circulation
2. Systemic circulation
1. PULMONARY CIRCULATION
This is circulation of blood from the heart and to the lungs and vice versa.
This type of circulation adds oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the
blood.
2. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
This is circulation of blood between the heart and the body.
This type of circulation brings blood to the cells and from the cells.
Systemic circulation has three subdivisions. They are:
A. Coronary Circulation
B. Hepatic-portal circulation
C. Renal circulation
A. Coronary circulation is circulation that supplies blood and nutrients directly
to the heart muscle.
B. Hepatic - portal circulation is circulation that carries nutrients and blood
from the digestive system to the liver to maintain glucose levels in the
body.
C. Renal Circulation is circulation that carries blood to and from the kidneys

so that nitrogenous wastes may be removed from the blood and

excreted by the kidneys.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This is the part of the circulatory system that returns excess fluids to the blood from the
body.
Parts of the Lymphatic System
1. Lymph
2. Lymph Nodes
3. Intercellular Fluid
4. Spleen
1. Lymph
This is the fluid that is found within the lymphatic system. It contains water,
proteins and intercellular fluid.
2. Lymph Nodes
These are small glands at various locations in the body that filter foreign matter
from the lymph. Foreign matter usually means bacteria, cancer cells and other
disease causing organisms.
The Lymph nodes also contain White Blood Cells that fight off infection.
_ If you have swollen lymph nodes then this is an indication that you may
have an infection.
3. Intercellular Fluid
This is the fluid that is usually squeezed out of a capillary during normal cell
activities. It helps move materials between the cells and the capillaries.
It usually contains salt, water, proteins and nutrients.
4. Spleen
An organ near the stomach that contains lymph tissue.
Function: Filter out bacteria and worn out RBCs from the blood.

BLOOD
BLOOD: Fluid found in the circulatory system of humans that carries nutrients and
Oxygen to the cells and carries wastes ( carbon dioxide) away from the
cells.
Helps to control and regulate body temperature as well.
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
There are three components to blood:
A. Plasma
B. Blood Cells
C. Platelets

A. Plasma
The liquid part of blood.
Makes up 55% of the volume of blood.
92% water and 7% proteins, 1 % dissolved solutes.
Plasma has three proteins in it.
i) Albumins Keeps water from leaving the blood.

ii) Fibrinogen Used for blood clotting.

iii) Globulins Transport proteins around the body. Some are antibodies.
Antibody: Proteins that binds to and helps destroy a foreign substance
in the body.

B. Blood Cells
Two types:
o Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
o White Blood Cells (WBCs)
i) Red Blood Cells --- called Erythrocytes
Human blood contains about 30 trillion RBCs.
DO NOT contain Nuclei (NONNUCLEATED)
Created by the bone marrow - stem cells.
live about 120 days
double concave shaped
Contain a protein called hemoglobin.
Worn out RBCs are removed by the liver and spleen.
Hemoglobin:
A protein found in the blood that is made up of IRON. It carries oxygen to the cells and
removes CO2
Composed of an Alpha and Beta Chain with 2 Heme (Iron) groups on each chain. The
Heme groups bind to and attach Oxygen and CO2
Function of RBCs: Transport oxygen to cells from the lungs.
Transport carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
ii) White Blood Cells called Leukocytes
Larger than RBCs
have a nucleus
less numerous than RBCs
Can move on their own
FUNCTION OF WBCS: Fight foreign invaders and Infections.
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Types of White Blood Cells
a) Macrophages
Phagocytic cells that protect the body by engulfing and
digesting foreign invaders (pathogens).
b) Lymphocytes
Non phagocytic blood cells that produce antibodies.
Two types: T Cells and B Cells

C. Platelets
Small pieces of cells found in the blood.
NO Nuclei
Live about 7 days.
FUNCTION OF PLATELETS: Blood Clotting Process.

THE BLOOD CLOTTING PROCESS

Blood Clotting is actually a complicated chemical process. This is how it works.
When a blood vessel is ruptured the following happens:
Step 1:
Platelets rush to the area. They release an enzyme called Thromboplastin.
Step 2:
Thromboplastin causes prothrombin (a protein) to be converted in thrombin
(enzyme).
Thromboplastin
Prothrombin ---------------------------------------------> Thrombin
Step 3:
Thrombin causes fibrinogen (found in blood plasma) to be changed into fibrin.
Thrombin
Fibrinogen ---------------------------------------------------> Fibrin
Step 4:
Fibrin forms a net of fibres over the cut and traps red blood cells and platelets
and forms a blood clot.

