Vegetative Features of Vascular Plants

The purpose of this lab is to acquaint you with the various

types of tissues found in Vascular Plants and to show you how
they are organized to form a "Typical Vascular Plant". This
may seem daunting at first until you realize that basic plant
anatomy is very simple.
Cell Types & Tissues
Meristematic Tissue
Meristematic tissue produce all the
cells in herbaceous plants. The cells
originate in the Root or shoot Apical
Meristems. Meristematic Cells are
Spherical (Isodiametric) and densely
cytoplasmic. They have a relatively
large Nucleus, few Vacuoles and
thin Cell Walls. Consequently, they
readily absorb biological stains and
appear as dense areas in the apices
of Roots and Shoots. The Apical
Meristem in
subterminal
by a Root
protects the
and it also
lubricate the
through the soil.

Roots is actually
because it is covered
Cap. The root cap
delicate meristem cells
secretes
carbohydrates which
root as it grows

There are two basic types of Apical Meristems. Nonseed

plants have a large Apical Cell which gives rise to the plant
body. Seed plants have Multicellular Apical Meristems which
function as a unit.

Primary Tissues
There are Three Basic Tissues that comprise all herbaceous
(soft bodied) plants. These are Dermal, Vascular & Ground.
Plants are made like reinforced
concrete. There is a outer mold,
steel rods and concrete which fills in
the rest of the volume.
The first tissue is the Epidermis
which is typically on the surface
(Dermal) and is usually one cell thick. If it is on the surface
it is probably Epidermis. This is like the mold for the
concrete.
The next is Vascular Tissue. It is
typically found in longitudinal
columns. There may be one large
central column, a ring of smaller
columns or multiple rings of small
columns. These columns are the steel
rods.
Finally, there is the Ground Tissue which occupies the rest
of the plant organ. This is like the concrete above. I regard
the Ground Tissue as BACKGround Tissue.
Cross Section of a Coleus
Stem:
Note the large Vascular Bundles
in each corner of the stem (steel
rods).
Everything else is Ground Tissue
(Concrete) except for the
Epidermis (Mold) which forms the
surface layer of cells.

The Epidermis is readily identified by its location.

Vascular Tissues, especially Xylem, have strong
characteristic traits which make them relatively easy to
identify.
If it is neither Epidermis nor Vascular Tissue, it must be
Ground Tissue.
There are two Vascular Tissues, Xylem & Phloem. The
conducting cells in the Xylem are called Tracheary
Elements. These have thick walls that stain red due to the
presence of Lignin. Lignin makes their cell walls watertight,
inflexible and strong. Consequently,
Tracheary Elements have two main
functions, water transport and
structural support. They usually have
a hollow appearance because they are
dead at maturity. These traits make
Xylem relatively easy to spot in a
cross section.
Phloem is associated with Xylem.
Phloem cells do not generally have
diagnostic traits like xylem but they
can usually be discerned by their
position. They have relatively thin cell walls and have a
narrower diameter than the largest Tracheary Elements. In
some cases, Phloem exhibits a definite pattern of small
cells and large cells. The large cells
are Sieve Elements (S). These are
the cells that are specialized for
Sucrose Transport. The smaller
cells are Companion Cells (CC).
These regulate the physiological
activities of the Sieve Elements.
Phloem contains Callose. Callose

regulates the size of the openings between adjacent Sieve

Elements. Callose is a carbohydrate that stains with Aniline
Blue and is fluorescent under Violet light. This is the best
way to verify the presence of Phloem because Callose is not
present in other cell types.

Isodiametric Parenchyma Cell

containing Chromoplasts: Each
red dot is a Chromoplast that
Contains Carotenoids.

Parenchyma from Potato with

large Amyloplasts: This is a
commercial slide.

Elongate Palisade Parenchyma

with Chloroplasts

Parenchyma Cells containing

Amyloplasts. This was stained
with IKI which has stained
the Starch Brown.

There are two major types of Ground Tissue (Parenchyma &

Sclerenchyma).
Parenchyma cells can be Isodiametric (equal size in all
directions) to elongate in shape. They have thin cell walls
which contain a lot of hydrophilic pectins which have a
characteristic staining reaction. They usually have well

developed Plastids like Chloroplasts or Amyloplasts.

Amyloplasts store starch.
Sclerenchyma cells are usually
elongate in shape and have thick
walls impregnated with Lignin. They
stain red in most prepared slides due
to their Lignin content. Lignin makes
cell walls extremely strong and
inflexible. This makes Sclerenchyma
a good support tissue. Sclerenchyma
is usually associated with Vascular
Tissues and may completely surround
them.
There are a wide variety of
Epidermal cell types. The typical
Epidermal Cell resembles
Parenchyma but it has only tiny plastids. All Epidermal Cells
have a waxy Cuticle on their outer surface. They may contain
Red/Purple Anthocyanins in their vacuoles. This gives the
cells a uniform color. Chloroplasts are present in the Guard
Cells which are part of the Stomata. The Guard Cells tend to
be smaller than typical Epidermal Cells, and they occur in
discernable patterns. The Epidermis can produce a wide
range of hairs (Trichomes). These can be unicellular or
multicellular. They may absorb water from the soil, secrete
chemicals to the surface, inject chemicals into the skin, trap
& digest insects and perform many other functions.