Circulatory System Disorders

1. Hypertension High Blood Pressure
Causes: diet, stress, inactivity
Effects on body: Leads to heart disease and possible failure
2. Arteriosclerosis Hardening of the Arteries
Causes: Diet High in Cholesterol (LDL) and Fats.
Effect on body: Causes arteries to become inelastic which can reduce the
amount of blood flow in them. This can lead to a heart attack
and/or stroke.
3. Atherosclerosis Narrowing of Arteries
Causes: Fatty deposits within the artery walls from poor diet/fat intake
etc.
Effect on body: Narrowing of arteries reduces blood flow to heart and brain
which may lead to heart attack and/or stroke.
4. Stroke: Loss of blood flow to brain tissue causing cell death.
Causes: Any one of the above and others
Effect on Body: loss of brain function and/or motor control (paralysis), death.
5. Coronary Blockage A blockage in the coronary arteries of the heart.
Causes: Diet, lack of exercise
Effect on Body: Heart attack, death.
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Treatments for Circulatory System Disorders

1. Thrombolytics
Thrombolytics are a class of drugs known as Clot busting drugs.
These drugs help to bust up blood clots that have formed. They help to clear
blocked passageways etc.
Ex: Streptokinase or t - PA: A Clot busting drug that converts plasminogen to
plasmin. Plasmin dissolves the clot.
2. Angioplasty
Procedure in which a small catheter (tube) with a balloon attached is inserted into
an artery and then inflated. The inflation helps to stretch the artery in an attempt
to increase blood flow to the heart.
Sometimes a Stent (small mesh netting) is put in place to keep the artery open
after the balloon is removed
3. Coronary Bypass Surgery
Surgery in which a healthy blood vessel from another area in the body is used to
create a new pathway around a blockage in a blood vessel near the heart,
usually a coronary artery.

What does blood consist of?

The blood consists of approximately 78 percent water. The remaining portion of
blood is solid, mostly in the form of protein. Red cells, white cells and platelets
are made in the marrow of bones, especially the vertebrae, ribs, hips, skull and
sternum.
The main components of human blood are:
Plasma This is the watery portion of the blood. Blood cells are
suspended here.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Using hemoglobin, these cells carry
oxygen from the lungs throughout the entire body.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) These cells aid the immune response.
They help fight off infections by engulfing and destroying foreign invaders.
Platelets (Thrombocytes) Helps the blood clot.

Cardiovascular Diseases:
1. Hypertension - High blood pressure. The leading causes for hypertension
include stress, diet, heredity, smoking, and aging.
2. Coronary Thrombosis - Heart attack. Caused due to a blockage; usually

in the arterial walls.

3. Angina Pectoris - A narrowing of arteries due to the buildup of fatty
deposits.
4. Anemia - Due to low amounts of hemoglobin in blood. Blood cannot carry
enough oxygen. Leads the patient feeling constantly tired.
5. Leukemia - Makes a large number of abnormal white blood cells.

Circulatory System in human beings

The circulatory system is also known as the cardiovascular
system. The circulatory system comprises blood, blood vessels
and the heart.
Blood: Blood is a fluid tissue that flows in special tubes called as
blood vessels. Different functions of blood are elucidated.

Blood maintains constant body temperature.

Blood helps in transportation of food and water from the

digestive system in the body to all the cells in the body.

Blood helps in transportation of oxygen from the respiratory

system to the cells present in all parts of the body.

Blood helps in transportation of harmful and unwanted

wastes from the cells to the excretory organs. Blood is made
up of plasma and formed elements.

Blood provides resistance to the body against pathogens

and infections they cause in different parts of the body.

a) Plasma is the fluid part of blood which contains 90% water. It is

pale yellow in colour. It carries nutrients, enzymes and waste
materials in it.
b) Formed elements are made up of three different types of
blood cells. These include red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets. Each of these cells performs a specific function.

Red blood cells - RBCs are disc-shaped cells which

transport oxygen to different parts of the body. The presence of
haemoglobin gives blood its red colour. Haemoglobin is an iron
containing pigment that combines with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin. As the blood reaches the cells,
oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release oxygen which is
supplied to cells. In the cells, carbon dioxide binds with
haemoglobin to form carboxy-haemoglobin. In the lungs,
carboxy-haemoglobin dissociates to release carbon dioxide
which is expelled out.

White blood cells - These cells are also called as WBCs.

These cells are larger than RBCs. White blood cells help in
defending the body against infections. White blood cells have
the capability of destroying foreign cells. WBCs can move on
their own and can enter the areas of infection by passing
through the membranes of blood vessels. These are of many
kinds - Leucocytes, basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils etc.