Surface View of Epidermis

Lily Epidermis showing the

from a Leaf: Note the

undulating Epidermal Cells plus
the Stomata (S) and Trichomes
(T).

Elongate Epidermal cells and the

Guard Cells which are part of the
Stomata

Surface of Kukui Leaf with

branched Trichomes

Isolated Kukui Trichome

Cross Section of Venus Fly Trap

Leaf: Note the Epidermal Layer
and the Multicellular Trichomes
which are part of the

Epidermis of Silver Sword

showing the Guard Cells (GC) of
the Stomata

Epidermis.

Trichomes are most abundant with flowering plants! Other

Divisions generally lack hairs, except for root hairs.

Tissue Organization and

Organs
The most simple pattern of tissue
organization is seen in Roots.
Imagine a stack of ice cream cones.
Fill the first cone with raspberry ice
cream. This is the Xylem. Coat the
inside of a second cone with a layer of blueberry ice cream.

The ice cream represents the Phloem. Place this over the
first cone. Coat another cone with mint ice cream and place
it over the other two cones. The mint ice cream is ground
tissue. We should have a stack of three cones. The
outermost cone shell is the Epidermis.
Some Stems and Leaves have the same kind of
organizational pattern!

The Root and some Stems have

concentric circles of Epidermal
Ground & Vascular Tissues

Some Leaves have only one

Vascular Bundle. These are
called Microphylls.

Leaves of Monocots like

Sugarcane have many Vascular
Bundles of similar dimensions.

Dicots like Ohi'a Lehua have a

large central Vascular Bundle
called a Midrib, plus smaller and
smaller Lateral Bundles.

Monocot Stems have many

Vascular Bundles arranged in a
complex pattern within the
Ground Tissues.

Dicot Stems have one ring of

Vascular Bundles located in the
periphery of the Ground

Tissues.

Lab Activities
Meristematic Tissue
Examine Longitudinal sections from Root and Shoot tips.
Locate the Apical Meristems and note their general
features with your 40 X Objective.
Follow cell files as you scan towards the base of each Apical
Meristem & look for signs of Cell Enlargement and
Differentiation (changes in the Cell Walls).

Epidermis
Observe Commercial Slides of Lily Epidermal. Note the
Guard Cells of the Stomata. The Guard Cells can open and
close to regulate gas exchange with the atmosphere. Also
note the elongate Epidermal Cells

Lily Epidermis

Epidermis with an extremely

thick Cuticle!

Observe a Demonstration slide which shows an Epidermis

with an extremely thick Cuticle.

Take a Pigmented Coleus Leaf.

Cut a 2 x 2 cm square piece from the middle of
the leaf.
Place this upside-down on a Microscope Slide.
Place this on the stage of your microscope and move it into
the light path.
Use the 4 X Objective but flip up the High Power
Condenser Lens. This should produce a small spot of light
Turn the illumination to MAXIMUM!
Do NOT Look through the Objectives when you do this.
The intense beam could damage your eyes if it is not blocked
by your specimen.
Move the thin part of the leaf into the light path.
Focus up and down until you see details of the Epidermal
surface.
You may switch to the 10X objective to see more details.
You should be able to see Trichomes & Pigmented Epidermal
Cells & Guard Cells. The latter may be a little hard to
find.
Do NOT spend too much time on this. The goal is to give
you an appreciation of Epidermal complexity

Dicot Root
Observe Intact Water Hyacinth
Roots. The hair-like projections are

actually Lateral Roots. Also note the prominent Root Cap.

This protects the delicate Root Apical Meristem. The latter
is the source for the Root Cap and the Root Body (everything
except the cap)
Observe Commercial Slides of Root Cross Sections.
Locate the Epidermis, Ground Tissue and Vascular Tissues.
The Ground Tissue is composed of Parenchyma cells. These
have Thin Cell Walls and a round
shape. They may have numerous,
starch-storing Amyloplasts.
Carefully examine the Vascular
Tissues and Identify Phloem &
Xylem.
The Xylem Stains Red due to
the presence of Lignin and has a star-like shape.
The Phloem lies between the radiating arms of the xylem. Its
cells are much smaller than those in the xylem and they
have very thin walls.
The Endodermis is the innermost part of the Ground Tissue
and forms a boundary layer between the Vascular Tissues
(Stele) and the Ground Tissue. The Endodermis regulates
the movements of water and solute between the Stele and
the rest of the root. Some Endodermal Cells have Thick,
Lignified Walls while others have relatively thin walls. The
Endodermis is one of the most important adaptations of
land plants. We will explore this topic later.

Dicot Stem
Observe a Commercial Slide of a Typical Dicot Stem and
locate the Epidermis, Vascular Bundles & Ground Tissues.

Typical Dicot Stem: Note the

Ring of Vascular Bundles. The
Fibers and Xylem stain PurpleRed due to the presence of
Lignin

Typical Dicot Vascular Bundle

The Ground Tissue in the center of the stem is called Pith.