Platelets - Platelets are the non nucleated irregularly

shaped blood cells which bring about clotting of the blood.
These are also called as thrombocytes as they release
thromboplastin which brings about clotting of blood. Platelets
immediately come to the place of injury and lyse themselves to
release thromboplastin. The remnants aggregate in large
amounts to form a plug on the injury preventing the blood loss.

Blood vessels: Blood flows through narrow pipe-like structures in

the body known as blood vessels. These blood vessels transport
food, oxygen and waste throughout the body. Blood vessels are of
three types namely, arteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries are the blood vessels which carry fresh oxygenated
blood to all parts of the body.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart. All the arteries
except for pulmonary artery, carry fresh oxygenated blood.

Oxygenated blood is pumped by the heart with a great

pressure into arteries, hence they have thick elastic walls.

Arteries transport bright red oxygen rich blood from the heart
to the other parts of the body.

Arteries on reaching the tissues divide into fine vessels or

tubes known as capillaries

Pulmonary artery carries impure blood to the lungs from

heart.
Veins are the blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from
all parts of the body to tissues to the heart.

Veins carry blood to the heart. They carry carbon dioxide rich
blood to the heart from different parts of the body.

Veins have valves on their inner lining that allow blood to

flow only in one direction.

In the tissues, number of capillaries join together to form a

vein.

Pulmonary veins carry pure blood from lungs to the heart.

Blood capillaries are the thinnest blood vesels which are in
direct contact with the cells.

Capillaries nourish the cells of the tissue with oxygenated

blood.

They have thin membranes through which oxygen and

nutrients get into the cells.
Veins inturn receive carbon dioxide and waste products from
the cells.
Later, all these capillaries of that tissue at another end
combine to form a vein.
This vein carries deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Deoxygenated blood is sent to lungs for purification.

Heart: The heart is the central organ for pumping the blood
throughout the body. Heart is made up of strong cardiac muscles.

It is located in the chest cavity with its lower part pointing

towards the left. Its size is that of the persons fist.

It pumps blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs and

oxygen-rich blood to other parts of the body.

The heart consists of four chambers namely auricles and

ventricles. The two upper chambers of the heart are known as
the auricles.The two lower chambers of the heart are the
ventricles.

Left and right parts of the heart are separated by a muscular

partition called as septum.

Heart has number of valves which allow the blood to flow in

one direction. These valves prevent the oxygenated blood
mixing with de-oxygenated blood.
Purification of blood is a stepwise procedure happening in a
sequence. Double circulation is observed in human beings. Blood
passes twice through the heart.

Step 1 - Pure oxygenated blood from the lungs is carried to

the left auricle through pulmonary veins. Left auricle contracts
to push the pure blood into left ventricle.

Step 2 Blood from left ventricle is carried to all parts of the

body through arteries. Blood gets purified in the lungs.

Step 3 Deoxygenated blood from the tissues is collected

by veins and transported to right auricle. Right auricle
contracts to send this impure blood into right ventricle.

Step 4 - Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the

lungs through pulmonary arteries.
Heart beat is the combined effect of contractions and relaxations
of the cardiac muscles occurring in two batches.

Two auricles contract first to force the blood into two

ventricles on either side. This produces a 'lub' sound.

Later, two ventricles contract to send the blood into arteries

moving towards the body and pulmonary artery moving
towards the lungs producing a 'dub' sound.

The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart

constitutes heartbeat.

Heartbeat can be felt by placing the palm on the left side of

the chest.

Stethoscope is a device that amplifies the sound of your

heartbeat.
Pulse is the throbbing sensation in the wrist region signifying the
blood rushing through the arteries.

It is the pressure applied by blood on the walls of an artery at

a particular part of the body.

The number of times the heart beats in a minute is the same

as the pulse rate.

The ideal pulse rate is 70 to 80 per minute.

Measurement techniques
Electrocardiogramfor cardiac
electrophysiology
Sphygmomanometer and stethoscopefor
blood pressure
Pulse meterfor cardiac function (heart rate,
rhythm, dropped beats)
Pulsecommonly used to determine the heart
rate in absence of certain cardiac pathologies
Heart rate variabilityused to measure
variations of time intervals between heart
beats
Hemostasis
Hemostasis, or the clotting of blood and formation of scabs, is
managed by the platelets of the blood. Platelets normally remain
inactive in the blood until they reach damaged tissue or leak out
of the blood vessels through a wound. Once active, platelets
change into a spiny ball shape and become very sticky in order to
latch on to damaged tissues. Platelets next release chemical
clotting factors and begin to produce the protein fibrin to act as
structure for the blood clot. Platelets also begin sticking together
to form a platelet plug. The platelet plug will serve as a temporary
seal to keep blood in the vessel and foreign material out of the
vessel until the cells of the blood vessel can repair the damage to
the vessel wall.