It contains Parenchyma Cells.
Examine the Vascular Bundles at higher magnification and
locate the Xylem, Fibers and Phloem. Phloem lies between
the fibers and the xylem and may not have prominent
features.
The Ground Tissue between the Fibers and the Epidermis is
called the Cortex.
Examine Commercial Slides of Cucumber Stem and locate
the Vascular Bundles.
Locate the Phloem which occurs on both sides of the Xylem
in Cucumber. Examine the Phloem carefully and try to locate
the Sieve Elements & Companion Cells.
The Companion Cells are small and stain darkly while the
Sieve Elements have a larger diameter and have pink
contents.

Cross Section of Cucumber

Stem

Vascular Bundle from

Cucumber: Note the
presence of Phloem on both
sides of the Xylem

Cucumber Phloem. The small dark cells are the Companion

Cells. The larger cells with Pink Contents are the Sieve
Elements.

Highly magnified image of

Cucumber Phloem

Sieve Plate from a

Commercial Slide: You may
have trouble finding one like
this. We will have a Demo
for you to see.

Try to locate Sieve Plates. These occur on the endwalls of

the Sieve Elements and have relatively large openings called
Sieve Pores. Sieve Pores facilitate the movement of sugar
solution through the Sieve Elements.

Monocot Stem
Examine Commercial Cross Sections of Corn, Sugarcane or
Bamboo.
The Vascular Bundles are easy to identify because of the
Large Xylem Tracheary Elements.

Cross Section of Asparagus

Stem: Note the distribution
of Vascular Bundles
throughout the surrounding
Ground Tissue

Outer region of Corn Stem

with Vascular Bundles

Vascular Bundles from Corn

Note the Distribution of Vascular Bundles throughout the

Ground Tissue. There is no Pith in
most monocots.
Examine a large Vascular Bundle at
higher magnification and locate the
Xylem, Phloem and Fibers which
surround the vascular tissues.

The Phloem has a geometric organization which makes it

easy to identify the Companion Cells and Sieve Elements.

Monocot Leaves
Given the number of Vascular Bundles in monocot stems, it
should not be a surprise to see the numerous veins in their
leaves.
Examine the leaves of a typical monocot like Sugarcane or
ti & note the many veins which run the length of the leaves.
Each vein contains one Vascular Bundle. You may see that
there are large and small veins which alternate in a regular
pattern.

Cross Section of a Corn (Zea mays) Leaf: Note the

Numerous Vascular Bundles.

Examine Commercial Cross Sections of Sugarcane Leaf and

note the following, Upper and Lower Epidermis, Vascular
Bundles and Ground Tissue.
The Ground Tissue in a leaf can be called Mesophyll (Middle
Leaf). Cells which contain Chloroplasts are called
Chlorenchyma or Photosynthetic Parenchyma.
Cross Section of
Sugarcane Leaf: The Large
Cells in the upper Epidermis
are Bulliform Cells. They
expand and contract to make
the leaf unfurl or rollup. A
large Vascular Bundle is
present in the center of the

photo. It is identical to the large Vascular Bundles in the stem.

Locate the smaller vascular bundles to its left and right. These
are specialized for Photosynthesis and contain Phloem with
little or no xylem. Photosynthetic Mesophyll Cells
(Chlorenchyma) have stained darkly.

Dicot Leaves
Dicot Leaves usually have a large central Midrib which
contains a large Midvein (Vascular Bundle). Minor Veins
branch from the midvein at oblique angles. Consequently, the
minor veins may be asymmetrical in cross sections.
Examine a typical Dicot leaf like Kukui and note the Vein
Pattern (Venation). You may need to scrape of some hairs

to see the lower surface. Mount the hairs in water and

examine them under the microscope. Layteral veins get

progressively smaller and smaller. This is called Reticulate or

Net Venation.
Monocots have "Parallel" Venation because the Vascular
Bundles appear parallel to one another and look unbranched.
However, close scrutiny shows that they produce Lateral
Veins at angles approaching 90 degrees. Thus, they have a
form of reticulate venation called Striate. The Important
Point to remember is that Monocots and Dicots have
Reticulate Venation.
They are both MEGAPHYLLS (big leaf) because they have
more than one Vascular Bundle.
Examine a Commercial Cross Section of a typical Dicot
Leaf like Pear (Pyrus).
Examine the Midrib and locate the Xylem & Phloem.

Cross Section of a
Typical Dicot Leaf:
Note the Vascular
Bundle or Midvein). Also
note the large air
spaces in the Ground
Tissue (G) which is part
of the Blade (Lamina)

Cross Section through the Blade

or Lamina of a Dicot Leaf: Note
the Variety of Cell Types which
have specialized functions.

Dicot Leaves Typically have two kinds of Mesophyll (Palisade

& Spongy). The Palisade cells are like columns and are tightly
packed. Spongy cells may be highly branched and are loosely
packed. The Palisade Cells intercept most of the light and
perform most of the Photosynthesis. The Spongy Cells also
contain chloroplasts but mainly serve as a gas reservoir.
Note the Lateral Vein.